《 语言与语言学 》 双向视频4

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《 语言与语言学 》 双向视频4. 主讲人 张兴. Unit 7 Language Function 4:Talk, Talk and Talk. Be aware of the information flow in talk Understand the complexity of speaker and hearer roles Be familiar with some of the ways of opening, keeping going and closing Be familiar with some safe topics - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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Page 1: 《 语言与语言学 》 双向视频4

《语言与语言学》

双向视频 4

主讲人张兴

Page 2: 《 语言与语言学 》 双向视频4

Unit 7 Language Function 4:Talk, Talk and Talk

Be aware of the information flow in talk Understand the complexity of speaker and

hearer roles Be familiar with some of the ways of

opening, keeping going and closing Be familiar with some safe topics Become self-critical of classroom talk

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Unit 7 Language Function 4:Talk, Talk and Talk

Activity 1 Participants in Talk Activity 2 Opening, Keeping Going and

Closing Activity 3 Talk in Classroom

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Activity 1 Participants in Talk

Task 1 Analyze the flow of information in talk

Task 2 Understand the complexity of hearer Task 3 Understand the complexity of

speaker

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Task 1 Analyze the flow of information in talk

The given information and the given-off information – When people talk face to face, there are two ways to

provide information: They give it and they give it off, e.g. “I’ m Steve from BFSU. Are you a guest too?” and “Yes. I, m Lin” are the information they gave..

 – Such information as “Steve is a teacher from BFSU”,

and ‘Tin is a student”; “Steven enjoys talking to Lin”, and “Lin is reluctant to talk”, and so on, is the information they gave off.

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The given information and the given-off information Given information refers the information with

definite and explicit meaning while given-off information refers the information whose meaning is vague and ambiguous. Although most given-off information is non-verbal, surely it can be verbal. The key point to distinguish given-information and given-off information, therefore, is not whether it is verbal or non-verbal but whether the meaning conveyed is explicit or ambiguous. The information with explicit meaning is given information; the information with ambiguous meaning is give-off information

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The given information and the given-off information

Mutual-monitoring process– It is through the information provided in these

two ways that participants monitor each other’ s behavior and adjust their own accordingly.

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Non-verbal signals

The given-off information is often made available through non-verbal signals. They include :– Gestures;– Head movements and other body movements;– Posture;– Facial expressions (length of glances, amount

of eye opening, pupil expansion);

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Non-verbal signals 请学员读懂 240 页、 241 页的图片及思考题并结合反馈完成 241-242 页的练习。区分 given information 和 given-off

information 的关键是看信息传达的意义是否有歧义性。有的就是 given-off information ,没有的、意义明确的就是given information 。

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Task 2 Understand the complexity of hearer

Direct hearers 直接听众–  Addressee 信息目标人 – observing hearer 在座的–  Standby 旁听的

Indirect hearers 间接听众– TV viewers 收视的 – Eavesdropper 偷听的 – Overhearer 无意听众

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Task 3 Understand the complexity of speaker

Genuine speaker 真正说话人 The truthful relayer 传声筒 Message relayer 传信人 False relayer 假传圣旨者

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Activity 2 Opening, Keeping Going and Closing

Task 1 Start your talk Task 2 Keep going Task 3 Close your talk

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Task 1 Start your talk The two stages in opening

– the initiation • The safest ways of initiating a conversation in

Chinese culture • The use of polite address terms, such as 大爷、大婶、师傅、先生、小姐• The use of apologetic expressions, such as 对不起、打扰了

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Task 1 Start your talk• Asking for each other’ s name• Note that the kinship terms like 大爷、大婶、师傅、先 生 、 小 姐 are polite address terms in Chinese,

not in English. • Asking for each other’ s name seems to be also a

safe initiation both in English and Chinese. Chinese is other-oriented, that is, the speaker asks for the partner’ s surname first, whereas English is self-oriented, that is, the speaker first tells the partner whom he or she is.

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The two stages in opening

– The response• Accepted the initiation and encouraged the

counterpart to continue• No+a reasonable explanation• A white lie (a “cooling off’ law)

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Task 2 Keep going Some Chinese safe topics

– talk about age– talk about money and salary talk about sports– talk about latest social events talk about films– talk about TV series talk about jobs

A list of safe topics in the western culture – The decor of a house one is visiting– A new dress– A child’ s behavior– A household pet– Some other physical aspect of the environment (particularly

the weather)

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Task 3 Close your talk

Pre-closing signals are sometimes quite useful:– diminish eye contact with the speaker– make a dramatic shift in your posture– take a glance at a clock or watch– change your position quite drastically — for

instance, stand up– put things away– put some distance between the two of you

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Task 3 Close your talk Three generally safe ways for you to close your

conversation:– paying compliments and appreciation

• It’s been nice (or good) talking to you. It’s great knowing you.• I enjoy talking with you very much.

– Showing considerateness• You must be a busy man. Thank you for your time.• I’d better let you go.• You should get back to work now.• I mustn’t keep you.

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Task 3 Close your talk Giving excuses

– Well, back to work,– I must be going. Sorry!– Please excuse me! but– I’ve got to go/run/do– My next appointment is waiting.

And finally do not forget to say: Goodbye!

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Activity 3 Talk in Classroom Task 1 Opening, keeping going and closing

in classroom talk Task 2 Managing classroom talk

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Task 1 Opening, keeping going and closing in classroom talk Opening 

– Exchange of greeting• Monitor: Stand up!• Prof. Guide: Good morning! (or Good afternoon!)• Students: Good morning! (or Good afternoon!)• Prof. Guide: Sit down please!

– Reviewing the key points of the previous class– Stating the objectives of the present class

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Task 1 Opening, keeping going and closing in classroom talk

Keep going– Activity for the first objective

• Question / answer pair work• group work

– Activity for the second objective• work on text comprehension• vocabulary build-up

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Task 1 Opening, keeping going and closing in classroom talk

  Closing– Summarizing the key points– Leaving homework– Saying goodbye

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Task 2 Managing classroom talk

In a foreign language classroom, teachers have to do a lot of things, some simultaneously:– Attaining teaching goals for a particular session 

• Today’ s objectives are: First, ... Second, ... Third, ... And lastly,

• We are going to do five things today:• By the end of this class you should be able to do these things:

–  Organizing student activities • Let’ s do some pair work.• Now let’ s break into three groups.• Ken, you act as a lawyer, will you?

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Task 2 Managing classroom talk

– Engaging students’ attention• Guess what?• You’ 11 never guess what!• Have I got a surprise for you!

– Eliciting students’ response• Do you want to say something at this point?• Dick’? The lady over there? ... Barbara?• Anything else you can say about it?

–  Allocating turns of speaking • Any volunteers?

– Providing feedback

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Task 2 Managing classroom talk

– Changing topics• Where are we now? (to summarize)• Let us take stock. (to summarize)• By the way, ... (switch to another topic)

– Disciplinary control (which is quite challenging with teenagers)

• I could do with a bit of silence.• I don’ t like this chattering away.• Look, I’ d prefer it if you belted up.

– Keeping students interested• Guess what?• You’ 11 never guess what!• Have I got a surprise for you!

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Unit 8 Language in Society

Activity 1 Language and Identity Activity 2 Bilingualism and “Skipants” Activity 3 Language and Politics

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Activity 1 Language and Identity Task 1 Language and national identity Task 2 Language and regional/status

identity Task 3 Language and gender identity

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Task 1 Language and national identity How many of you have read the short story

The Last Lesson by Alphonse Daudet? From a linguistic point of view, it is not only a touchy story about Franz, but also a story of a nation’ s identity that was threatened when its language was denied its status in education.

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Task 1 Language and national identity Language to a nation is in some sense like a

name to a person. It gives the nation its own identity. When a new nation is born, one of the first things it does is to establish its national language. This is borne out, in a rather dramatic way, by the independence of its former republics after the collapse of the former Soviet Union. Professor Franca tells us this story.

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Task 2 Language and regional/status identity

Language also helps establish regional and status identity. Here are three stories about language and regional identities.

Putonghua is related to status identity. From her story we know that she was laughed at behind her back when she could not speak Putonghua with a decent accent, and resulted in misunderstanding. Li Yue’s hometown dialect is related to both regional and status identity.

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Task 2 Language and regional/status identity Li Yues parents became upset when they

could not understand her. Li Yue had lost her former local identity. Li Yue’s former friends and classmates kept clear of her because Li Yue no long spoke the dialect they spoke. Li Yue’s putonghua sounded like someone of a higher status speaking to them with an intention to show how stupid they were not to be able to understand putonghua.

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Task 2 Language and regional/status identity Cantonese and Cantonese Putonghua

nowadays are associated with money and status. English is associated with the image of being educated and learned. That is why the Shanghai couple tried to imitate the Cantonese couple, who uttered a few words of Cantonese English, just to impress their Shanghai partners.

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Task 2 Language and regional/status identity It is Hong Kong that has changed. Hong

Kong citizens feel it more urgent than ever before to learn putonghua. The pressure seems to come from communicative and commercial consideration rather than status desire.

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Task 3 Language and gender identity In this society men and women are not only

contrasted by their social roles, such as men hunting whereas women nurturing, but also explicitly by the use of different dialects by male and female speakers.

Gender differences in language use are the results of social prejudices against women. Such prejudices are not just found in ethnic minorities, but exit almost in all societies.

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Task 3 Language and gender identity Madame Curie, inspired by her husband, refused

the Legion of Honour. Madame Curie presented herself as a candidate, but was denied a fair competition. Madame Curie failed in her election by one vote. Her opponents did not play fair. They even issued false ballots. He issued an anti-women command: “Let everybody come in, women excepted.” His insulting remark was due to his prejudices against women, and to his racial prejudices against Jews.

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Activity 2 Bilingualism and “Skipants” Bilingualism and monolingual

– Bilingualism means the habitual use of two languages.

– By monolingual is meant that speakers have to drop their mother tongue or stick to the mother tongue, which means that they will not be able to communicate with people speaking other languages.

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Activity 2 Bilingualism and “Skipants” Task 2 Work on Chao’s talk

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Task 2 Work on Chao’s talk

The what is simply about the phenomenon of bilingualism among minority groups living in the United States. The why is about why Chinese parents should want their children to be bilingual. The how is about how to help children become bilingual. Chao gives five suggestions: (1) Beware the tyranny of interpersonal language-patterns. (2) Look out for the fixity of inter-group language-patterns. (3) Eschew skipants. (4) Chinese is the major problem. Standard Chinese is secondary. (5) Speech is more basic than writing.

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Task 2 Work on Chao’s talk

It takes more than a family to make a real speech community. For a language to thrive, it takes a town, a village or even a city that uses it in its daily life.

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Task 2 Work on Chao’s talk Why should Chinese parents want their

children to be bilingual?– His arguments are not political, but practical

ones. (1) The Chinese language is a major language of the three or four major cultures of the world. (2) Chinese children are fortunate to have two full-time teachers (i.e. their parents) around all the time and free of charge. (3) Non-Chinese Americans start learning Chinese.

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Task 2 Work on Chao’s talk What are interpersonal language-patterns?

– To put it simply, interpersonal language-patterns refer to the situation in which people have developed a sort of habit of talking with some in one language, and with others in another language. They tend to adhere to this habit unless conscious and persistent efforts are made to break the habit. That is why Chao calls it tyranny.

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Task 2 Work on Chao’s talk What are skipants?

– Skipants are English words borrowed ad hoc into Chinese sentences. Skipants should not be encouraged. They should be avoided as much as possible.

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Activity 3 Language and Politics The use of language is inevitably influenced by

politics. Anyone who has gone through the trauma of the so-called the Great Cultural Revolution will have a fresh memory of how the Cultural Revolutionary politics infiltrated every aspect of people’ s life. In this respect, western democratic societies are no exceptions. The politics is played by two (or more) competitive parties, and consequently language is full of two-valued opposites: good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral, and so on. In this activity we present some case studies of how politics affects the use of language.

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Activity 3 Language and Politics

Task 1 Reflect on the language use of the Great Cultural Revolution

Task 2 Reflect on the polarization of language in western politics

Task 3 Read Orwell’s critique of the effects of British politics on English

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Task 1 Reflect on the language use of the Great Cultural Revolution The term Great Cultural Revolution is a short form

of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, which lasted for 10 years, from May 1966 to October 1976, to be exact.

In some way the Cultural Revolution was carried out by wars of words, known as si da (四大) : (1) darning ( 大 明 , meaning “air your view openly and loudly” ) , (2) dafang ( 大 放 , “speak out freely” ) , (3) dazibao (大字报 , “write big character posters ) , and (4) dabianlun (大辩论 , “engage in great debates” ) .

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Task 1 Reflect on the language use of the Great Cultural Revolution The class struggle ideology led to the

polarization of society, which was divided into two general categories: revolutionary vs. counter-revolutionary, as shown be low.

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Task 1 Reflect on the language use of the Great Cultural RevolutionI 我I live 我活Revolutionary 革命Proletarian 无产阶级Socialism 社会主义Revolutionaries 革命派

Enemy 敌You die 你死Counter-revolutionary 反革命Bourgeois 资产阶级Capitalism 资本主义Capitalist roaders 走资派

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Task 1 Reflect on the language use of the Great Cultural Revolution The so-called Great Cultural Revolution turned

out to be a total disaster. It was mainly carried out by wars of words, i.e. sida (darning, dafang, dabianlun and dazibao). The then dominating ideology was the theory of class struggle. People were forced to remember and talk about it in every moment of their consciousness. As a result the society was polarized into two life-or-death camps: revolutionaries vs. counter revolutionaries.

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Task 2 Reflect on the polarization of language in western politics Hayakawa (1978) observes:

– We tend to think in opposites, to feel that what is not good must be bad and that what is not bad must be good. When children are taught English history, for example, the first thing they want to know about every ruler is whether he was a “good king” or a “bad king”. This penchant to divide the world into two opposing forces ... and to ignore or deny the existence of any middle ground, may be termed the two-valued orientation.

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Task 2 Reflect on the polarization of language in western politics It seems to suggest that the two-valued orientation

has something to do with two-party political system.

In the Nazi Germany, the two opposite values were either Aryan or non-Aryan. Those Hitler approved of were Aryan, and those Hitler disapproved of were non-Aryan. This two-valued judgment was applied to almost everything, even including hens, rabbits

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Task 3 Read Orwell’s critique of the effects of British politics on English Orwell admits that one cannot make

changes to politics, but argues that one can do something to stop the decay of the English language.

Each of these sample passages has faults of its own, but, quite apart from avoidable ugliness, two qualities are common to all of them. The first is staleness of imagery; the other is lack of precision.

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Task 3 Read Orwell’s critique of the effects of British politics on English Politicians use hackneyed metaphors to save their

effort to think clearly and express themselves afresh. In this way they can hide their incompetence.

The words in Group A are used to dress up simple statements and give an air of scientific impartiality to biased judgments. Those in Group B are adjectives used to dignify the sordid processes of international politics. Those in Group C glorify war with an archaic colour. And those in Group 0 are foreign words and expressions used to give an air of culture and elegance.

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Task 3 Read Orwell’s critique of the effects of British politics on English In our time, political speech and writing are

largely the defence of the indefensible. Things like the continuance of British rule in India, the Russian purges and deportations, the dropping of the atom bombs on Japan, can indeed be defended, but only by arguments which are too brutal for most people to face, and which do not square with the professed aims of political parties.

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Task 3 Read Orwell’s critique of the effects of British politics on English In our time, political speech and writing are

largely the defence of the indefensible. Things like the continuance of British rule in India, the Russian purges and deportations, the dropping of the atom bombs on Japan, can indeed be defended, but only by arguments which are too brutal for most people to face, and which do not square with the professed aims of political parties.

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Task 3 Read Orwell’s critique of the effects of British politics on English The euphemism pacification attempts to

glorify the fact that defenceless villages are bombarded from the air, the inhabitants driven out into the countryside, the cattle machine-gunned, the huts set on fire with incendiary bullets.

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Task 3 Read Orwell’s critique of the effects of British politics on English The euphemism transfer of population or

rectification of frontiers attempts to glorify the fact that millions of peasants are robbed of their farms and sent trudging along the roads with no more than they can carry.

 The euphemism elimination of unreliable elements attempts to glorify the fact that people are imprisoned for years without trial, or shot in the back of the neck or sent to die of scurvy in Arctic lumber camps.

Glossary

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Unit 9 Language, Brain and Mind

Be aware of some basics of how the brain works Be aware of Lenneberg’ s critical period for

language hypothesis Understand some basics of how children acquire

their mother tongue Be aware of language handicap and speech

therapy Be aware of how memory works Be aware of the importance of prior knowledge

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Unit 9 Language, Brain and Mind Activity 1 How the Brain Works Activity 2 How Children Acquire the

Mother Tongue Activity 3 Understand Memory and

Knowledge

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Warm-up

The difference between the brain and mind– The word brain here refers to the physiological

substance inside the skull. – The word mind, on the other hand, refers to

psychological activities we do by using the brain, activities such as thinking, perceiving, memorizing, imagining, getting emotional, and so on.

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Activity 1 How the Brain Works

Task 2 Make a contrastive study Task 3 Discover the functions of the brain Task 4 Be aware of language handicap and

speech therapy

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Task 2 Make a contrastive study

It is the human that has the most complicated nervous systems.

 The brain is a portion of the central nervous system in vertebrates within the skull. In humans it is a 1.3-kg mass of pinkish-gray tissue composed of about 10 billion nerve cells, each linked to another and together responsible for the control of all mental functions.

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Task 2 Make a contrastive study

In addition to nerve cells (neurons), the brain contains glial cells (supporting cells), blood vessels, and secretory organs. The brain is the control center for movement, sleep, hunger, thirst, and virtually every other vital activity necessary to survival. All human emotions, including love, hate, fear, anger, elation, and sadness, are controlled by the brain. It also receives and interprets the countless signals that are sent to it from other parts of the body and from the external environment.

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Task 3 Discover the functions of the brain

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Task 3 Discover the functions of the brain 这一部分要求学员掌握 321 页示意图的内容,务必分清左右脑的分工。 Neurolinguists and neurolinguistics

– Those who do research on identifying the locations of language skills in the brain and on how they are processed by the nerve cells are called neurolinguists. The theories they put forward constitute neurolinguistics.

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Task 4 Be aware of language handicap and speech therapy Aphasia or dysphasia

– When an area of the brain involved in language processing is damaged, this results in the language disorder known as aphasia or dysphasia. A technical term, aphasiology, is also coined to name the research in this field. Aphasia is usually regarded as a handicap of language comprehension and/or production.

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Task 4 Be aware of language handicap and speech therapy A stroke

– Aphasia can follow if someone is attacked by a stroke (中风) . A stroke is the blockage of the blood supply due to too much fat deposited in the blood.

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Task 4 Be aware of language handicap and speech therapy Stuttering or stammering

– It is in fact a disorder of fluency. Symptoms include, among many others, (1) the abnormal amount of repetition of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases, e.g. p-p-p-please, he- got a - got a -got a - car; (2) the abnormal lengthening of sounds; (3) the difficulty in articulating a sound in spite of efforts being consciously made. Stuttering can be cured by speech therapy programmes, which are quite popular in the west, but little known in China.

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Activity 2 How Children Acquire the Mother Tongue

Task 1 Be aware of the importance of child language study

Task 2 A look at theories of language acquisition

Task 3 Reflect on child language acquisition and language learning

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Task 1 Be aware of the importance of child language study The interest in child language acquisition

started quite early. In the Indian history, Akbar the Great (1542-1605), the Mogul Emperor, held that children learned to speak through communication, and that those who were denied human contact would not be able to speak.

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Task 1 Be aware of the importance of child language study

The critical period for language hypothesis – The critical period for language hypothesis argued by

the American psycholinguist Eric Lenneberg (192 1-1975). Lenneberg argued that the development of language was the result of brain maturation. At birth, the hemispheres were equipotential, that is, there was no clear division of separate functions for the left and the right brain. At the age of 2, the two hemispheres began to show signs of separation in functions, and the process ended at puberty — technically this process is called lateralization.

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Task 1 Be aware of the importance of child language study According to the hypothesis, the age of 2 to

the age of puberty was a critical period for language acquisition. During this period, it is almost natural for a child to acquire the language it was exposed to. Even if the left hemisphere of the child’ s brain is damaged, the right hemisphere will assume the function and the child can still acquire language.

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Task 2 A look at theories of language acquisition A language acquisition theory

– A language acquisition theory is a theory about how language is acquired.

 To learn a language and to acquire a language– To learn a language means learning it the hard way,

like the way Chinese students learn English. You have to work very hard at it. To acquire a language, on the other hand, means learning it in a natural way, particularly without making conscious efforts.

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Task 2 A look at theories of language acquisition The three variables that affect language

acquisition – The environmental– The cognitive– The innate

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The environmental

Is exposure to language needed for language acquisition? – The ancient Indian emperor’s crude experiment, and

Genie’ s story invite us to say yes. There is another well-known case, and probably most of you have heard about it. There was a boy named Victor, who was found in the woods of France in 1797. At the time of his capture, Victor was thought to be about 12 or 13 years old. A young physician, named Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, decided to train Victor, to make him socialized and be able to use language. Victor would name objects that were pre sented, but would not request them by using their names.

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The environmental Does the exposure have to be within a particular

period of time? – Yes, it is supposed to be true. Victor’ s case, like

Genie’ s case, is often used to support the critical period hypothesis. Victor had no exposure to human language during his critical period of time. After this period, it seems very difficult to acquire language.

What types of language input are most useful?– Motherese meaning any adult-to-child language

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The cognitive The language environment won’ t do without the

cognitive capability of the child. So the cognitive capability is like neiyin ( 内 因 ) . One very influential theory was put forward by the Genevan psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980). The key point is that the child’ s acquisition of language builds upon the child’ s development of intelligence. In other words, if the child is retarded in intelligence, his or her language acquisition is also hindered. Imitation and reinforcement play an important role in child language acquisition.

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The innate A child can say something he or she has never heard of

anybody saying it before. The American linguist Chomsky argues for a general innate mechanism called parameter setting. According to Chomsky, children are born with the knowledge of the parameters and their settings. The task of acquiring a language is thus reduced to identifying which parameter settings apply to one’ s native language. When children are born, there are already in the brain the same parameters (参数) and the settings (设定) . And the exposure to a specific language makes the parameters and the settings switch to that language.

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Task 3 Reflect on child language acquisition and language learning

在这一部分中,请学员认真阅读 337 页的分析。

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Activity 3 Understand Memory and Knowledge Task 1 Understand short-term and long-

term memory Task 2 Be aware of those factors that affect

memory Task 3 Being aware of the effects of prior

knowledge Task 4 Understand the notion of schema

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Task 1 Understand short-term and long-term memory Short-term memory

– Short-term memory is a place where exact wording is stored for brief periods of time. Words in short-term memory are lost very rapidly. If you want to keep them, you have to review them repeatedly, as when you repeat telephone numbers to yourselves.

– The traditional account of short-term memory treats memory as if it were a tape recorder with a limited length of tape. Clark and Clark argue that this is wrong.

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Short-term memory

Clark and Clark’s view of short-term memory has three points: (1) memory span is limited by the number of chunks (a chunk is a meaningfully coded unit); (2) short-term memory does not simply store the order of the words; (3) short-term memory does not record exactly what it hears.

According to Clark and Clark, “... short-term memory tends to preserve verbatim content, whereas long-term memory tends to preserve meaning” (ibid., p.13 8).

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Long-term memory

Long-term memory (1) deals generally in meaning rather than sounds; (2) for all practical purposes it has unlimited capacity.

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Task 2 Be aware of those factors that affect memory

Factors that affect memory– The exact words of what he said– The general content, i.e. the gist of what he said– The way he pronounced the words– The way he expressed himself– Your interpretation of what he said

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Task 2 Be aware of those factors that affect memory Your memory of ordinary language depends on

many factors, as shown by Clark and Clark (ibid., p.133):– Type of language —Was the passage an ordinary

conversation, a formal lecture, a play, a poem, or a list of unrelated sentences in a psychology experiment?

– Input —Did we hear it passively, try to memorize it word for word, listen for the gist only, or listen for nothing but grammatical errors?

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Task 2 Be aware of those factors that affect memory

– Retention interval —Did we hear it a moment ago or a year ago?

– Output —Are we trying to recall it verbatim, or only trying to decide for a test sentence whether or not it was what we had originally heard?

If you want to put a talk into memory, you should then approach the talk not passively, but very actively. You can do several things simultaneously.

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Task 2 Be aware of those factors that affect memory

– Listen to the audio recording of the talk.– Read the talk.– Analyze the talk.– Act the talk out.

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Task 3 Being aware of the effects of prior knowledge

The effects of prior knowledge– What we already know, that is, prior

knowledge, affects what we try to remember, and also affects what we try to understand.

– Before you read a story, what you know about its context, i.e. your prior knowledge about it, makes an enormous difference.

– This suggests that background knowledge by itself is not sufficient: you must recognize when it is applicable.

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Task 4 Understand the notion of schema

The prior knowledge or background knowledge in the mind is not a random list of things. It is very likely that it is organized into networks or meaningful clusters. Psycholinguists tend to use the notion of schema to talk about the way our background knowledge in the mind is organized.

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Task 4 Understand the notion of schema A schema is an organized packet of

knowledge that enables us to make sense of new knowledge.

A schema is an organized packet of knowledge that enables us to make sense of new knowledge.