管 理 學管 理 學第八章 規劃之基礎第八章 規劃之基礎

Foundations of Planning

PlanPlannning ing is everything. The is everything. The planplan is nothing. is nothing. —General Dwight D. Eisenhower—General Dwight D. Eisenhower

• Business Proposal (Thesis, project): Target market segment, Product offering,

Distribution & sales plan,

Indicate advertising & promotion plan,

System & operations requirements,

Financial forecast, Risk & sensitivities,

Milestones & timelines.

• 計畫趕不上變化！坐而言不如起而行？ 系學會要經費，系友回娘家，畢旅保險， AACSB 認證，毛治國生涯規劃，女兒婚禮

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ContentsContents

8.1 The What and Why of Planning8.1 The What and Why of Planning

8.2 Goals And Plans8.2 Goals And Plans

8.3 Setting Goals and Developing Plans8.3 Setting Goals and Developing Plans

8.4 Contemporary Issues in Planning8.4 Contemporary Issues in Planning

8.1.1 What Is Planning ?8.1.1 What Is Planning ? （規劃）（規劃）

A primary managerial activity (POLC) that involves:A primary managerial activity (POLC) that involves: Defining the organization’s Defining the organization’s goals.goals. Establishing an overall Establishing an overall strategystrategy for achieving those goals. for achieving those goals.

(Ch. 9)(Ch. 9) Developing Developing plansplans for organizational work activities. for organizational work activities. （計（計

畫畫 , Module: Planning Tools, p.276, Module: Planning Tools, p.276 ））

Types of planningTypes of planning InInformal:formal: not written down. not written down. Formal:Formal:

*Specific goals covering a specific time period.*Specific goals covering a specific time period.

*Written and shared with organizational members.*Written and shared with organizational members.

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8.1.2 Why Do Managers Plan?8.1.2 Why Do Managers Plan?

• PurposesPurposes of Planning of Planning Provides directionProvides direction Reduces uncertaintyReduces uncertainty Minimizes waste and redundancyMinimizes waste and redundancy Sets the standards for Sets the standards for controlling (POLC)controlling (POLC)

• 沒有一次成功的戰役是按照計畫進行的。沒有一次成功的戰役是按照計畫進行的。• 紙上畫畫，牆上掛掛，會上罵罵，全不算話。紙上畫畫，牆上掛掛，會上罵罵，全不算話。• No plan vs. micro-managementNo plan vs. micro-management

• 未戰而廟算勝者，得勝多也。未戰而廟算勝者，得勝多也。• PProper roper pprior rior pplanning lanning pprevents revents ppoor oor pperformance.erformance.

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The Planning-Controlling Link

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· Standards· Measurements· Comparison· Actions

Controlling

· Goals· Objectives· Strategies· Plans

Planning

· Structure· Human

Resource Management

Organizing

· Motivation· Leadership· Communication· Individual and

Group Behavior

Leading

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篇，章，節的關連篇，章，節的關連• Part 1~2, Defining the Manager’s Terrain, Part 1~2, Defining the Manager’s Terrain, Part 3~6, POLCPart 3~6, POLC

• Part 3, Part 3, Ch. 7, Decision-Making, Ch. 7, Decision-Making, Ch.8, Foundations of Planning, Ch.8, Foundations of Planning, Ch.9, Strategic ManagementCh.9, Strategic Management

• Sections: 8.1~ 8.4, 8.1.1~8.1.3Sections: 8.1~ 8.4, 8.1.1~8.1.3

•歌劇某中音高手歌劇某中音高手

康乃爾筆記法 康乃爾筆記法 (Cornell method)(Cornell method)

以「圖像→ 以「圖像→ 關鍵字→筆記區」的記憶步驟回顧課程內容。關鍵字→筆記區」的記憶步驟回顧課程內容。

8.1.3 Planning and Performance8.1.3 Planning and Performance

• Formal planning is associated with:Formal planning is associated with: Higher profits and returns on assetsHigher profits and returns on assets

Positive financial resultsPositive financial results

The The qualityquality of planning and of planning and implementationimplementation affects affects performance more than the performance more than the extentextent of planning of planning

The external environment can reduce the impact of The external environment can reduce the impact of planning on performanceplanning on performance

*Testable hypotheses. *Testable hypotheses.

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8.2 Goals And Plans8.2 Goals And Plans(How Do Managers Plan?)(How Do Managers Plan?)

• Elements of PlanningElements of Planning Goals (Objectives)Goals (Objectives)

Desired outcomesDesired outcomes for individuals, organizations for individuals, organizations (Where)(Where)

Provide direction and evaluation performance criteriaProvide direction and evaluation performance criteria

PlansPlans

Documents that outline Documents that outline howhow goals are to be accomplished goals are to be accomplished

Describe how Describe how resourcesresources are to be allocated and establish are to be allocated and establish activity schedules. activity schedules.

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要浪漫的願景，也要務實的規劃要浪漫的願景，也要務實的規劃

1. 1. 推測外界環境需求推測外界環境需求2. 2. 分析內部資源及能力分析內部資源及能力3. 3. 積極主動訂定目標，採取綜效行動，消除差異積極主動訂定目標，採取綜效行動，消除差異

e.g., Ivery Lee, Time managemente.g., Ivery Lee, Time management

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Types of GoalsTypes of Goals

• Financial GoalsFinancial Goals Are related to the expected Are related to the expected internalinternal financial performance financial performance

of the organization.of the organization.

• Strategic GoalsStrategic Goals Are related to the performance of the firm relative to Are related to the performance of the firm relative to

factors in its factors in its external external environment (e.g., competitors).environment (e.g., competitors).

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Stated Goals vs. Real GoalsStated Goals vs. Real Goals

Broadly-worded Broadly-worded official statements official statements of the organization of the organization (intended for public consumption) that may be irrelevant to (intended for public consumption) that may be irrelevant to its its real goalsreal goals (what (what actually goesactually goes on in the organization). on in the organization).

e.g., FBC, e.g., FBC, 三好一公道，燈塔理念，保齡，劉達智三好一公道，燈塔理念，保齡，劉達智

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Types of PlansTypes of Plans

• Strategic Plans (Ch. 9)Strategic Plans (Ch. 9) Establish the organization’s Establish the organization’s overall goalsoverall goals..

Seek to position the organization in terms of its Seek to position the organization in terms of its environment.environment.

Cover extended periods of time.Cover extended periods of time.

• Operational Plans (Operational Plans (Module: Planning Tools, p.276Module: Planning Tools, p.276 ） ） Specify the Specify the detailsdetails of how the overall goals are to be of how the overall goals are to be

achieved.achieved.

Cover Cover short timeshort time period. period.

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Types of Plans (cont’d)Types of Plans (cont’d)

• Long-Term PlansLong-Term Plans Plans with time frames extending beyond three years.Plans with time frames extending beyond three years.

• Short-Term PlansShort-Term Plans Plans with time frames on Plans with time frames on one year or less.one year or less.

• Specific PlansSpecific Plans Plans that are Plans that are clearly definedclearly defined and leave no room for and leave no room for

interpretation. (e.g., interpretation. (e.g., CFPCFP))

• Directional PlansDirectional Plans Flexible plans that set out Flexible plans that set out general guidelinesgeneral guidelines, provide , provide

focus, yet allow discretion in implementation.focus, yet allow discretion in implementation.15

Types of Plans (cont’d)Types of Plans (cont’d)

• Single-Use PlanSingle-Use Plan A A one-timeone-time plan specifically designed to meet the need of a plan specifically designed to meet the need of a

unique situation.unique situation.

• Standing PlansStanding Plans OngoingOngoing plans that provide guidance for activities plans that provide guidance for activities

performed repeatedly. e.g. Budget.performed repeatedly. e.g. Budget.

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8. 3 Setting Goals and Developing Plans 8. 3 Setting Goals and Developing Plans

Traditional Goal SettingTraditional Goal Setting Broad goals are Broad goals are set at the topset at the top of the organization. of the organization. Goals are then Goals are then broken into subgoalsbroken into subgoals for each organizational for each organizational

level.level. Goals are intended to direct, guide, and constrain from Goals are intended to direct, guide, and constrain from

above.above. Goals lose clarity and focus as lower-level managers Goals lose clarity and focus as lower-level managers

attempt to interpret and define the goals for their areas of attempt to interpret and define the goals for their areas of responsibility.responsibility.

*Assumes that top management knows best because they can *Assumes that top management knows best because they can see the “big picture.” (bossism, bottleneck)see the “big picture.” (bossism, bottleneck)

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The Downside of Traditional Goal SettingThe Downside of Traditional Goal Setting

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Means–Ends ChainMeans–Ends Chain

• Maintaining the Hierarchy of GoalsMaintaining the Hierarchy of Goals

Achievement of lower-level goals is the means by Achievement of lower-level goals is the means by which to reach higher-level goals (ends).which to reach higher-level goals (ends).

討論：南宮博士給小飛俠的信討論：南宮博士給小飛俠的信

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Management By Objectives (MBO)Management By Objectives (MBO)

Specific performance Specific performance goals are jointly determinedgoals are jointly determined by by employees and managers.employees and managers.

Progress toward accomplishing goals is Progress toward accomplishing goals is periodically periodically reviewed.reviewed.

RewardsRewards are allocated on the basis of progress towards the are allocated on the basis of progress towards the goals.goals.

Key elements of MBO:Key elements of MBO: Goal Goal specificity,specificity, participativeparticipative decision making, an decision making, an

explicit performance/evaluation explicit performance/evaluation periodperiod, , feedbackfeedback

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Steps in a Typical MBO ProgramSteps in a Typical MBO Program

1. The organization’s overall objectives and strategies are formulated.

2. Major objectives are allocated among divisional and departmental units.

3. Unit managers collaboratively set specific objectives for their units with their managers.

4. Specific objectives are collaboratively set with all department members.

5. Action plans, defining how objectives are to be achieved, are specified and agreed upon by managers and employees.

6. The action plans are implemented.

7. Progress toward objectives is periodically reviewed, and feedback is provided.

8. Successful achievement of objectives is reinforced by performance-based rewards.

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Does MBO Work?Does MBO Work?

* * MManagement anagement BBy whose y whose OObjectives?bjectives?

MManipulating anipulating BBy y OObjectives?bjectives?

* Potential Problems with MBO Programs* Potential Problems with MBO Programs

Not as effective in dynamic environmentsNot as effective in dynamic environments that require that require constant resetting of goals.constant resetting of goals.

Overemphasis on individual accomplishmentOveremphasis on individual accomplishment may create may create problems with teamwork.problems with teamwork.

Allowing the MBO program to become an annual Allowing the MBO program to become an annual paperworkpaperwork shuffle. shuffle.

* Reason for MBO Success* Reason for MBO Success

Top management Top management commitment and involvement.commitment and involvement.

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Characteristics of Characteristics of Well-DesignedWell-Designed Goals Goals

1. Written in terms of 1. Written in terms of outcomes, not actionsoutcomes, not actions

2. Measurable and 2. Measurable and quantifiablequantifiable

3. Clear as to time frame3. Clear as to time frame

e.g.,e.g., 華山論劍，華山論劍， William William Lab.Lab.

4. Challenging yet 4. Challenging yet attainableattainable

5. Written down5. Written down

6. Communicated to all 6. Communicated to all necessary organizational necessary organizational membersmembers

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討論：目標設定之原則討論：目標設定之原則1. 1. Smart:Smart:

Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Specific, Measurable, Attainable,

Relevant, Time bound.Relevant, Time bound.

2. Kiss:2. Kiss:

Keep it simple and short. Keep it simple and short.

Keep it simple, stupid.Keep it simple, stupid.

＊＊一分鐘經理人一分鐘經理人，， 5959 秒員工秒員工

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台北市交通白皮書 台北市交通白皮書

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錸德科技 規劃錸德科技 規劃 11111111 願景願景

1.1. 每個員工有每個員工有 11 棟房子棟房子2.2. 公司經營績效擠進國內前公司經營績效擠進國內前 1010 大大3.3. 培養培養 100100 個專業經理個專業經理4.4. 20052005 年時，年營收達年時，年營收達 10001000 億元目標億元目標

e.g., 0941e.g., 0941

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Steps in Goal SettingSteps in Goal Setting

1.1. Review the organization’s Review the organization’s missionmission statement. statement.

2.2. Evaluate available Evaluate available resourcesresources..

3.3. Determine Determine goalsgoals individually or with others. individually or with others.

4.4. Write down the goals and Write down the goals and communicatecommunicate them. them.

5.5. ReviewReview results and whether goals are being met. results and whether goals are being met.

e.g., 1. e.g., 1. 承諾前可討論，承諾後使命必達。承諾前可討論，承諾後使命必達。 2. P. F. Drucker 2. P. F. Drucker 的三個導師的三個導師

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Developing PlansDeveloping Plans

• Contingency Factors in A Manager’s PlanningContingency Factors in A Manager’s Planning Manager’s level in the organizationManager’s level in the organization

Strategic plans at Strategic plans at higher higher levelslevels

Operational plans at Operational plans at lower lower levelslevels

Degree of environmental uncertaintyDegree of environmental uncertainty Stable environment: specific plansStable environment: specific plans

DynamicDynamic environment: environment: specific but flexible plansspecific but flexible plans

Length of future commitmentsLength of future commitments Commitment ConceptCommitment Concept

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Approaches to PlanningApproaches to Planning

• Establishing Establishing a formal planning departmenta formal planning department

A group of planning specialists who A group of planning specialists who helphelp managers write managers write organizational plans.organizational plans.

Planning is a function of management; it should never Planning is a function of management; it should never become the sole responsibility of planners.become the sole responsibility of planners.

• Involving organizational membersInvolving organizational members in the process in the process

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8.4 Contemporary Issues in Planning8.4 Contemporary Issues in Planning

• Criticisms of PlanningCriticisms of Planning ：：計畫趕不上變化計畫趕不上變化 Planning may create Planning may create rigidityrigidity..

Plans cannot be developed for Plans cannot be developed for dynamic environmentsdynamic environments. (e.g., . (e.g., 國泰 國泰 vs. vs. 安泰安泰 ))

Formal plans cannot replace Formal plans cannot replace intuition and creativityintuition and creativity..

Planning focuses managers’ attention on today’s Planning focuses managers’ attention on today’s competition not competition not tomorrow’s survivaltomorrow’s survival..

Formal planning reinforces today’s success, which may Formal planning reinforces today’s success, which may lead to lead to tomorrow’s failuretomorrow’s failure. (e.g., Icarus, Wang Laboratories). (e.g., Icarus, Wang Laboratories)

Just planning isn’t enough. (Just planning isn’t enough. (ImplementingImplementing!)!)

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Effective Planning in Dynamic EnvironmentsEffective Planning in Dynamic Environments

Develop plans that are specific but flexible. (e.g., 18Develop plans that are specific but flexible. (e.g., 18 套劇套劇本，本， Royal Dutch/Shell, Scenario-based planning)Royal Dutch/Shell, Scenario-based planning)

Understand that planning is an Understand that planning is an ongoing processongoing process..

(e.g.,(e.g., 毛治國毛治國 ,, Muddling through with a purposeMuddling through with a purpose) )

Change plansChange plans when conditions warrant. when conditions warrant.

Persistence in planning eventually pay off.Persistence in planning eventually pay off.

Flatten the organizational hierarchy to foster the Flatten the organizational hierarchy to foster the development of planning skills at all organizational levels.development of planning skills at all organizational levels.

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作業作業1.1. Case Case study: a manager’s dilemma (p. 232)study: a manager’s dilemma (p. 232)

(1) Identify and articulate business problems(1) Identify and articulate business problems

(2) Gather and analyze information applicable(2) Gather and analyze information applicable

(3) Identify and apply an appropriate tool for solving problems.(3) Identify and apply an appropriate tool for solving problems.

2. Thinking critically about 2. Thinking critically about ethicsethics (p. 245) (p. 245)

((1) Identifies Dilemma.1) Identifies Dilemma.

(2) Considers Stakeholders(2) Considers Stakeholders

(3) Analyzes Alternatives and Consequences(3) Analyzes Alternatives and Consequences

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3. Developing your goal setting 3. Developing your goal setting skill skill (p. 245) (p. 245) 為你自己的 為你自己的 academics, career preparation, family, hobbies academics, career preparation, family, hobbies 各設定至少兩個各設定至少兩個短期目標，兩個長期目標，再訂出達成目標之計畫。短期目標，兩個長期目標，再訂出達成目標之計畫。

4. 4. TeamTeam exercise: four–day week (p. 246) exercise: four–day week (p. 246)

55. Internet-based . Internet-based exercise (p. 246):exercise (p. 246):

1. 1. 上網，上網， key in “personal mission statement”, or “good key in “personal mission statement”, or “good planner”, planner”, 寫心得。寫心得。

2. 2. 上網找兩個不同產業的公司，找他們的 上網找兩個不同產業的公司，找他們的 goals, goals, 評估其是評估其是否 否 ““ well writing”? well writing”?

3. 3. 貴公司有一個目標是更環境永續 貴公司有一個目標是更環境永續 (sustainable)(sustainable) ，其中有 ，其中有 一步驟是減少紙張浪費。請擬訂計畫。一步驟是減少紙張浪費。請擬訂計畫。

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回顧回顧1. 1. Planning VS. PlanPlanning VS. Plan

2. Stated VS. Real objectives2. Stated VS. Real objectives

3. Strategic VS. Operational plan3. Strategic VS. Operational plan

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Terms to Know

• planning

• goals

• plans

• stated goals

• real goals

• strategic plans

• operational plans

• long-term plans

• short-term plans

• specific plans

• directional plans

• single-use plan

• standing plans

• traditional goal setting

• means-ends chain

• management by objectives (MBO)

• mission

• commitment concept

• formal planning department

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