怎样做科学研究How to Do Scientific Research

Huang Guowen 黃国文Sun Yat-sen University 中山大学

<flshgw@mail.sysu.edu.cn>

Acknowledgements

I’d like to express my heartfelt thanks to the Applied Foreign Languages Department, Guangdong Women’s Polytechnic College for inviting me to give a talk here.

Outline 1 Introduction: Personal information 2 Why do we need to do research 3 Types of writing 4 Types of research 5 Research assumptions and paradigms 6 Stages in doing research and writing 7 Plagiarism and how to avoid it 8 Illustration: Steps in doing discourse analysis 9 Concluding remarks

Personal information 黄国文， 1995 年起任中山大学教授， 1996 年起

任博士生导师。 1986 年获“语言学与应用语言学”硕士学位， 1992 年获“应用语言学”博士学位（英国爱丁堡

大学）， 1996 年获 “功能语言学”博士学位（英国威尔士

大学）， 1992 年至 1994 年在英国纽卡斯尔大学做“社会

语言学”博士后研究，被聘为 Research Associate ，

2004 至 2005 年作为 Fulbright Scholar 在美国斯坦福大学访学一年。

1979 年起开始发表学术论文，二十年来在国内外学术刊物发表论文 150 多篇，

其中包括发表在 Language Sciences, Social Semiotics, World Englishes, Interface --- Journal of Applied Linguistics 等杂志的论文和境外出版的一些论文集中的论文（如， Language in a Changing Europe. Multilingual Matters, 1995 ； Meaning and Form: Studies for Michael Halliday. Ablex, 1996 ； Studia Linguistica Sinica. City University of Hong Kong, 1998 ； Grammar and Discourse. University of Macau, 2001 ； Continuing Discourse on Language. Equinox, 2005 ）。

撰写专著 9 部： 《语篇分析概要》 1988 ，湖南教育出版社 《英语复合句》 1996 ，厦门大学出版社 《英语语言问题研究》 1999 ，中山大学出版社 《语篇分析的理论与实践》 2001 ，上海外语教育

出版社 Enhanced Theme in English 2003 ，山西教育出

版社 《英语学术论文写作》 2004 ，重庆大学出版社 《功能语篇分析》 2006 ，上海外语教育出版社 《翻译研究的语言学探索》 2006 ，上海外语教育

出版社 《系统功能语法入门：加的夫模式》。北京：北

京大学出版社， 2008 。

主编论文集 6 部： Meaning and Form: Systemic Functional

Interpretations (1996, 美国 Norwood, N.J: Ablex) 《语文研究群言集》（ 1997 ，中山大学出版社） Discourse and Language Functions （外语教学与

研究， 2002 ） 《语篇 · 语言功能 · 语言教学》（中山大学出版社，

2002 ） 《功能语言学的理论与应用》（高等教育出版

社， 2005 ） 《功能语言学与适用语言学》（中山大学出版

社， 2006 ）

特邀主编了《外语艺术教育研究》（广东外语艺术职业学院学报）三期专号：

2004 年第 3 期（“功能语言学与语篇分析”专号）和

2005 年第 3 期（“功能语言学与语言研究”专号）。

2006 年第 2 期（“功能语言学与应用语言学”专号）。

为《英语研究》（四川外语学院）特邀主编了“语篇分析专辑”（ 2006 年第 4 期）。

为多个学术期刊主持“专栏”

学术刊物兼职 16 个学术刊物的编委、顾问： 《当代语言学》、《外语教学与研究》、《现代

外语》、《中山大学学报（社哲版）》、《中国外语》、《外语研究》、《外语学刊》、《中国英语教学》、《中国外语教育》、《外语艺术教育研究》等学术刊物编委；

《外语与外语教学》、 Social Semiotics 杂志（英国 Carfax 出版公司）、 Linguistics and the Human Sciences 杂志（英国 Equinox 出版）、 Journal of Applied Linguistics 杂志（英国 Equinox 出版） 、《英语研究》、《外国语言文学研究》等学术杂志顾问。

“ 当代语言学”丛书（上海外语教育出版社）主编、 “ 外教社翻译研究”丛书（上海外语教育出版社）

主任委员。

先后主持 4 项国家社科、部级科研项目。

研究兴趣包括：功能语言学、应用语言学、语篇分析、翻译研究。

已经培养了 25 名“功能语言学”方向博士和 55 名“英语语言文学”和“外国语言学及应用语言学”硕士。

目前指导 13 名博士、 2 名博士后。

普通高等教育“十一五”国家级规划教材 黄国文、葛达西、张美芳，《英语学术论文写作》（ How to Write a Research Paper）2007，重庆大学出版社

黄国文、葛达西，《英语学位论文写作教程》（ How to Write a Dissertation） 2008，高等教育出版社

Why we need to do research

(1) The needs of the culture, society, academic developments

(2) External requirements (academic assessments: institutional, personal)

(3) Personal needs (promotion, reward) (4) Personal interest (physical pleasure,

mental pleasure)

Types of Writing Writing

Fiction Non-fiction

P E N Popular Professional

Technical Academic

Literary Scientific

Speculative Experimental

Types of research Types of research

Secondary Primary

Library Literature Qualitative Survey Statisticalresearch reviews

Interviews Descriptive Quasi- experimental Questionnaires Experimental

Basic research vs applied research

Basic research: theory-oriented, no immediate practical use

Applied research: practice-oriented, obvious immediate practical use

Analysis and data

1. Method of data collection (whether the data have been collected experimentally or non-experimentally)

2. The type of data yielded by the investigation (qualitative or quantitative)

3. The type of analysis conducted on the data (whether statistical or interpretive)

Questions for discussion

1. What are the typical types of data in studies of linguistics and applied linguistics?

2. What are the possible problems one may encounter in data collection?

3. What are the factors that influence the choice of data type and method of data collection?

4. How are the objectives of the research associated with data?

1. “introspection”( 内省 ), which is based on the linguist’s own intuitive competence of the language. This way of getting data has a long tradition and is still in operation. Thus, researchers make up examples and use them as data. Sometimes the contrived examples are not accepted by the majority of the speakers of that language, and thus are challenged, but this method is popular because many people believe that linguistic description can be based on the linguist’s introspection.

2. “elicitation”( 诱导 ), which means that members of the speech community are asked to serve as informants to decide, on their intuitions, whether certain descriptions are correct, accurate or acceptable.

For example, by using questionnaires and interviews, you can ask native speakers of English when to use “He is taller than me” and when to use “He is taller than I am”.

3. “observation”( 观察 ), which refers to the idea that behaviour (e.g., language use) can be observed “naturalistically”. With the rapid developments of computer technology and studies in corpus linguistics, more and more people are interested in getting information of naturally occurring examples, both written and spoken, of language use from existing corpora.

So, for example, instead of asking native speakers of English when they use “He is taller than me” and when they use “He is taller than I am”, you can get examples and their frequency in the corpus you search.

As Widdowson (2000: 74-75) argues, “intuitive, elicited, and observed data all have their own validity, but this validity depends on what kind of evidence you are looking for, on what aspects of language knowledge or behaviour you are seeking to explain.

If you are looking for evidence of the internal relationship between language and the mind, you are more likely to favour intuition and elicitation.

If you are looking for evidence of how language sets up external links with society, then you are more likely to look to the observed data of actual occurrence.

The validity of different kinds of linguistic data is not absolute but relative: one kind is no more ‘real’ than another. It depends on what you claim the data are evidence of, and what you are trying to explain.”

Research assumptions What topic we choose, how we design our

research paper, and how we go about doing the research all depend on our assumptions about a number of factors. They include:

1.   What is the nature of reality? 2.  What is the relationship of the researcher to

that researched? 3.    What is the role of values? 4.    What is the language of research? 5.    What is the process of research?

The above assumptions are usually discussed in relation to two major ways of doing research, i.e. the quantitative approach and the qualitative approach.

Questions 1, 2, and 3 relate to the objectivity of a researcher in a quantitative approach and the involvement of the investigator in a qualitative one.

In the former case (quantitative) there is a distance between the researcher and the researched whereas in the latter (qualitative) the researcher is closely involved with that researched.

Qualitative or quantitative?

Choosing between a qualitative or a quantitative approach also depends on several factors which include

(1) the researcher’s worldview/outlook,

(2) the researcher’s training or experience,

(3) the researcher’s psychological attributes,

(4) the nature of the problem being researched,

(5) the audience for the research.

Two “pure” paradigms

(1) the “exploratory-interpretive” paradigm, which utilises a non-experimental method, yields qualitative data, and provides an interpretive analysis of that data.

(2) the “analytical-nomological” paradigm, in which the data are collected through an experiment, and yields quantitative data which are subjected to statistical analysis.

Six “mixed” paradigms (3) Experimental-qualitative-interpretive Experimental or quasi-experimental design Qualitative data Interpretive analysis (4) Experimental-qualitative-statistical Experimental or quasi-experimental design Qualitative data Statistical analysis (5) Exploratory-qualitative-statistical Non-experimental design Qualitative data Statistical analysis

(6) Exploratory-quantitative-statistical Non-experimental design Quantitative data Statistical analysis (7) Exploratory-quantitative-interpretive Non-experimental design Quantitative data Interpretive analysis (8) Experimental-quantitative-interpretive Experimental or quasi-experimental design Quantitative data Interpretive analysis

Choice of research paradigms Subject / discipline Research tradition Type of research Research assumptions Personal interest, training, experiences

Stages in doing research and writing Planning your time

Selecting a suitable topic Developing research questions Formulating/Writing a tentative thesis statement From research questions to research methods

Conducting secondary research (library research & literature reviews)

Developing a preliminary bibliography Reading relevant literature Shaping the preliminary outline Taking notes Paraphrasing and summarizing

Conducting primary research (qualitative, survey, statistical)

Collecting data Conducting qualitative research Designing/Conducting interviews and/or

questionnaires Designing/Conducting experiments Analyzing data Comparing results Discovering findings

Creating the final plan Developing the first draft

Macro-structure of a paper/dissertation/thesis

Polishing the first draft Preparing final documentation notes Preparing appendix Preparing final bibliography/references Formatting the final draft

Proofreading -- Checking details Submission

Researching BEFORE writing!

Plagiarism and How to Avoid It

What is plagiarism? Plagiarism is the practice of using or copying

someone else’s words or ideas and pretended that they are yours.

It is a form of intellectual “theft”, but in a sense it is even worse than theft because you present them to other people as if they were you own words and ideas, and you try to take credit for them.

The Temptation to Plagiarize

The Need and the temptation: When a student has to submit an assignment, a

term paper, a project or thesis, especially just before deadline.

The ease of committing the offence. Cutting and pasting is easier than anything…

“Paper mills” online

Published paper in the internet Working papers “Buying” papers from somewhere Passing off another student’s paper as your own

Two types of plagiarism

There are two broad types of plagiarism: (1) intentional, (2) unintentional.

When the writer purposefully hides the fact that the words or ideas he presents are those of someone else. It is a form of stealing.

Unintentional plagiarism typically occurs when the writer does not cite the source correctly.

Example In recent years, linguists and language teachers alike

have become much more interested in language as it is used in communication and not just in language as the abstract formal system. The organization of language teaching along functional lines reflects the increased interest in language as and for communication. However, to organize language teaching functionally does not necessarily make the teaching communicative or encourage the communicative use of the language. (Liu R.Q. et al 1990. Introducing Linguistics. Beijing: Renmin Jiaoyu Chubanshe, p.312) (70 words)

Version 1 In recent years, both linguists and language teachers

are more and more interested in regarding language as a tool in communication and not just as an abstract formal system. The arrangement of language teaching according to functional principles shows the increased interest in teaching language as and for communication. However, to make language teaching functionally- organized may not make the teaching communicative or encourage people to use language communicatively. (69 words)

Version 2 Recent years have witnessed a growing interest in

both linguists and language teachers in regarding language as a tool in daily communication rather than as a formal system in the mind. This growing interest has encouraged applied linguists, course designers, materials writers and teachers to organize teaching along the functional line. However, this does not mean that the teaching becomes communicative automatically or that communicative use of language is suggested. (70 words)

Version 3 As was observed by Liu et al (1990:312), recent years

have witnessed a growing interest in both linguists and language teachers in regarding language as a tool in daily communication rather than as a formal system in the mind, and this growing interest has encouraged applied linguists, course designers, materials writers and teachers to organize teaching along the functional line. However, as Liu et al rightly say, this does not mean that the teaching becomes communicative automatically or that communicative use of language is suggested. (85 words)

The Cost of Plagiarism

An assignment partly or wholly a product of plagiarism will be given an “F”.

If a student disregards the university’s warnings and commits plagiarism repeatedly, he may be suspended or dismissed from the university, depending on the severity of the case.

More serious result… Once you have an act of plagiarism, the effect will be with

you. It will be noticed publicly, for ever.

Two cases

Liu (2006) Lu (2007)

Pieces of advice

Cite other people’s ideas if you need to, but do so wisely and selectively, and always properly.

Do not pretend that you are not aware of the existing literature.

Do not try to quote too much! Learn to quote properly, wisely and

appropriately!

Illustration: Steps in Discourse Analysis Observation --- awareness Understanding --- interpretation Description --- metalanguage Analysis ( procedure, method, skill) Explanation --- theoretical framework Evaluation --- making comments /

judgements

Theoretical assumptions

Halliday (1994/2000: F39): “Language has evolved to satisfy human needs; and the way it is organized is functional with respect to these needs --- it is not arbitrary.”

Halliday (1994/2000: F40): “A language is interpreted as a system of meanings, accompanied by forms through which the meanings can be realized.”

Functional Linguistics sets out to investigate what the range of relevant choices are, both in the kinds of meanings that we might want to express (or functions that we might want to perform) and in the kinds of wording that we can use to express these meanings; and to match these two sets of choices.

Choice implies meaning

Thompson (1996/2000: 8) “The use of the term ‘choice’ does not necessarily imply a conscious process of selection by the speaker: what we aim to uncover through a functional analysis are the reasons why the speaker produces a particular wording rather than any other in a particular context.”

Illustration: A Chinese song

《选择》林子祥、叶倩文

男：风起的日子笑看落花 女：雪舞的时节举杯向月 男：这样的心情 女：这样的路 合：我们一起走过 女：希望你能爱我到地老到天荒 男：希望你能陪我到海角到天涯 合：就算一切重来我也不会改变决定 / 我选择了

你 / 你选择了我喔 / 女：我一定会爱你到地久到天长 男：我一定会陪你到海枯到石烂 合：就算回到从前这仍是我唯一决定 / 我选择了

你 / 你选择了我 / 这是我们的选择

男：走过了春天走过秋天 女：送走了今天又是明天 男：一天又一天 女：月月年年 合：我们的心不变 女：希望你能爱我到地老到天荒 男：希望你能陪我到海角到天涯 合：就算一切重来我也不会改变决定 / 我选择了你

/ 你选择了我喔 / 我一定会爱你到地久到天长 / 我一定会陪你到海枯

到石烂 / 就算回到从前这仍是我唯一决定 / 我选择了你 / 你选择了我 / 这是我们的选择

据《北京晨报》 2005 年 11 月 28 日报道

1983 年，林子祥和叶倩文因合唱《重逢》结缘。此后，林子祥帮助叶倩文写歌，使她一夜成名，二人的感情与日俱增（当时林子祥是有妇之夫，妻子是吴正元）。

1992 年二人合唱了《选择》，有人认为这是一首以偷情者身份演绎的情歌；多年来《选择》还被视为情歌经典传唱。 1996 年 , 离婚后的林子祥和叶倩文结为夫妇。

Analysis

Context of Culture (background information; singers may not be lovers)

Context of Situation (original singers vs their fans; male + female, role-play, closeness)

Context of Co-text (turns, sequence, relationships of turns/utterances, others->us)

Turns, Sequence Initiation: Male Beginning: One/Single Ending: Male+Female/Couple

(1) Male -> Female -> Male -> Female -> M-F (2) Female -> Male -> M-F (3) Female -> Male -> M-F

(1) Male -> Female -> Male -> Female -> M-F (2) Female -> Male -> M-F (3) M-F

One/single -------- two/couple

Choice -- Paradigmatic relations 纵聚合关系 Female: 希望你能爱我到地老到天荒 Male: 希望你能陪我到海角到天涯

F: 希望你能爱我到地老到天荒 / 我一定会爱你到地久到天长 M: 希望你能陪我到海角到天涯 / 我一定会陪你到海枯到石烂

爱 — > 陪 （ Female: Stative, Male: Dynamic) 希望 — > 一定 (wish/hope, determination) 能 — > 会 (possibility, obligation)

Female: 希望你能爱我到地老到天荒 | | Male: 希望你能陪我到海角到天涯

Female: 希望 你 能 爱 我 到 地老到天荒 | | | | Female: 我 一定会 爱 你 到 地久到天长

男：风起的日子笑看落花 女：雪舞的时节举杯向月 男：这样的心情 女：这样的路 合：我们一起走过 女：希望你能爱我到地老到天荒 男：希望你能陪我到海角到天涯 合：就算一切重来我也不会改变决定 / 我选择了你 / 你选择了我喔 / 女：我一定会爱你到地久到天长 男：我一定会陪你到海枯到石烂 合：就算回到从前这仍是我唯一决定 / 我选择了你 / 你选择了我 / 这是我们的选择 男：走过了春天走过秋天 女：送走了今天又是明天 男：一天又一天 女：月月年年 合：我们的心不变 女：希望你能爱我到地老到天荒 男：希望你能陪我到海角到天涯 合：就算一切重来我也不会改变决定 / 我选择了你 / 你选择了我喔 / 我一定会爱你到地久到天长 / 我一定会陪你到海枯到石烂 / 就算回到从前这仍是我唯一决

定 / 我选择了你 / 你选择了我 / 这是我们的选择

Concluding remarks

(1) Research assumptions and paradigms (2) Research traditions and techniques (3) Research as a task/academic

requirement (4) Research as a hobby (5) From “conscious” to “unconscious” (6) Stages in doing research and writing (7) Researching before writing (8) Plagiarism and how to avoid it (9) Learning to do research is going through

a process.

Thank you!