پیش فرض humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. those conclusions are based on...

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Page 1: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای
Page 2: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

پیشفرض

Page 3: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level.

استدالل خطای

شناختی خطای

Paul 2008

Page 4: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

منطقی فرضهای پیش مثال you cannot claim a statement to be

true without assuming something which underlies that claim e.g. I cannot claim the proposition: 'the sky is blue' without assuming (or presupposing) the reliability of my senses, my use of language, grammar, logic, etc.

:است ابی اسمان مثال فرضها؟ پیش دیگر؟ مثال

Moor and Parker 2007

Page 5: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

پیشفرض

Page 6: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

پیشفرض A statement accepted or supposed as

true without proof or demonstration; an unstated premise or belief. All human thought and experience are based on assumptions.

فرض صادق که ایست گزاره پیشفرضاست شده

Moor and Parker 2007

Page 7: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

پیشفرض We are typically unaware of what we

assume and therefore rarely question our assumptions.

We often experience the world in such a way as to assume that we are observing things just as they are.

Moor and Parker 2007

Page 8: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

روانشناسی ، منطقی پیشفرضیا....

الزم شرط منطقی پیشفرضاست استدالل پذیرش برای

کلیشه روانشناسی پیشفرضطول در که است ما ذهنی های

است گرفته شکل زندگی

Page 9: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

پیشفرض روانشناسی

ای کلیشه یاتفکر

Page 10: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2003 10

WEBWEB

A Classic Study by Sherif & Sherif (1954)

Page 11: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2003 10

WEBWEB

A Classic Study by Sherif & Sherif (1954)

Page 12: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2003 10

WEBWEB

A Classic Study by Sherif & Sherif (1954)

Page 13: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

کلیشه مکانیسم A stereotype is a schema that we use to

categorize people. Such categorization emphasizes the

similarities of all members of the category and also emphasizes the differences between these members and those people who do not belong to the category.

Critical thinking and psychology 2002

Page 14: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

ها کلیشه اهمیت One of the defining characteristics of a

stereotype is that it is an oversimplification, and therein lies its value as well as its hazard.

Stereotypes have been described as "cognitively economical in that they help us to manage large amounts of information about people and to predict the behavior of others when information is limited.

(Mischel, 1986)

Page 15: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

چیست؟ حاوی کلیشه In addition, when we have very limited,

information about a person but we do know that he or she is a member of given category, we are likely to assume that the individual possesses characteristics common to the category.

We've suggested that a stereotype can contain valid information as well as misinformation.

Critical thinking and psychology 2002

Page 16: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

پیشفرض Much of what is wrong with human thought

can be found in the uncritical or unexamined assumptions that underlie it.

All of our prejudices, قضاوتها پیش biases, سوگراییها preconceived (defined predetermined) generalizations lie in

the form of assumptions. تعریف قبل از تعمیمهایشده

Critical thinking and psychology 2002

Page 17: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

فرق نژاد تغییر با ما برداشت ایامیکند؟

Page 18: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

( پزشکی ( در مسئله حل مدلهای

1سیستم شهودی سریع / کلیشه مند قاعده ای

اتوماتیک زیاد خطا کمتر سندیت

• 2سیستم

• نقادی/ تحلیلی• کند• مند نظام• هوشیارانه• خطا کم• بیشتر سندیت

Clinical reasoning in health and medicine 2007

Page 19: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

: مثال پیشفرض

For example, if two people see a man lying in a gutter, one might infer, "There's a drunken bum." The other might infer, "There's a man in need of help."

These inferences are based on different assumptions about the conditions under which people end up in gutters.

Paul 2008

Page 20: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

: مثال پیشفرض

The first person assumes, "Only drunks are to be found in gutters.“

The second person assumes, "People lying in the gutter are in need of help."

The reasoning of these two people, in terms of their inferences and assumptions, could be characterized in the following way:

ANSWER?

Paul 2008

Page 21: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای
Page 22: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

میتوان پیشفرض یافتن بر :عالوه You can evaluate people's assumptions in the

light of evidence. You can compare your assumptions to other

people's. You can put people's assumptions (including

your own) in a larger context, asking how they are rooted in their cultural background.

Critical thinking thinks through; Nosich 2007

Page 23: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

نقاد متفکر یک وظیفه

identify the assumptions an author is making

ask, "What is the background theory to keep in mind while formulating this political science questionnaire?"

Critical thinkers make their assumptions explicit, شفاف

assess them, ارزیابی correct them. اصالح

Critical thinking thinks through; Nosich 2007

Page 24: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

متفکر توسط سیستمها جابجایینقاد

1سیستم

شهودی.1سریع.2قاعده .3

ای/ کلیشه مند

اتوماتیک.45. زیاد خطا6. کمتر سندیت

• 2سیستم

1. نقادی/ تحلیلیکند.23. مند نظامهوشیارانه.45. خطا کم6. بیشتر سندیت

Clinical reasoning in health and medicine 2007

Page 25: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

پیش و استنتاج میان تمایزفرض

یادگیری انتقادی تفکر در مهم مهارتهای از یکیمیان شدن قائل پیشفرض تمایز و استنتاج

می اشتباه هم با را دو این بسیاری که است،:گیرند

یک: استنتاجاستنتاج ( (1 است، ذهنی گام یک استنتاجبه توجه با و آن طریق از فرد که ذهنی کنش

  چیزی گیرد می نتیجه دیگر، ای مسئله درستیاست .درست

غلط، یا درست است ممکن استنتاجهامورد بی یا موجه منطقی، غیر یا منطقی

.باشند

Page 26: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

پیشفرض و استنتاج میان تمایز

2) 2) : :پیشفرض درست پیشفرض را آن ما که است چیزی . پیشتر را ان کنیم می فرض درست یا دانسته

ایم نکرده تحقیق آن مورد در و .آموختهو شود می محسوب ما باوری نظام از بخشیو کرده فرض درست را خود باورهای ما البته

کنیم می استفاده جهان تفسیر برای آنها .از نتیجه در و به پیشفرض پیشفرض باورها بسته ـ

بی یا کننده قانع است ممکن ـ آنها دالیل. باشند مورد

Page 27: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

به مختلف های موقعیت در معمول بطور انسانها . بر متکی نتایج این رسند می فرضهایی استنتاجهایی فرضهایی پیش پیشکنند می عمل ناخودآگاه سطحی در که .هستند

  تفسیر و قضاوت ایم داده شکل که باورهایی اساس بر. رسیم می نتایجی به و کرده

ها استنتاج) گیری) نتیجه

پیش پیش فرضهافرضها

اطالعات) ها) موقعیت

پیشفرض و استنتاج میان تمایز

Page 28: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

ادراک سطح تا اندیشه ناخودآگاه بخش ارتقای هنرمی محسوب انتقادی تفکر از مهمی بخش خوداگاه

متفاوتی شود. استنتاجهای مختلف افراد اغلبمتفاوتی: دیدگاههای با را موقعیت یک زیرا دارند     می متفاوت ای گونه به را ها داده کرده، بررسی

آنچه. درباره متفاوتی فرضهای پیش آنها بینند. دارند بینند می

. رساند می استنتاج به را فرد که است کلی تعمیم همان .پیشفرض

پیشفرض و استنتاج میان تمایز

Page 29: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

  و ها استنتاج از شدن آگاه از ما پیش هدفکه دارد، فرضهایی قرار تفکرمان پس در

. است تفکر بر شدن مسلط تفکر روی تسلط دارد، استنتاجی ماهیتی تفکر

  و تفکر در موجود های استنتاج روی تسلط به. انجامد مي فرضیات روی تسلط نتیجه فرضهای در پیش آموختن نیازمند تفکرات، همه

و مطالعه مورد موضوع محتوای درباره صحیح.   است کننده قانع های استنتاج یافتن تجربه

پیشفرض و استنتاج میان تمایز

Page 30: پیش فرض Humans routinely draw conclusions in situations. Those conclusions are based on assumptions that usually operate at an unconscious level. خطای

خالصهاستانداردها

صحت وضوحدقت

اهمیت کفایت ارتباط

بودن منطقيانصاف

عمق نظر ها وسعت مولفه زمینه

هدف ادعا/ استنتاج

پرسشمسئله/مفاهيم

سرانجام ديدگاه پیش اطالعات

ذهنی  فرضها ويژگیهایپشتکار عقلی تواضع

عقلی اطمينان عقلی استقالل

استدالل بههمدلی درستیعقلی

عقلی منصف شهامتعقلی

بودن

موارد در بایدزيررود بكار

كه چنانمي‌آموزيم

خصا اينيصرا

پرورش مي‌دهيم