組織管理 (IV)

楊景傅 博士 楊景傅 博士 (Albert J.F. Yang, Ph.D.)(Albert J.F. Yang, Ph.D.) 國立高雄第一科技大學行銷與流國立高雄第一科技大學行銷與流

通管理系通管理系 Tel:07-6011000, ext.4222Tel:07-6011000, ext.4222

E-mail:E-mail: jfyang@ccms.nkfust.edu.tw1

組織與外在環境的關係

組織的子系統與外在環境

組織環境的基本概念

• 組織的外在環境要素• 環境要素的內涵

– 一般環境 (general environment)– 特定環境 (specific environment)– 經營領域 (organizational domain)

組織的外在環境要素

環境要素的內涵

組織外在環境的特性分析

• 分析環境的構面– 環境複雜性 (environmental complexity)– 環境變動性 (environmental change)– 資源豐富性 (resource abundance)– 描述組織環境的特性

• 環境不確定性– 環境不確定性 (environmental

uncertainty)– 組織環境的不確定性

描述組織環境的特性

組織環境的不確定性

組織外在環境的特性分析

• 組織結構與不確定性–機械式結構與有機式結構

•組織特性•結構特性與環境不確定性

機械式與有機式結構的組織特性

組織的環境適應與控制策略

• 適應策略（內部策略）• 控制策略（外部策略）• 管理者對組織環境的適應與控制

　

管理者對組織環境的適應與控制

組織的環境適應與控制策略

• 組織的環境適應–環境偵測–預測與策略規劃–分化及整合–經營領域選擇

–招募–建立緩衝機制–調節需求–配給–地理分散或移轉

部門分化以負責特定的環境要素

組織的環境適應與控制策略

• 組織的環境控制– 廣告– 契約– 收買與籠絡– 結盟

•合併 (merger)•購併 (acquisition)•共同投資 (joint venture)

– 遊說

組織與外在環境中的利害關係人

• 利害關係人與組織的互動關係– 組織環境中利害關係人的角色

• 利害關係人與影響策略– 利害關係人及其影響策略

組織環境中利害關係人的角色

利害關係人及其影響策略

利害關係人及其影響策略（續）

組織間的合作與競爭

• 環境變遷與組織間關係– 傳統與現代組織間關係的特性– 競合關係 (coopetition relationship)

• 組織間的合作關係– 企業間合作關係的展開

傳統與現代組織間關係的特性

企業間合作關係的展開

Resource Dependence Theory

• The goal of an organization is to minimize its dependence on other organizations for the supply of scare resources and to find ways of influencing them to make resources available

Resource Dependence Theory (cont.)

• The strength of one organization’s dependence on another depends on:– How vital the resource is to the

organization’s survival– The extent that other organization’s

control these resources

Resource Dependence Theory (cont.)

• An organization has to manage two aspects of its resource dependence:

– It has to exert influence over other organizations so that it can obtain resources

– It must respond to the needs and demands of the other organizations in its environment

競爭取向關係—資源依賴理論觀點

• 主要內涵– 資源依賴觀點 (resource dependence

view)– 資源依賴性的四要素

•資源的重要性•資源稀少性•少數資源供應者•相互依賴程度不對稱

Interorganizational Strategies for Managing Resource Dependencies

• Two basic types of interdependencies cause uncertainty

– Symbiotic interdependencies: interdependencies that exist between an organization and its suppliers and distributors

– Competitive interdependencies: interdependencies that exist among organizations that compete for scarce inputs and outputs

• Organizations aim to choose the interorganizational strategy that offers the most reduction in uncertainty with the least loss of control

競爭取向關係—資源依賴理論觀點

• 資源依賴的型態– 共生相依 (symbiotic interdependence)– 競爭相依 (competitive interdependence)– 組織間的相互依賴與策略應用

Linkage Mechanisms

• Linkage mechanisms, while controlling interdependency, require coordination

• Coordination reduces each organization’s freedom to act

• Organizations should choose the strategy that offers the most reduction in uncertainty for the least loss of control

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組織間的相互依賴與策略應用

競爭取向關係—資源依賴理論觀點

• 共生相依的管理策略•加強組織聲譽•籠絡與收買•伙伴關係•合併與購併

• 競爭相依的管理策略–勾結與聯合–第三團體的連結–伙伴關係–合併與購併

Interorganizational Strategies for Managing Symbiotic Interdependencies

Strategies for Managing Symbiotic Resource Interdependencies

• Developing a good reputation– Reputation: a state in which an

organization is held in high regard and trusted by other parties because of its fair and honest business practices

– Reputation and trust are the most common linkage mechanisms for managing symbiotic interdependencies

Strategies for Managing Symbiotic Resource Interdependencies

(cont.)

• Cooptation: a strategy that manages symbiotic interdependencies by giving them a stake in the organization– Make outside stakeholders inside

stakeholders– Interlocking directorate: a

linkage that results when a director from one company sits on the board of another company

Strategies for Managing Symbiotic Resource Interdependencies

(cont.)• Strategic alliances: an agreement

that commits two or more companies to share their resources to develop joint new business opportunities

– An increasingly common mechanism for managing symbiotic (and competitive) interdependencies

– The more formal the alliance, the stronger and more prescribed the linkage and tighter control of joint activities• Greater formality preferred with uncertainty

Types of Strategic Alliances

• Long-term contracts• Networks: a cluster of different

organizations whose actions are coordinated by contracts and agreements rather than through a formal hierarchy of authority

• Minority ownership– Keiretsu: a group of organizations,

each of which owns shares in the other organizations in the group, that work together to further the group’s interests

Types of Strategic Alliances

Keiretsu

• Japanese system for achieving the benefits of formal linkages without incurring its costs– Example: Toyota has a minority

ownership in its suppliers•Affords substantial control over

the exchange relationship•Avoids bureaucratic cost of

ownership and opportunism

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The Fuyo Keiretsu

Types of Strategic Alliances (cont.)

• Joint venture: a strategic alliance among two or more organizations that agree to jointly establish and share the ownership of a new business

Strategies for Managing Symbiotic Resource Interdependencies

(cont.)

• Merger and takeover: results in resource exchanges taking place within one organization rather than between organizations

– New organization better able to resist powerful suppliers and customers

– Normally involves great expense and problems managing the new business

Interorganizational Strategies for Managing Competitive

Interdependencies

Strategies for Managing Competitive Resource

Interdependencies• Collusion and cartels

– Collusion: a secret agreement among competitors to share information for a deceitful or illegal purpose•May influence industry standards

– Cartel: an association of firms that explicitly agrees to coordinate their activities•May influence price structure of

market

Strategies for Managing Competitive Resource

Interdependencies (cont.)

• Third-party linkage mechanism: a regulatory body that allows organizations to share information and regulate the way they compete

• Strategic alliances: can be used to manage both symbiotic and competitive interdependencies

• Merger and takeover: the ultimate method for managing problematic interdependencies

競爭取向關係—群體生態學理論觀點

• 主要內涵– 群體生態學理論 (population ecology

theory)– 環境利基 (environmental niches)– 群體生態學的特性

•關注的焦點是組織的群體而非單一的組織•單純以存活或滅亡來評斷組織群體的效能，存活者是有效能的，而滅亡者即是無效能的

競爭取向關係—群體生態學理論觀點

•認為環境對組織的影響是極具有決定性的•假設特定的環境可以容納的組織數量是有限的

•認為組織群體演化有三個過程–差異 (variation) –選擇 (selection) –維持 (retention)

群體生態學中組織群體演化的三個過程

競爭取向關係—群體生態學理論觀點

• 組織出生率• 組織的生存策略

– 通才型組織 (generalist organization)– 專才型組織 (specialist organization)

組織的出生率

合作取向關係—體制理論觀點

• 主要內涵– 體制理論 (institution theory)– 正當性 (legitimacy)

• 組織同形化– 同形化 (isomorphism)

合作取向關係—體制理論觀點

– 三種體制壓力•強制的壓力 (coercive pressure)•模仿的壓力 (mimetic pressure)

–標竿學習 (benchmarking)•規範的壓力 (normative pressure)

– 三種同形化的過程

三種同形化的過程

合作取向關係—體制理論觀點

• 面對體制壓力–順服–對抗–逃避

合作取向關係—網路理論觀點

• 主要意涵– 網路理論 (network theory)

• 交易成本– 交易成本理論 (transaction cost theory)– 交易成本的影響因素

Transaction Cost Theory

• Transaction costs: the costs of negotiating, monitoring, and governing exchanges between people

• Transaction cost theory: the goal of an organization is to minimize the costs of exchanging resources in the environment and the costs of managing exchanges inside the organization

Sources of Transaction Costs

• Environmental uncertainty and bounded rationality– Bounded rationality: refers to the limited

ability people have to process information

• Opportunism and small numbers– When organizations are dependent on a

small number for supplies, the potential for exploitation is great

• Risk and specific assets– Specific assets: investments that create

value in one particular exchange relationship but have no value in any other exchange relationship

交易成本的影響因素

Transaction Costs and Linkage Mechanisms

• Transaction costs are low when:– Organizations are exchanging

nonspecific goods and services– Uncertainty is low– There are many possible exchange

partners

Transaction Costs and Linkage Mechanisms

• Transaction costs are high when:– Organizations begin to exchange more

specific goods and services– Uncertainty increases– The number of possible exchange

partners falls

Transaction Costs and Linkage Mechanisms

• Bureaucratic costs: internal transaction costs – Bringing transactions inside the

organization minimizes but does not eliminate the costs of managing transactions

Using Transaction Cost Theory to Choose an Interorganizational Strategy

• Transaction cost theory can be used to choose an interorganizational strategy

• Managers can weigh the savings in transaction costs of particular linkage mechanisms against the bureaucratic costs

Using Transaction Cost Theory to Choose an Interorganizational

Strategy (cont.)

• Managers deciding which strategy to pursue must take the following steps:– Locate the sources of transaction costs that

may affect an exchange relationship and decide how high the transaction costs are likely to be

– Estimate the transaction cost savings from using different linkage mechanisms

– Estimate the bureaucratic costs of operating the linkage mechanism

– Choose the linkage mechanism that gives the most transaction cost savings at the lowest bureaucratic cost

合作取向關係—網路理論觀點

• 官僚成本 (bureaucratic cost)• 成本概念與組織間網路關係之建立

資源取得成本外部交易 = 市場價格 + 交易成本

內部取得 = 生產成本 + 官僚成本

合作取向關係—網路理論觀點

• 建立組織網路的實務作法—策略聯盟– 策略聯盟的意涵

•策略聯盟 (strategic alliance)•非股權關係 (non-equity relationships)與股權關係 (equity relationships)

•結構型態

Choice of entry mode

Nonequity

modes

Equity (FDI) modes

Greenfieldinvestments

Minority JVsDirect exportsLicensing/franchising

Acquisition50/50 JVsIndirect exports Turnkey projects

OthersMajority JVsOthers Contracted R&D

Wholly ownedsubsidiaries

joint ventures (JVs)Exports

Contractual agreements

Comarketing Strategic alliances (within dotted areas)Strategic alliances (within dotted areas)

策略聯盟結構的型態

合作取向關係—網路理論觀點

–策略聯盟過程的管理•在合約簽訂前的階段

–釐清每一方的利益，並為聯盟設定清楚的願景及目標

–實際的評估聯盟成功的機會–實際的估計預算–設定實際的時間表

合作取向關係—網路理論觀點

•在合約簽訂後–定義出特定的績效標準–建立結構清楚的團隊–考量目標的延續性–定義決策的程序–發展資訊分享的程序–發展細部計畫，必須有詳細的預算及時間表–確認一些實體的考量–與各方的法律及人力資源部門建立密切聯繫–建立報償系統，有效激勵參與聯盟事務的工作團隊

合作取向關係—網路理論觀點

–策略聯盟的障礙與成功因素•可能的障礙

–溝通障礙–企業文化–對彼此陌生–企業間的不信賴感

合作取向關係—網路理論觀點

•成功要素–目標：建立實際的目標– 策略：將所有參與者的策略需求與方向整合–參與者共享風險與報償– 結構：有很多的方法可用以設計聯盟在法律上與營運上的結構

–綜效：發揮槓桿性的 (leveraging) 效益，使策略伙伴間產生互補效應

組織間關係的發展趨勢

• 內部交換關係外部化• 外部交易關係內部化

–供應鏈管理 (supply chain management, SCM)

• 競爭與合作關係的動態