Liriux-n

, Windows

- - 2003

681.3.06 32.973.26-018.2 72 . . Linux . .: -, 2003. - 672 .: . ISBN 5-94157-183-6 Linux. Linux . Linux , , , , , . , . .

72

681.3.06 32.973.26-018.2

: . . .

02429 24.07.00. 25.02.03. 70100'/,. . . . , 54,18. . 5000 . Ne 751 "-", 198005, -, ., 29. , Ms 77.99.02.953..001537.03.02 13.03.2002 . . "" 199034, -, 9 , 12. ISBN 5-94157-183-6 . ., 2002 , "-", 2002

1. Linux: 1.1. Linux 1.1.1. UNIX 1.1.2. 1.1.3. Linux " " 100%- POSIX 1003.1. System V BSD System V IPC 1.2. Linux 1.3. 1.4. Linux? 2. Linux Windows 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.3.1. " "? 2.3.2. 1 1 2 3 4 5 7 7 7 8 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 17 19 21 21 23 25 25 26

JV_

2.3.3. Microsoft 2.3.4. 2.4. 2.4.1. LILO Linux 2.4.2. 2.4.3. 2.5. 2.5.1. 2.5.2. 2.6. Windows NT Linux: OS Loader NT 2.7. LILO 2.7.1. LILO 2.7.2. Linux 2.7.3. /boot DOS- 2.8. Linux MS-DOS loadlin.exe 3. Linux 3.1. Linux 3.2. 3.3. , 3.4. . 3.5. Linux 3.6. Linux 3.6.1. 3.6.2. man 3.6.3. info 3.6.4. help 3.6.5. , 3.6.6. 3.6.7. helptool. 3.6.8. 4. extlfs 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.4.1. 4.4.2. (pipes) 4.4.3. (sockets) 4.4.4. ( ) 4.5. 4.6. 4.6.1. chown chgrp 4.6.2. mkdir

28 31 32 33 34 35 36 36 39 40 43 43 47 48 48 53 53 54 56 59 63 64 65 65 67 68 68 69 69 70 71 71 74 77 83 83 85 85 86 87 94 94 ... 94

4.6.3. cat 4.6.4. 4.6.5. mv 4.6.6. rmdir 4.6.7. less 4.6.8. find u 4.6.9. split 4.6.10. patch 4.7. 4.7.1. tar 4.7.2. gzip 4.7.3. bzip2 4.8. 5. bash 5.1. ? 5.2. 5.3. 5.3.1. ; 5.3.2. & 5.3.3. && || 5.4. / 5.4.1. / 5.4.2. echo 5.4.3. cat 5.5. /, 5.5.1. >, < 5.5.2. | 5.5.3. 5.6. . 5.6.1. 5.6.2. 5.6.3. PATH 5.6.4. IFS 5.6.5. 5.6.6. export 5.7. 5.7.1. 5.7.2. 5.7.3. 5.7.4. 5.7.5. 5.7.6. 5.7.7. 5.7.8.

94 95 96 96 97 98 101 102 103 104 106 108 110 117 117 118 120 120 120 120 121 121 122 122 123 123 125 125 126 127 129 131 131 131 132 132 132 133 133 134 134 135 135 136

V/ 5.8. Shell 5.8.1. ;/ test ( [ ]) 5.8.2. testvi 5.8.3. case 5.8.4. select 5.8.5. for. 5.8.6. while until 5.8.7. fact 5.9. source 5.10. sh 6. Midnight Commander 6.1. Midnight Commander 6.2. Midnight Commander 6.3. 6.4. 6.5. 6.5.1. 6.5.2. 6.5.3. 6.6. 6.7. / 6.8. Midnight Commander 6.9. 6.10. 6.11. Midnight Commander 7. 7.1. XFree86 7.2. 7.3. - 7.3.1. 7.3.2. /etc/Xll/XF86Config 7.3.3. /etc/Xll/XF86Config 7.4. X Window 7.5. 7.6. 7.7.

136 136 138 140 141 142 143 143 143 144 144 145 145 146 147 147 148 150 152 152 153 156 158 159 162 165 166 168 173 181 181 186 189 190 191 200 207 211 212 213

I/// 215 215 218 218 222 224 225 226 228 228 229 231 232 235 235 237 238 239 242 243 243 246 247 248 250 253 255 255 257 259 260 260 264 267 268 270 270 275 277 278 278 279

8. 8.1. . 8.2. Linux 8.2.1. init /etc/inittab 8.2.2. 8.2.3. , 8.2.4. , 8.2.5. 8.3. 8.3.1. /etc/fstab 8.3.2. 8!3.3. 8.3.4. System V Init Editor ksysv 8.4. 8.4.1. / 8.4.2. top 8.4.3. , nice renice 8.4.4. kill 8.4.5. 8.4.6. nohup 8.5. 8.6. 8.6.1. ? 8.6.2. 8.7. 8.8. 9. 9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.3.1. kbdrate 9.3.2. 9.3.3. 9.3.4. 9.3.5. 9.3.6. 9.3.7. 9.4. 9.4.1. 9.4.2. 9.4.3.

VIII

9.5. 9.5.1. 9.5.2. 9.5.3. hdparm 9.5.4. fsck 9.6. 9.6.1. UNIX 9.6.2. /etc/printcap 9.6.3. LPD printconf-gui 9.6.4. 9.6.5. PostScript Ghostscript 9.6.6. Ghostscript 9.6.7. 9.7. 9.8. CD-ROM 9.9. Zip- Iomega 10. 10.1. 10.2. rpm 10.3. 10.3.1. 10.3.2. 11. 11.1. 11.1.1. 11.1.2. 11.2. 11.2.1. 11.2.2. 11.2.3. 11.3. 11.3.1. 11.3.2. Black Cat 11.3.3. 11.4. X Window 11.4.1. 11.4.2. (Bitmap Fonts) Type 1

280 280 281 282 285 288 288 290 292 296 297 298 301 301 303 304 307 307 307 313 313 315 317 318 318 318 320 320 322 322 323 324 325 325 328 330 330 331 334 334 334

Type 3 TrueType Type 42 : 1 TrueType 11.4.3. - 11.4.4. - - xfs - xfstt xfsft 11.4.5. -? ? fonts.dir, fonts.alias fonts.scale 11.4.6. 1 TrueType 11.5. shell .5.1. bash 11.5.2. less 11.5.3. man 11.5.4. nroff 11.5.5. Is 11.5.6. The Midnight Commander 11.5.7. Windows 95 DOS 11.5.8. Samba 11.5.9. rlogin 11.5.10. telnet 11.5.11. IrcII 11.6. 12. 12.1. 12.2. 12.2.1. UNIX 12.2.2. Acrobat Reader ( 4.05) 12.2.3. gv 12.2.4. PS, PDF DVI 12.2.5. WordViewer 12.2.6. - 12.3. 12.4.

ix 335 335 335 335 336 337 338 338 339 340 340 340 343 346 346 346 348 349 352 353 353 354 354 354 354 355 355 355 355 356 356 359 359 360 360 361 365 367 369 371 373 376

X

12.5. ASCII- 12.5.1. vi 12.5.2. Emacs 12.5.3. CoolEdit Midnight Commander 12.6. ASCII- 12.6.1. KEdit 12.6.2. KWrite 12.6.3. Nedit 5.1.1 12.7. 12.7.1. 12.7.2. Linux 12.7.3. Ted 12.7.4. AbiWord 12.7.5. KWord 12.7.6. StarWriter OpenOffice.org Writer 12.8. 13. 13.1. 13.1.1. 13.1.2. 13.1.3. 13.2. 13.2.1. 13.2.2. ifconflg 1 Ethernet (ethO) 13.2.3. 13.2.4. 13.2.5. 13.2.6. netconf 13.3. telnet ftp 13.3.1 telnet rlogin 13.3.2. ftp 13.4. NFS 13.5. Windows- 13.5.1. Samba 13.5.2. Samba 13.6. Novell Netware

378 378 378 379 383 383 387 387 391 391 392 392 397 399 409 412 415 415 415 416 417 418 418 419 419 420 420 420 422 424 425 427 428 428 431 432 432 434 435 435

X/

14. 14.1. 14.2. 14.3. 14.3.1. 14.3.2. kppp 14.3.3. ( ) 14.4. 14.4.1. lynx 14.4.2. Netscape Navigator Mozilla 14.4.4. Konqueror 14.5. 15. KDE 15.1. KDE 15.1.1. 15.1.2. KDE 15.1.3. 15.1.4. 15.2. " " 15.3. 15.4. 15.5. GIMP 15.6. 15.7. 15.8. 15.8.1. 15.8.2. aKtion Xine MPlayer 15.8.3. 16. 16.1. 16.2. 16.3. 16.4. 16.5. 16.6. 16.7. 16.8. , Linux ext2fs VFS ReiserFS...

439 439 442 444 445 461 465 467 468 468 472 476 478 489 489 490 492 493 497 501 502 506 510 514 517 519 519 524 524 527 535 536 541 541 543 547 550 551 552 553 554

XII

17. 17.1. 17.2. 17.3. RPM- 17.4. 17.4.1. ? 17.4.2. 17.5. 17.5.1. 17.5.2. 17.5.3. 17.5.4. 17.5.5. 17.5.6. 17.5.7. 17.6. 18. ( VMware) 18.1. " " 18.2. 18.3. VMware 18.4. 18.5. 18.6. 18.6.1. 18.6.2. 18.6.3. 18.6.4. 18.6.5. VMware 18.7. 18.7.1. 18.7.2. 18.7.3. 18.8. 18.8.1. VMware 18.8.2. VMware 18.8.3. - 18.8.4. 18.8.5. 1. "Bridged networking"

557 557 558 559 561 561 563 564 564 565 566 569 570 571 571 573 575 576 578 579 579 584 585 585 586 587 587 588 589 590 591 591 591 592 594 600 600 603 604 605 610 610

XIII

2. 3. 18.8.6. 18.9. 18.9.1. 18.9.2. , Samba 18.9.3. "" 18.9.4. VMware 18.9.5. 18.9.6. .

611 612 613 614 614 614 615 615 616 617 619 641

e : t

-

119991 ., . , 8 (095)232-0023 info@softline.ru www.softline.ru

, ,

, , . , SoftLine.

, , 10 !

. , . , - , , . , , , . ( ) - , ( ), , . , , . , , , , . , . , , , ( ""). , , , . , , , . , . , . , , . "" ( "", ). , , , , , , , , .

, " ", . , , , MS-DOS MS Windows ( 2000, Windows 95). , , .

" ", - , UNIX. Windows. " ", , UNIX. Linux , UNIX, Intel ( ). IBM- , Linux, , "" . "" Linux , Linux, Red Hat. , , Black Cat Linux 5.2 ( Linux) 6.02, Red Hat 6.0, 6.2, 7.1 7.2 (), ASPLinux 7.1 ALTLinux Junior 1.0 1.1. Red Hat Linux, . , . , , . , "" ( ) , . . ( 115) , . , Linux . , , , -

Linux , , Windows 95 Windows NT. , . , . Windows. He , , .

Linux . , "" ( Linux) Windows, , - . , ( Windows 95 Windows NT 4). Linux, , UNIX , , , HOWTO-. , , . -, . -, , . , : , , () . -, , , , " " . ( , ) . Linux, 23 , , - , . . , ( , - , - ). Linux . . -

- , , Linux . , http://linuxve.chat.ru Linux. : , . , , . , . , . . "IBM PC ". ( , ), , IBM- ( PC/XT!?) . . , Linux (2002 ), , MS Windows 95/98. , . . , Linux , , . , , ( ), , .

- , . , . , Courier :[root]# sfdisk -I - /dev/hda Disk /dev/hda: 784 cylinders, 255 heads, 63 sectors/track Units = cylinders of 8225280 bytes, blocks of 1024 bytes, counting from 0 Device Boot /dev/hdal * /dev/hda2 Start 0+ 190 End 189 783 #cyls 190594 ttblocks 1526143+ 4771305 Id 6 5 System FAT16 Extended

Courier Linux, .

[root]#, root, [user] $, . , - , ( , ) : , , , , , . . , + : ++, +. , : +, , . , HOWTO , , , Emacs. , UNIX-, UNIX. PC- , . . X Window ( ) . -, , - . , , . , HOWTO . , PC. ( , ). . : [12.7].

: . , . , , , , . Linux . , , . ,

-. , ( ). , , , . ( ) , . , . , , ( ) 500 , . , , ( . ). "-" ( ). .

1

Linux: 1.1. Linux 1.1.1. UNIX , , ( ), , . . . . , . Microsoft Windows UNIX. "" MSDOS, IBM. UNIX Bell Labs , (Dennis Ritchie, Ken Thompson, Brian Kernighan) 1969 . , UNIX, , UNIX- . UNIX ( ) AT&T. 70- ( ) UNIX, TCP/IP. BSD ("Berkeley Systems Distribution"). , , ( ) , , .

8

Linux

UNIX, BSD, . , , 70- UNIX. , 90- (Linus Torvalds) UNIX- IBM- .

1.1.2. , comp.os.minix 25 1991 :From: torvalds@klaava.Helsinki.Fl (Linus Benedict Torvalds) Newsgroups: comp.os.minix Subject: What would you like to see most in minix? Summary: small poll for my new operating system Message-ID: Date: 25 Aug 91 20:57:08 GMT Organization: University of Helsinki Hello everybody out there using minix I'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones. This has been brewing since april, and is starting to get ready. I'd like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat (same physical layout of the file-system (due to practical reasons) among other things). I've currently ported bash(1.08) and gcc(1.40), and things seem to work. This implies that I'll get something practical within a few months, and I'd like to know what features most people would want. Any suggestions are welcome, but I won't promise I'll implement them :-) Linus (torvalds@kruuna.helsinki.fi) PS. Y e s it's free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT portable (uses 386 task switching etc), and it probably never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as that's all I have :-(.

, () 386- (486-) , , . , , bash gcc . Minix, . (Andy Tanenbaum) . Minix 286- .

1. Linux:

Linux ( 0.01) 17 1991 . "As I already mentioned, 0.01 didn't actually come with any binaries: it was just source code for people interested in what linux looked like. Note the lack of announcement for 0.01: I wasn't too proud of it, so I think I only sent a note to everybody who had shown 1 interest." , 5 1991 0.02, . , Linux , , (. [3.1] ). . . Linux , General Public License (GPL), , Open Source GNU (. [3.2] ). Linux- Copyleft. , Open Source GNU . 1984 (Richard Stallman) (Free Software Foundation). , , . , , , ( C++). , , . , , , , , , . GNU . GNU GNU's Not UNIX, . . , GNU, UNIX ( UNIX , . . ). " GNU" (. [.] ), " , 0.01 : , , , linux. , 0.01: , , - ".1

Linux

1985 ., . , FSF GNU, . , GNU , , . . , Open Source, General Public License (GPL) (. [3.2] ). , . , , , , , copyleft. . , - . , . FSF, GPL " , ". , GPL, ( , , CD-ROM ). , . . , , . , / , . . , . Open Source, GNU, , Emacs GCC (GNU Compiler) . : , , . , , . Linux. , . " ", , -

1. Linux:

11

GNU . GNU . ( Hurd), - . . . , . . , , , , Linux GNU/Linux. , , .

1.1.3. Linux , Linux , . Linux , , . , UNIX. .

; . , . " ", Windows 95, "" ( ).

Linux , . Linux , .

; () , -

12

Linux

. , , , .

Linux 4 . , . - , Linux . UNIX- ( Microsoft Windows) , , ( , , ), .

" " Linux , , .

- ( , ), , .

, . , . , . ( , Linux) , .

,

1. Linux:

/3

. MS-DOS SmartDrive, . Linux : , , , , , .

100%- POSIX 1003.1. System V BSDPOSIX 1003.1 (Portable Operating System Interface ) UNIX-, . . Microsoft Windows NT POSIX 1003.1. Linux 100%- POSIX. System V BSD .

System VIPCLinux IPC (Internal System Call) , .

Linux . , DOS, Windows 95, FreeBSD OS/2, , . Linux DOS, Windows 3.1 Windows 95. , Vmware " ", , . . Linux Intel- UNIX, iBCS2 (intel Binary Compatibility).

Linux , DOS OS/2, . Linux, Second Extended File System (ext2fs), .

14

Linux

Linux . UNIX, Networked File System (NFS), (telnet, rlogin), TCP/IP-, dial-up- SLIP . . Linux- , , (sharing) Macintosh, NetWare Windows.

Linux Intel 386/486, Intel, 386 Pentium III ( Pentium IV , , , ). Linux Intel ; , Athlon Duron AMD Linux , Intel. , ARM, DEC Alpha, SUN Spare, M68000 (Atari Amiga), MIPS, PowerPC . (, IBM ).

1.2. Linux 4 : , , . , , . . , . , , , , , , , . , , "Linux" . , , " , Linux". Linux ( GPL), , . Linux , , -

1. Linux:

15

Linux. , 4 , . . , , , . , Linux, GPL, , , , . - . , , . , ( ), , , . , Linux . - http://www.linuxhq.com, ( ). , , , (, , ). . (. [3.8] ) , : ; ; ; , . . , , , 3 , Red Hat, Slackware Debian. ? , : , . , (, , - ) , . . . , Linux, -

16

Linux

BOB, " " . , . (http://www.iplabs.ru). Linux Mandrake Russian Edition, 2001 ALTLinux (http://www.altlinux.ru) ALTLinux (, , Linux Mandrake Russian Edition). ASPLinux (http://www.asplinux.ru, http://www.asp-linux.com, http://www.asp-linux.com.sg, http://www.asplinux.co.kr), ASPLinux. . . , Black Cat Linux. , , - Linux Ink. (http://www.linux-ink.ru), Red Hat Linux Cyrillic Edition. , . 2000 Best Linux (http://bestlinux.net), SOT , RosLinux. Linux . (. [1.6] ). , , , : Red Hat Linux Cyrillic Edition, Linux Mandrake Russian Edition ( ALTLinux) ASPLinux. . , Red Hat Linux, , , Red Hat . . , , . () , RPM- ( , setup Windows). , , Linux.

1. Linux:

17

. . Linux, ( Linux , Linux). , , , . Linux , . , Black Cat 5.2 2.0.36, . . Linux 2.0.36. , (). , , , . , . () . , , , . , , , , - .

1.3. , Linux, 8086- 512 , - . , , Windows , Linux , , . . Linux , 386- . , : SX, DX . . , Linux, , . . 1.1 , ( , ).

18

Linux 1.1.

: shell Midnight Commander X Window X Window ( ) KDE ( GIMP, , ) StarOffice

4

10

4 8 , , 16 - 16

40

300

32 + 2

500 + 50-100

64

+ 250

, Linux 486- 16 300 . , . . (. [1.6] ), Linux. , Linux , . , , , , , . "" , " " " " . " " ,

1. Linux:

19

. Linux , , , MS-DOS. , , , , , , . Linux . , , , Windows 95, Windows NT Windows 2000, Linux.

1.4. Linux? 1 , . , Linux . , , , Linux , CD-ROM Linux , , ( - ""), -. CD-ROM. ( ), -. , , . , . 1000 ( ). ( ) -. -. ( ), , , .

23. 751

2

Linux Windows Linux . () Linux ( Red Hat Linux Russian Edition http://www.linux-ink.ru). , . . (. [4.1] ), " Linux " (, ). , . , , Linux , Windows, . , , Linux, Windows, Windows 95 Windows 98. , Linux , . , , Windows Linux, , , Windows. , , ( !). , Linux , Microsoft.

2.1. Linux : CD-ROM; , Linux; - NFS;

22

Linux

8MB; ( ) FTP; WWW- . , Linux CDROM, , - . , ( ) . Windows 95/98, , My Computer ( ), Properties (). . - , , , . , . ( ), , . BIOS: -; . : (IDE SCSI) ( IDE-, , BIOS LBA): hda (Master 1- Primary Master); hdb (Slave 1- Primary Slave); hdc (Master 2- Secondary Master); hdd (Slave 2- Secondary Slave); - SCSI ( ). ( ). CD-ROM: (IDE, SCSI ); -IDE, -SCSI CD-ROM - . : (serial, PS/2, bus mouse); (Microsoft, Logitech, MouseMan . .);

2. Linux Windows

23

; , . : -; ( , ); ; : -; ; (min, max) ( , Windows , ).

(a UNIX ), : - ; IP-; ; ; IP- (gateway IP address); IP- ( ) (DNS server); IP- WINS (Windows Internet Name Service); . ( ).

2.2. , Linux , . , , , , . , , .

24

Linux

. , . , -, ( ). -, , ( back-up ). , -, (, ) . : - , . : Linux , Windows NT, , , , , , . , , . , , LILO . . - , , , . . , , . . log-, . . ( , , /var/log). , Linux , . , , , . -, , , , . , Red Hat 7.1, Next, , . , (Telnet, FTP, NFS, Samba), . , , , firewall, . , , . !

2. Linux Windows

25

-, , . , startx , , . , , , , (partition). , , , . , -.

2.3. 2.3.1. " "? , , . / , . , , , , ( ), . , 512 . : / / C/H/S ( : Cylinder/Head/Sector, . . //). " ". C/H/S CxHxSx512 . , . . , (512 ). , " ", . . , . , ( ) .

26

_

Linux

2.3.2. Intel- . , , - , MS-DOS ( , DOS). . ( ) (partition table). . , . 4 16 4 , . :struct partition { char active; char begin[3]; char type; char end[3]; int start; int length; /* 0x80: (), : * / /* CHS , 24 */ /* (, 83 LINUX_NATIVE, /* 82 - LINUX_SWAP, 85 - LINUX_EXTENDED) */ /* CHS , 24 */ /* (32-, 0) */ /* (32 ) */

fdisk. Linux fdisk (, , fdisk MS-DOS Windows), : cfdisk sfdisk. cfdisk, fdisk, : , . , , . sfdisk , , . DOS begin end 13 BIOS (Int 13h) , 8,4 , BIOS ( ), 2,1 ( - FAT 16).

2. Linux Windows

27

Linux start length , 232 , . . 2 . 4 , : 4. , 4- , . "" ( 5, F, 85 ), " ". , . : , , . , , , , . , , , . sfdisk Linux :[root]! sfdisk -I -x /dev/hda Disk /dev/hda: 784 cylinders, 255 heads, 63 sectors/track Units = cylinders of 8225280 bytes, blocks of 1024 bytes, counting from 0 Device /dev/hdal /dev/hda2 /dev/hda3 /dev/hda4 /dev/hda5 Boot * Start 0+ 190 0190+

End 189 783 -

#cyls 190594 0191-

#blocks 1526143+ 47713050 0

Id 6 50 0

System FAT16 Extended Empty EmptyFAT 16

380783 189 189 783 380 380 380

1534176 3237097+

381 190 190/dev/hda6381+

403 0 0403-

0 03237066

6 5 0 0 7 0 0 0

Extended Empty Empty HPFS/NTFS Empty Empty Empty

381 381 381

0 0 0

0 0 0

28

Linux

, . , , Linux 15 SCSI- 63- IDE-. , ( ) : (fdisk ) . Linux ( ) /dev/hda, /dev/hdb, /dev/sda . . : /dev/hdal, /dev/hda2, /dev/hda3, /dev/hda4, Linux /dev/hda5, /dev/hda6... ( 5). , /dev/hda3 /dev/hda4 ( ) /dev/hda2 /dev/hda5 ( /dev/hda2), . Windows , . , , (: D:) , , : F:. , Windows NT 2000 .

2.3.3. Microsoft , , , . , . , , CDROM . MS-DOS MS Windows ( , Microsoft, , , , ). , POST (Power On Self Test). , , (, -

2. Linux Windows

29

. .), . , , ( , , - . .). POST Int 19h, . , Setup BIOS, . , Master Boot Record (MBR). MBR " ", , MBR, , , . " " MBR , , , 446 (Oxl BE) . . 2.1 , Windows. 2.1. 0x000 0x1 BE 0x1 FE " " (55)

MS-DOS, Windows 95 NT DOS MBR . MS MBR fdisk/mbr.

. I9h BIOS . ; , . , . "". , . , FAT, (512 ). , NTFS, .

30

Linux

, . MS-DOS - IO.SYS 700h, MSDOS.SYS SYSINIT IO.SYS. - , 18h. , . , , POST ROM . Microsoft . Windows 95 , DOS, IO.SYS MSDOS.SYS . DOS IO.DOS MSDOS.DOS . DOS, Windows 95 w40 DOS. IO.SYS. , DOS Windows 95 . Windows NT4 MBR DOS, , IO.SYS NTLDR. , . , boot.ini , timeout 0, . [operating systems] boot.ini __="_"

. boot.ini:[operating systems] multi(O)disk(O)rdisk(O)partition(3)\WINNT="Windows NT Workstation 4.00 RUS" multi(0)disk(0)rdisk(0)partition(3)\WINNT="Windows NT Workstation 4.00 RUS [VGA mode]" /basevideo /sos C:\="Microsoft Windows" :\BOOTSECT.LNX="Linux"

NT, , . , Microsoft Windows, ":\", . . : bootsect.dos. , MBR.

2. Linux Windows

31

. boot.ini , . . Linux. C:\BOOTSECT.LNX , Linux ( LILO, Linux).

2.3.4. MS-DOS Windows 13 (Int 13h) BIOS ( ). , (C/H/S). : ; 8 ; CL 76 , 50 ; CJ DH ; DL (80h 81h). ( , 0, , 1). 16-, 63, 10 , BIOS 1024x63x16x512 = 528 . ( [4.2] ). , Extended CHS (ECHS) "Large disk support" ( "Large") . " " 1024 , 128 63 . Extended CHS CHS- ( 8192 ) BIOS. 8192x16x63x512 = 4 227 858 432 4,2 . , , . , ( , , ). C/H/S " ", BIOS .

32

Linux

Int 13h ("Linear Block Addressing" LBA). , , , . CHS- . , (MBR). Setup BIOS CHS- " LBA". , BIOS : "Large", "LBA" "Normal" ( , ). LBA Int 13h, - (C,H,S). : BIOS, , , MS-DOS Windows, 8,4 . , IDE. SCSI- SCSI, , . , , Linux Windows 13 BIOS, a . , , . BIOS. 8 , , . , , , Linux.

2.4. ( . .) , . -. . Linux, LILO, Linux.

2. Linux Windows

33

2.4.1. LILO Linux LILO (Werner Almesberger). LILO Linux , , : PC/MS-DOS, DR DOS, OS/2, Windows 95/98, Windows NT, 386BSD, SCO UNIX, UNIXware . . 16 . LILO : , , , : /sbin/lilo, - Linux, , , , . LILO; , LILO . /boot. ( ) map- (/boot/map), . LILO, /etc/lilo.conf; LILO, BIOS, Linux . . , . /boot/boot.b. , , LILO, DOS MBR, LILO MBR, Microsoft ( ). LILO , , , . LILO : Linux (/dev/fdO,...); MBR (/dev/hda, /dev/sda,...); Linux (/dev/hdal, /dev/hda2,...); (/dev/hda5,...). fdisk

34

Linux

, . LILO (activate), . fdisk Linux . -, BOOT. LILO : , ; swap- Linux; . , , LILO : /boot/boot.b; /boot/map ( /sbin/lilo); ( ); , LILO; ( ). , LILO, ( , ) 1024 , . . BIOS. 21, LILO ( ).

2.4.2. LILO Linux . Linux Windows NT, OS Loader NT. LILO OS Loader , , . , ( Windows NT Windows 95), , -, Linux , Linux, , (Secondary Slave). Windows 95 Windows 98 Windows NT Windows 2000, OS Loader ,

2. Linux Windows

35

- LILO, - loadlin.exe ( Linux). Linux - GRUB. OS/2 IBM -, Boot Manager. . System Commander, . PartitionMagic Power Quest, . ( /public/ftp/pub/Linux/system/boot/loaders ftp://metalab.unc.edu). , , , LILO, NT Loader loadlin.exe. -, .

2.4.3. , , . Windows NT Windows 2000, NT Loader. Windows 95 Windows 98 FAT16, - , LILO, DOS, Linux loadlin.exe ( , , ). Windows 95 OSR2 Windows 98 FAT32, - , loadlin.exe. HOWTO , LILO, FAT32, . Linux NT Loader, 32-, .

36

Linux

loadlin.exe, , , Linux. , Linux, : NT Loader (. . 2.6), LILO (. . 2.7) loadlin.exe (. . 2.8). (, , , ).

2.5. 2.5.1. , . . . . , Linux, . . /dev/hda, /dev/hdb . . , /dev/hdal, /dev/hda2 . . . , Windows Linux . ( , ). 8,4 ( 1024). : , , . , (. 2.2). 2.2. Windows 95 Windows 98 Windows NT Windows 2000 Linux Red Hat 6.2 ( ) 100 200 200 700 700

2. Linux Windows

37

, , , , , ( !). , 700 , Linux , , Linux , , , Lyx. , Windows, . , , Windows 2000 MS Office 2000 , . , Windows 95/98, Windows NT Linux 8001000 (, , CorelDRAW), Windows 2000 . Linux. . -, (swap-) Linux. swap- Linux . Linux RAM swap , . , 8 (RAM) 12 swap-, 20 . Linux , , 16 , 4 swap 12 . Linux swap- 128 . swap , Linux 128 . , swap- . , , . 16 Linux 48 , Linux swap-. , , . , swap- , . swap- , -

38

Linux

128 . 128 , . Linux , , . , Linux . . , , Linux . ( , ) (/). /home. /usr. . Linux, . , . , , . , , , . /usr. , ( ) . Linux ( . 4) /usr . , , . 1024. , , , 1024 . , NT Loader NTFS-, , . , Linux /boot "" , . : Microsoft , FAT 16 ( DOS); Linux (/), 1 ; swap- Linux ( ); G ;

2. Linux Windows

39

: Windows 98, Windows NT 2000, /home /usr Linux ( /home , /usr ). , Windiws 95 FAT16, . Windows NT FAT32, FAT 16 . -, DOS , ( ). -, FAT16 - , Linux, . FAT16 . , , 256 512 . , . 2, , swap- Linux , , Linux. , Linux ( , ).

2.5.2. , , . fdisk, . , , , . , - . fdisk . Red Hat BlackCat (, ) fips, . , , . , Partition Magic Power Quest (www.powerquest.com) . -, ( ). , . -, ( DOS) ,

40

Linux

. fdisk. 5- . Windows 2000 Windows NT, , DOS ( Caldera DR-DOS) . , Windows NT 2000. , . , , . .

2.6. Windows NT Linux: OS Loader NT , Windows NT, Windows 2000, . . Linux . , Windows NT /dev/hda2 ( , /dev/hdal FAT 16-). Windows NT , OS Loader , , , Linux. , (). Linux. . 1. , - Linux Windows NT. ntldr, ntdetect.com boot.ini . Windows 2000 ( ), Windows NT 4.0 ( " "). 2. Partition Magic ext2 ( Linux) swap-. , , .

2. Linux Windows

41

3. Linux, , . : -, , Yes, make a BOOT DISK ( ). . , Linux. , , DOS, , ( ) . , . ! , ; -, Linux LILO (Master Boot Record), , Linux. , Linux /dev/hda3. , LILO MBR, , ( NT Loader) , . , MBR, LILO Windows (DOS), . LILO MBR, MBR Windows. , , , LILO . 4. Linux ( LILO Linux MBR, Linux ). 5. Linux ; , Windows NT/2000 Linux. , , :[root]# mount -t vfat /dev/fdal /mnt/floppy /mnt/floppy [root]# cd /mnt/floppy

[root]# dd if=/dev/hda3 of=/mnt/floppy/bootsect.Inx bs=512 count=l

/dev/hda3 /mnt/floppy/bootsect.lnx.

42

Linux

^ , : (/dev/hda1) FAT, bootsect.lnx :. , ( ), , NTFS. , , boot- , NTFS.

6. , Windows NT, Linux :[root]# shutdown -h now

, Windows NT. /mnt/floppy/bootsect.lnx :, , Windows NT. , Windows NT, 1-, NTFS-. ntldr boot.ini ( !). bootsect.lnx read-only. 7. NT boot.ini ::\bootsect.lnx="LINUX"

(, , ). 8. , Linux . LILO, Linux. , ( ) LILO (Master Boot Record, MBR). Windows NT ( 2000) , Windows NT (. 6 ) . OS Loader NT, LILO, : 6 . 1. Windows NT (. 1 ). Recover, Command mode. (Administrator). 2. . fdisk /mbr. , , MBR . Windows 2000 f ixboot f ixmbr (

2. Linux Windows

43

, . ). . Windows 2000 . 3. Linux (root). 4. cd /etc lilo.conf. , , /dev/hda. 5. , , CoolEdit Midnight Commander, , Linux (, , Linux). Linux /dev/hdcl, , . . /dev/hda /dev/hdcl. , Linux, /etc/lilo.conf image. . 6. / e t c / i i l o /dev/hdcl ( lilo ). , . , Windows 2000 . 7. 68 . , , Linux MBR , Linux, MBR Windows. , , , .

2.7. LILO 2.7.1. LILO , Windows 98 FAT16, , Linux, LILO (Linux LOader). , Windows NT, , . 1. - Linux Windows.

44

Linux

i

2. Partition Magic ext2 ( Linux) swap-. , , . 8,4 , . 2.32.5. 3. Linux, , . , LILO, LILO (Master Boot Record). , , , .

^

LILO , Linux- . MBR , , , MS-DOS Windows. ( LILO ), .

4. LILO . LILO /etc/lilo.conf /etc/iiio. ( ) LILO. LILO. , /dev/hdal DOS/Windows, /dev/hda2 Linux. /etc/lilo.conf :boot = /dev/hda2 compact delay = 50 # message = /boot/bootmesg.txt root = current image = /boot/vmlinuz-2.2.ll-4bc label = linux read-only other = /dev/hdal table = /dev/hda label = dos

. boot .

2. Linux Windows

45

compact map-, ; . message . image, , , . label. , LILO . , delay ( ), , . Linux, . defauit=dos ( label). tabie= , . LILO , . ( , .) , /sbin/iilo, , table. ( , ) other = /dev/hdai /etc/lilo.conf, /dev/hdal ( : Microsoft) . , , NT Loader ( Windows NT Linux), LILO Windows NT. boot.ini , NT Loader. , - , timeout boot.ini ( ). , , Windows 98 . Windows LILO, /etc/lilo.conf :other = /boot/bootsect.dos label = win,

bootsect.dos , NT Loader.

46

Linux

5. /etc/lilo.conf, /etc/iilo, . ( map-installer) , . , /etc/iilo , -t. , map-, , . . . -v, , /etc/iilo. / s b i n / i i l o , . /boot/boot. NNNN, NNNN , , 0300 /dev/hda, 0800 /dev/sda . . , . . /boot/boot.NNNN , . :[root:~#] dd if=/boot/boot.0300 of=/dev/hda bs=446 count=l

[root:~#] dd if=/boot/boot.0800 of=/dev/sda bs=446 count=l

(bs=446 , -, ). . , , MBR, (, /mnt):[root:~#] dd if=/rant/MBR of=/dev/hda bs=446 count=l

MBR /sbin/iilo -. , , LILO ( , /boot) . MBR MS-DOS , DOS, MBR fdisk /mbr. - MBR, . 6. , .

2. Linux Windows

47

, LILO. LILO , "LILO". LILO. , . CJ LILO . LILO , , , . L [ ] ( ), . ( LILO). . LILO , , . LI , . , /boot/boot.b /sbin/iiio. LIL , map-. . LIL? . , /boot/boot.b /sbin/iilo. LIL- . , /boot/boot.b /sbin/iilo. LILO LILO .

2.7.2. Linux MS-DOS Windows 95/98 Master Boot Record (MBR), a MS-DOS (Windows 95/98). MS-DOS Windows 95/98 . , Linux, Windows 95/98

48

Linux

MS-DOS, Linux . , Windows NT 2000 MBR ( ). LILO / s b i n / i i l o ( LILO MBR), LILO ( ). , Linux , , Linux , LILO ( ) /sbin/iilo.

2.7.3. /boot DOS- Linux , , MS-DOS ( UMSDOS). DOS , BIOS , , , , Linux, /boot. , DOS- /, (, /dos/linux), /boot Linux, /boot /dos/linux, /boot /etc/lilo.conf, , , /sbin/iilo.

2.8. Linux MS-DOS loadlin.exe DOS, Linux DOS. loadlin.exe, (Hans Lermen, lermen@elserv.ffm.fgan.de). , Red Hat, Linux CD-ROM. , , , . Loadlin.exe Linux , () DOS- Windows-. Linux Linux. , Linux, , , LILO,

2.

Linux

Windows

_

49

( -!). , ( ). Linux, loadlin.exe. loadlin.exe - , , DOS. Linux CD , . loadlin.exe , Linux LILO. 1.6 loadlin.exe DOS . (bzlmages) (initrd) . loadlin.exe , Linux DOS, . . " " , DOS Linux. DOS, , , reboot.

, , loadlin.exe. G (, 386 ) DOS Windows 95. (zlmage, bzlmage).

^

zlmage , bzlmage ( 1.3.73), 1 , , 2 . zlmage, zlmage bzlmage.

loadlin.exe, , LODLIN16.TGZ, , , DOC\MANUAL.TXT, DOC\TEST.PAR DOC\PARAMS.DOC ( , DOS). loadlin :C:\LOADLIN> loadlin

50

Linux

. more ( Linux):C:\LOADLIN> loadlin | more

Linux , loadlin.exe. 1. Linux ( . . 2.5). 2. Linux . LILO Linux-, MBR Windows. 3. Linux ( -, ). DOS- ( , Linux DOS- /dev/hdal, a Linux- /dev/hda3):root]# mount -t v f a t /dev/hdal /mnt/C

/mnt/C/loadlin LODLIN16.TGZ CD- Linux. , /boot. /etc/lilo.conf: "image=..." . , , vmlinuz-2.2.16-3bc, /mnt/C/loadlin vmlinuz; . 4. DOS. DOS, , , Windows, " Windows 95" Command prompt only. , Windows 95, , DOS. DOS C:\LOADLIN(cd\LOADLIN) C:\LOADLIN> LOADLIN vmlinuz /dev/hda3 ro vga=ask

, RAM-:C:\LOADLIN> LOADLIN vmlinuz /dev/ram rw initrd=diskimage

loadlin.exe (, param) :C:\LOADLIN> LOADLIN Sparams

2. Linux Windows

51

, , 127 . () loadlin.exe PARAMS.DOC http://sunsite.unc.edu/mdw/HOWTO/BootProrapt-HOWTO.html http://rsphyl.anu.edu/~gpgl09/BootPrompt-HOWTO.html. Linux. , , loadlin . loadlin autoexec.bat (, linux.bat), Linux, DOS. , bat-. - , . (. [4.13] ), . , , , Windows 95 Linux, Linux C:\MSDOS.SYS ( ), , :BootGUI=0 Logo=0

, W 9 5 DOS. ( , :> win).

Logo=o Windows. , Linux "" , Windows. , . , , - , .

3 . 751

3

Linux3.1. Linux, Linux , . Linux , (, , LILO MBR), , BIOS, LILO boot:

, , , , , . ( , ). :Linux Version 2.0.36, Compiled #1 Tue Dec 29 13:11:11 EST 1998 One Intel 486 DX/2-WB Processor, 16M RAM, 33.28 Bogomips Total localhost.localdomain Black Cat Linux release 5.2 (Fulcrun) Kernel 2.0.36 on an i486 localhost. login:

, , Black Cat 5.2; , , . , , , - ", ! 2001 . 19 22 . , , ". , . , , . Linux , LILO , , LILO boot:, . LILO , -

54

Linux

. 21 LILO . ( ) . , Linux, login:, .

3.2. , , , , . , "root". , (account) . ( , ), . . , , . . , . . , login: "root" ( ). :Password:

, , . , root , . , , . :[root@localhost /root]#

. , . , . , MS-DOS Windows . ( , X Window). (root), (locaihost) (/root). .

3. Linux

55

, . , , UNIX- , . . . , , . , , useradd. , , jim:[root]# useradd jim

j i m (, " jim"). (, , "") . j im, . [root]# passwd jim

New UNIX password:

. , :Retype new UNIX password:

( "", ), :passwd: all authentication tokens updated successfully

. ( ), , . , Linux: useradd passwd. , UNIX-, man. man Linux. , ,[root]# man passwd

, . , , . -

56

Linux

. login passwd. , man. [root]! man man

, -. -, . . , , , . 3.1 ( ). 3. 1. Linux whoami w who , , Is -1 cd ps ax

man. . , . -, UNIX.

3.3. , , , "", Linux. "" "", , , , . UNIX, (), .

3. Linux

57

, . , , ( ). , . , ( ). UNIX- , , . , , UNIX, . , , Linux , , . ++. login:. . . . +. . Red Hat Linux 6 ( ), . ++++. (, , ++, , 3- ). , , , tty, : /dev/tty2. , , , +. , . , Linux . , . , ,

58

Linux

. logout exit.

, , . . ( ), , root, . . , shell ( , ), , . , , . ( DOS, ?). , , , " ", , , . , , login . j i m ( ), root j im. root #, $. login. bash ( - Red Hat Linux) . ( exit +), . bash , . () , , , , . help. ! help , : help cd. Linux, . , UNIX. , UNIX- bash . Linux, bash. , , (, , ). , -

3. Linux

59

. , , , . , , , . , (, ), . ! su. su ( "") , root. , ( ) . , , . root, , . , :[user]$ su jim

su , root. Linux root . , Linux , . root, . , , " ". ++ . , , . - , .

3.4. . Linux. , , , , . ,

60

Linux

(. 3.2), , - ( ).

^

GNU bash 1.14.7(1). , . 3.2. ( ) / , , , , , , , : , , , , : ,

+3.5. Linux , Linux, , . Linux, , MS-DOS. , , , [root]tt ps ax( , ). , , , (). , , . . shutdown. shutdown root, , su, .64_ Linux shutdown : [root]# shutdown C~^ , , "command not found". , , . , /sbin/shutdown -h, shutdown /sbin. shutdown : -h ( ); - . time , ( ). . , , 5 , [root]# shutdown -r +5 " 5 , ". , , [root]# shutdown -h 0 . shutdown -h halt. ++ Red Hat Linux , shutdown - , .3.6. Linux Linux, , , , . , , . . , , . 3. Linux65 , .3.6.1. , , , . Red Hat Linux , , , , " ". , Linux: man; info; , ; HOWTO FAQ Linux Documentation Project; locate. , . man . man, (. //75.1] ), . , . , .3.6.2. man man, , . UNIX-. man Linux , . 3.4. 3.4. man 1 8 66 Linux 3.4 () 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 () (kernel internals) Tcl/Tk commands . , /usr/man man , , . 3.4. , , [user]$ man swapon swapon 8. swapon, [user]$ man 2 swapon , . man less ( ), , less. . 3.5. 3.5. , man- , 3. Linux67 , , , [user]$ man _ I Ipr, postscript-, [user]$ man -t __ | Ipr , , , . whatis apropos. whatis () , . . apropos . apropos man -k. , ,[user]$ man -k net., , , , man -k, whatis apropos , , makewhatis. "nothing appropriate". makewhatis root. , . , man, , . , , , .3.6.3. info info man. info , , ,[user]$ info man., , , man, , , . , info . , , info. , info (:68 Linux ++, ++ . .) . , , , , info. (*), Internet Explorer Netscape Navigator, . . , . , , a . , , . ( , , ). ( , ). .3.6.4. help bash help. help , . help name, name , .3.6.5. , , /usr/doc/ ( /usr/share/doc) HOWTO, FAQ, HTML LDP, Linux . ASCII-, more filename less filename, - , Midnight Commander. Linux (, , ). Red Hat Reference Guide (/doc/ref-guide -). - 3. Linux69 Package Management with RPM System Administration. /usr/doc/initscripts.. , , , . . RPM ( Red Hat Linux Black Cat ), /usr/doc. . , KDE 1.1.1 KDE-1.1.1. locate. locate whatis apropos. , . , locate net , "net". *, ? , [ ]. locate , , ( ) updatedb. (, ALTLinux) locate siocate, ( ).3.6.6. 6- Red Hat Linux , man . . ( ) xman man.3.6.7. helptool helptool , , . ( , ). , . , , . -70 Linux , : info, man .3.6.8. , Linux , . ( ). , , . , , , . , . ... . , ( , ), Web- . , , , , "" -. . (-). , Black Cat Linux, , "subscribe blackcat-list", majordomo@geon.donetsk.ua. , , . . (, " ?"), , - . : , - , . , , , . , , , . , , . , , , , , "" ( , ), , . . , . , " , . , ." ! 4 ext2fs, Linux , . , ( ) , . . , . CD-ROM . . , , ( , ) . , , . , , ( ) . . , , ( ) . , . , , . 16. , , , ext2fs, Linux ( , . 16).4.1. , . . ( ) . . - , , , -, . , . -72 Linux . Linux 255 , 0 / (). , shell . :! @ | $ & ~ % * ( ) [ ] { } ' " \ : ; > < - . ( , ), \ ( , . . ).[user]$ mkdir \\my\shis . , My old files :[user]$ mkdir "My old files" [user]$ mkdir My old files . , , . . , . , , , , . , Linux , , This_is.a.forth-chapter_of_my_book.about.Linux. ( DOS), , , , - (, .tar.gz ). Linux . , . . , , , is. Linux . FILENAME.tar.gz filename.tar.gz . 4. ext2fs73 , . (, ). (. 16), - . Linux " " , "inode", ( , -). , , . (inode table), . . , ( ). . , 56734? "" , . , , Linux , . . "" . , , , . , - , , "". ( ) ( ), in :In _: [user]$ In /home/howto/font-HOWTO-ru/Font-HOWTO.html -/fonts.html ( ~ , ). /home/howto/font-HOWTO-ru/Font-HOWTO.html -/fonts.html. in man.74 Linux ( ) , is -1. , :[userltt Is Itotal 9 drwxr-xr-x-rw-r -rw-r 2 1 1user user userusers users users1024230 159Jul 1 2000 Autostart Sep 14 1999 Printer.kdelnk Sep 15 1999 Red Hat4.2. , ( ), . ! , , , . , . () , . " ", "", "". MS Windows DOS ( "", "") - ( ). Linux ( UNIX ) , "/". , ( , " " " "). , . , , , ( ), "" , , . ( ) , . /, . , /home/kos/ve/book/ filesysteml.htm , . 4. ext2fs75 shell "" , . . , . , pwd. , , , ( ); - shell , . " " , : , . . Linux /home , . , /home/jim. ~, . . , j i m /home/jim/doc ~/doc. , . cd. , . , . , " ", - ( ). , . . , , , : , . ., . , "" , . , , . . ( ) " ". . , , , . . , [user]$ cd ..76 Linux "" , katl/kat2, [user]$ cd . . / . ./katl/kat2 is . , is , , . , , , .^, : " ", -, . is , . , - , is . ( ) . , is. is -1, , ( ), ( ), , . .[user] $ Is - 1 1171 drwxrwxr-x -rw-rw-r -rw-rw-r -rw-rw-r -rw-rw-r -rw-rw-r drwxr-xr-x -rw-rw-r drwxrwxr-x -rw-rw-r 2kos1_~ KOS0kosV-\o10241 9 1UZ4Jun 2022 :42 "1 zl (} , )rNotR v~ otarKOSJunO"7^/11111312 1kos kos kos kos kos kos kos kos koskos17351kos kos kos kos kos kos kos kos19847 48866 38867 29545 2048 21590102411084Nov 2 Dec 11 Nov 2 Dec 12 Dec 11 Sep 24 Dec 11 Sep 27 Nov 823 :59 20 :23 23 :59 20 :58 20 :23 21 :33 19 :42 22 :35 21 :26arch. htm contents . htni edit. htm f ilesysteml.htm first start. htmimginit . htmpicpreface.htm 4. ext2fs77 -i, ( inode). -t , . - , . - ( -1 -t). , : [user]$ Is -I -i :[user]$ Is -lir is ( . man- info-) Linux.4.3. , , Windows 95, , , , "" . , C:\Windows, C:\Program Files . . Linux , , . , UNIX- , Filesystem Hierarchy Standart (FHS), http://www.pathname.com/fhs/. Red Hat FHS. . 4.1 , Red Hat ( ). , ( !) , . , FHS (http://www.pathname.com/flis/).78 Linux 4.1. Red Hat Linux /bin , ( , ). Linux , . . . man mknod (1) , , . /etc , , inittab, passwd. /usr/etc. /etc ( /bin /sbin). ( !) /etc /etc/rc.d , . . 8.2 account , , ( ) 11 (, XF86Config) , , ( ). , , . - , /boot/dev/etc/etc/skel/etc/sysconfig /etc/X11 /home /lib 4. ext2fs79 4.1 () /lost+found fsck. fsck , , /lost+found. , , . Linux MS-DOS, , MS-DOS. , , , CD-ROM, . ., , , , . . , man 5 . . , , (/home) /bin, , . FHS , , /usr. clock, getty, init, update, mkswap, swapon, swapoff, halt, reboot, shutdown, fdisk, fsck.*, mkfs.*, lilo, arp, ifconfig, route . . , , . , , /mnt/proc/root/sbin/tmp80 Linux 4.1 () /usr . . FHS , . , , , ( include) /usr/bin , . /usr/bin/X11 XWindow Linux. /usr/X11 R6/bin /usr/dict /usr/etc . /etc, /usr/etc , include. , , . , ( ) , , , . . /usr/lib/X11 , X Window, X Window. Linux /usr/X11 R6/lib/X11; /usr/lib/gcc-lib include GNU (); /usr/lib/groff groff;/usr/include/usr/lib 4. ext2fs81 4.1 () /usr/lib/uucp UUCP; usr/lib/zoneinfo . namedxfer (8), tzfile (5), tzselect (8), zdump (8), zic (8) /usr/local , () . /usr/local/bin , () ; /usr/local/doc ; /usr/local/etc ; /usr/local/lib ; /usr/local/info , info, ; /usr/local/man , man, ; /usr/local/sbin ; /usr/local/src , /usr/man man ( ). /usr/man//man[1-9] ( locale). , , /usr/sbin , /usr/src/linux Linux Linux./usr/src82 Linux 4.1 () /usr/tmp /usr/X11R6 . /var/tmp , X Window ( 11, 6). /usr/X11R6/bin X Window; /usr/X11 R6/lib X Window/var , , , . , , , (), (locking), . . /var/adm /var/backups /var/catman/ cat[1-9] /var/lock , , , , . (PIDs) (utmp). , . /var/spool/at , at; /var/spool/cron ; /var/spool/lpd , /var/log /var/run/var/spool 4. ext2fs83 4.1 () /var/spool/mail /var/spool/news \/ /var/spool/uucp uucp /var/tmp 4.4. : . Linux . . , . . , , . , . , Linux : ; (named pipes); (sockets); (symlinks).4.4.1. , Linux, ( , , , . .), . , , - , /dev/ttyOl. : ( ) ( -). , . 43. 75184 Linux , . , , . - (, , ) . . : . Linux , , . , . " " /dev. /dev, . (" " cd is.) . 4.2 . 4.2. , . . , IDE-. /dev/hda1 (/dev/hda), . . , Primary Master SCSI- . /dev/fdO, /dev/fd1 . , UNIX . Linux ( ++) . telnet , . /dev/ttSO 1 MS-DOS, /dev/ttS1 - COM2. , /dev/mouse /dev/ttSN . , /dev/null, . . /dev/null , /dev/console /dev/hd/dev/sd /dev/fd /dev/tty/dev/pty /dev/ttS/dev/cua /dev/null 4. ext2fs85 . : . , , , . is -i .4.4.2. (pipes) , FIFO (First In First Out). , (pipe ). . , , . , , ( ), . , mkfifo. .4.4.3. (sockets) , , . ( ) UNIX-, Linux: TCP/IP . : , . , : . , , , , /. , , X Window, syslog.66 Linux 4.4.4. ( ) , Linux "" . . . , , . ( ), ( -). . , . , . , , , , ( , , ). Linux , . , . , , , , . , , . , , . , , . , , , , , -. , is -s:In -s ___ _ : [user]$ In -s /home/kos/ve/HOWTO/font-HOWTO-ru/ -/FONTS FONTS. 4. ext2fs87/home/kos is -l, :Irwxrwxrwx I kos kos 31 Dec 13 21:13 FONTS -> /home/kos/ve/HOWTO/fontHOWTO-ru/ : , . , , ( ). katl , - , katl , . . ".." ( ) , , , ".." .4.5. Linux , , . , UNIX 70- (, , - ), , , 30 . . , Linux , (). , , . , . , , , . , . , , . , , . , . 88 Linux chown chgrp ( ). is -i. , , , is. (, , is -1 , ).[user]$ Is -I /bin/Is -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 49940 Sep 12 1999 /bin/Is , root root. , . -rwxr-xr-x. 4 . , , . , , : - ; d ; ; ; s (socket); (pipe); 1 (link). , , , , . rwx, , (root) (), (w), (). , . , ( , root) , . . - . , UNIX , , . . 16 ( , , , w, x). 16- - 4. ex12fs89 . , . , , 9 . 9 3 . , , 3 ( , ). , 1, , 0, . (, w ), . () , , , more . , , , (w) . () , . , ( shell), , , , , , . , Linux ! , , "", ! is -l, , , , , rwx. , is -i /, , bin :drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 2048 Jun 21 21:11 bin, " ", " " " " . , , , . , , ( ). , , . . , - . . -90 Linux . , , - , , . . " ". , , . , . , , ( ) . , ! , . . , , ( , - , , Midnight Commander). - , ( cd), , "", , . . , . ( ), , : , ( , ). , . , , , , ( - "Permission denied"). , , , , , ( ). , , , . , . , , , , , . 4. ext2fs91 chmod. . , :[user]$ chmod wXp - w : ( , ); g (); ( , , ); ( , . . , , ). : + ( ); - ( ); = ( ). , : (); w (); (). chmod:[user]$ chmod a+x file_name .[user]$ chmod go-rw file_name , .[user]$ chmod ugo+rwx file_name , . , , , , . . [user]$ chmod a+x file_name [user]$ chmod + file_name chmod ( ) . 4, w 2, 1. 92_ Linux - , . , , , , chmod ( , ). , (4+2+1=7), (4+2=6), , :[user]$ chmod 760 file_name , , , 9 , , . chmod . , , . , , chmod. , , , 57, . . . , , , , . , , ( , ). , . passwd. /etc/passwd, root. , , passwd, . , , . /usr/bin/passwd , root. , passwd root /etc/passwd ( , ). 4. ext2fs93 [root]# chmod +s file_name . , sticky bit ( " "). , . , , . . . . . chmod, , :[root]! chmod 4775 file_name : 4 ; 2 ; 1 (sticky bit). - 1, is -i . 1 , , , s. , , s, (, ), s. , , . 1 (sticky bit), , , t, , , . , is -i , . , :[root]# Is -I priml -rwSrwsrwT I kos root 12 Dec 18 23:17 priml94 Linux 4.6. : pwd, cd, is, in, cnmod. ( ) .4.6.1. chownw chgrp . , . , , . :[root]! chown vasja - [root]! chgrp usersgrp -4.6.2. mkdir mkdir . . : . ( ) .. ( ). , . , - , :[user]$ mkdir /home/kos/book/glava5/partl mkdir : -m mode (, - 755); - ( ).4.6.3. cat cat ( touch). cat ( ) ( , ). 4. ext2fs95 cat , - :[user]$ cat filel > file2, cat , . . , . . :[user]$ cat filel file2 ... fileN > new-file . cat ( ), :[user]$ cat > newfile , , + +, , , newfiie. , , , .4.6.4. cat, Linux . :[user]$ cp [options] source destination [user]$ cp [options] source_directory new_directory source , , destination, , source_directory, new_directory. , , , . , , . , -i, ( !). (. 4.3).96 Linux 4.3. cd - . , source , , , . . , ( , ) ( ) - - -d-f4.6.5. mv , , mv. . , ( ), (). , . mv , ( ). :[user]$ mv oldname newname , mv ( ), mv *.xxx *. . mv, , -i , , .4.6.6. rm rmdir Linux rm ( ) rmdir ( ). , , . . 4. ext2fs97 , -i. rm ( ) , , , . , rmdir. , rm -. rm *, . . , -. , Linux ( )! - -i.4.6.7. more less cat ( ) , , . , , . cat , (, ) more less ( ). - more . , . . (, ), , . , , . . , , . more man info. less, GNU, , more, , , 98 Linux (, , , ) . , , man. more less , less , . string (, ) /string. , , .4.6.8. find Linux find. find , , . find :find [_] _ _ , . /, , , . . , ( , ). , (, , ):[user]$ find /usr/share/doc /usr/doc /usr/locale/doc -name instr.txt "_", , find, , : - ( ) , !. , "_", , . , . , , . . "_" -name _. -name -path, , . , [user]$ find . -path ' . / s r * s c ' 4. ext2fs99 ./src/misc. " ". find, ( chmod, chown, chgrp, cp, rm, cat, mv), TO CO . * ?. * . Linux: * , ; . * ( . . . : !); *. * , . , ; * peter, piper; ** picked, peck. ? , index7.htm index0.htm, index5.htm indexa.htm. * ? Linux [ ], , , . , [abc]* , , , ; * [i-Ni-] , i, j, ,L, M, N, 1, 2, 3. find , . . 4.4. 4.4. find -name -group -size [] , , , 512- . , () , , , -mtime -newer 700 Linux 4.4 () -type _ . (- ), (- ), d ( ), f ( ), ( ) 1 ( ) , man find. , and, or , . , , .txt .doc, (-name * . t x t -or -name * . d o c ) . ( !). , -and, .. (-name *.txt -and -name *.doc) (-name *. txt -name * . d o c ) . -and !, , - . , . , , [user]$ find /usr -name doc -type d ( )[user]$ find /usr \( -name doc -and -type d \) : *.tmp, 100 .[user]$ find /home/kos \( \( -name *.tmp \) -or \( -size +200 \) \) , "+". find. , , . , "- " , , . "+" "-" , , . find, , , , . -print.[user]$ find /home/kos -name *.tmp -print 4. ext2fs101 . , . . ( ). , , -exec cmd {} \; cmd shell. To ( ) cmd. cmd {} , . , , 30 , :[root]! find . -type f -atime +30 -exec rm { } \; -exec -ok, cmd . , find , . , man-. , , . , !4.6.9. split . , song.mp3 , 4 894 425 . , . , , , "" . split. split , . . , ab, . . ( ). , , , xab . .102 Linux -, . - , k (, ) m ( ). , 1 . , song.mp3, [user]$ split -400 . song song.aa, song.ab, song., song.ad, song.ae , , - [user]$ cat song.* > . song.xx.4.6.10. patch , ? , , , ( ). , Linux . . :[user]$ cmp filel file2 , ( - ), , , . , , cmp, , , , , . d i f f , . , :[user]$ diff paper.old paper.new . , :[user]$ diff paper.old paper.new >paper.diff s d i f f , , 4. ext2fs103 . , s d i f f |. , . dif f , 3 . UNIX- d i f f . , patch. . , program.c, . program.c.new. . , , . . , [user]$ diff program.c program..new > program..diff, program.c.diff program.c.new, , program.c.diff ( ). . patch. program.c program.c.diff, [user]$ patch program.c program.c.diff > program..new program.c.new.4.7. Linux , , , , Midnight Commander . (, ) , , . UNIX (, , Linux) tar gzip. arj, pkzip, lha, rar . . Linux104 Linux . , UNIX tar gzip, UNIX. tar gzip Linux.4.7.1. tar , arj, "" , " ?" , tar ARchiver, , . , /dev/rmtO. , tar -f, . tar 8 , , . . . 4.5. 4.5. tar -, catenate, concatenate -, create -d, dif f, --compare delete -, append -t, list -u, update -, extract, ( !) , , get , , , , -f. , - 4. ext2fs105. , -v . tar ( ). tar, . tar- , :[user]$ tar -cf _ ! 2 . . . - , (create) , -f , ( ). , , , - * ?. . , , , ( sub_dir) , [user]$ tar -cvf _ ./sub_dir/* [user]$ tar -cvf _ sub_dir , sub_dir, sub_dir. sub_dir. , * *. *, , sub_dir, sub_dir . , ( ) . [user]$ tar -cvf _ . / . * ( ) , , ? , , , () , :[user]$ tar -xvf _ 106 Linux [user]$ tar -tf _ | less tar . , , , , , :[user]$ tar -Mcvf /dev/fdOH1440 / , . , ( ). . . , , (, tar ), . , , . , :[user]$ tar -Mxpvf /dev/fdOH1440 , . , tar, [user]$ tar -help , Linux, , Black Cat 6.02, -.4.7.2. gzip tar , , , , . gzip. :[user]$ gzip . ( ). 4. ext2fs107 , [user]$ gzip -d _[user]$ gunzip _ , ( ), . . 4.6 gzip. 4.6. gzip -h,--help -1, list -L,--license -N,--name -n, no-name -q, quiet -r, --recursive-S . s u f , , , ( ) ( ) ( , ) .suf ( .gz; , , .gz, ) --suffix.suf-t, --test -v, verbose -V, --version -1, fast -9, best gzip , , tar. , tar -z, 108 Linux gzip. tar :[user]$ tar -czf _ __ ( __) , .gz , : HMfl.tar.gz.4.7.3. bzip2 gzip bzip2, . bzip2 Linux. rpm- . ( , . . 10.) bzip2 , gzip, . . , , , .bz2. , , , , , . , . , , 100 , 50 . , ( ) 0,5%. bunzip2 ( bzip2 -d) . bzip2, , . bzip2 : filename.bz2 filename; filename.bz filename; filename.tbz2 filename.tar; filename.tbz filename.tar; "" ".". bzip2 gzip, . . 4.7 . 4. ext2fs109 4.7. bzip2 -d, --decompress . , bzip2, bunzip2 bzcat , , . -d () . bzip2 . , -f ( ) . (8 ) ( ) -z,--compress-t, test-f, force-k, --keep -s,--small-q, --quiet -v, --verbose -L, --license, -V, --version , , , . ,[user]$ bzip2 -myfilename , tar, gzip bzip2. , , man. bzip2 Bzip2-HOWTO, (. [6.4] ).110 Linux 4.8. . , . Linux "", . , . , UNIX " " ( ), " ". , , , . . , (""). , ( ). , ( , , ). , , , - . (, , ). , , , Linux . "" " " (second extended fflesystem) ext2fs. Linux Ki- FAT, MS-DOS, 32- FAT32, MS Windows 95, ISOS'660, CD-ROM, ( , , NFTS). :^ , . , , - . , ext2fs ( , ). ext2fs - 4. ext2fs, . mkfs. :[root]# mkfs -t ext2 /dev/hda5 /dev/hda5 , , . , , [root]tt mkfs -t ext2 /dev/fdO( , " ", , DOS Windows . Linux , DOS Windows, .) mkfs ext2fs ( , . 16). lost+found. fsck, . (, - ), , mount. mount , , " ". , .: [root]# mount /dev/hdbl /mnt/disk2 /mnt/disk2 ( !). , /mnt/disk2 ( , ) , . , . ( ). , , mount , /etc/fstab. , , mount:[root]$ mount -t type device path112 Linux type " , device , ( ) , a path . /etc/fstab , . 6 , ( , ): . , , /dev/hda5, NFS, , pc21:/home/jim, /home/jim 21; ( , ); ; ( rw , ); . dump, . , 1, 0. (. dump); () fsck. . , , . Linux (. man fs, ): minix, ext, ext2, xia, msdos, umsdos, vfat, proc, nfs, iso9660, hpfs, sysv, smb, ncpfs. " " ( -t mount) auto. mount . , . ( ). mount , . . , mount -. , /etc/fstab. -t type , , . , [root]# mount, -a -t nomsdos,ext 4. ext2fs113 , , msdos ext. , /etc/fstab, , . mount /etc/fstab. , /etc/fstab user, . , /etc/fstab /dev/cdrom /cd iso9660 ro,user,noauto,unhide CD-ROM, [user]$ mount /dev/cdrom [user]$ mount /cd . 4.8 , mount /etc/fstab. 4.8. mount async auto defaults dev noauto exec remount / mount - , : rw, suid, dev, exec,auto, nouser, async - - . - . , , ( /) rw suid114 Linux 4.8 () sync user / . noexec, nosuid, nodev - - nodev nosuid nouser mour.t umount ( ) . /etc/mtab. , mount . - , /etc/fstab - (read only, rw, . . , ), mount -. , ( , ), "" >' ( , " "). umount ( , : , ""). umount , . , ( , ). , /etc/fstab users ( user). , ( , , ) , ( ). 4. ext2fs115 , , DOS Windows, (CD-ROM, Iomega Zip . .) UNIX . , - . , . . , . , /mnt, floppy, cdrom, zip . . , , Linux . , ext2fs, , . . , . , , , . . 16.5 . 751 5 bash Linux , , . , , . , . , . Linux , MS-DOS. Linux , ( . 3.3). HTML- ( "" ) .5.1. ? , , " ", , . . , shell, ( ) GUI (Graphical User Interface), . , Linux ( -, . . 6), . () GUI. , "" - . , , GUI , , . , "" . , , command.com MS-DOS, . 18 Linux UNIX-, . - ( UNIX-) sh, shell. , , Bourne shell sh, (Steve Bourne). GNU ( . , . www.gnu.org) bash, Boume-ggain shell, . . " ". - , , Bourne borne (, ), " shell". bash (Brian Fox ) (Chet Rarney). bash , , , , bash. bash . : , /. , () . , , . , - . ( ) . ( , , , ) , , . . . , . 3.4 , . , +, +, .5.2. bash 256 ASCII , . :- ~ ! @ # $ % ^ & * ( ) - [ ] { } : ; ' " / \ > < 5. bash119 0, ( ) . , , . . . , . , . 4. _ , - . ( , ) , , . (.) (/) . , ( , ""). , , . , , . , . \ ( ) " " , \. , , \. , :[user]$ two_words two\ words ' " ( ) " ". - , . - , , . , , , "two words" :[user]$ two_words 'two words' ' " , , $, ' \ ( , ).120 Linux 5.3. , , , . , : ; &.5.3.1. ; , , , . ,-. , . , - [user]$ commandl ; coramand2 command!, , , commanda, , , .5.3.2. & & , . & , , , . , "commandl & commanda &", coiranandl, commanda .5.3.3. && // && | | . commandl && commanda, TO commanda , commandl , . , commandl | | commanda, commanda , commandl . . , - 5. bash121 , , , , - . . , . (, ) ( ). , , , . , " ". , , . , , , , .5.4. / 5.4.1. / , ( ). (standard input stdin). . (standard output stdout). . (standard error stderr). . , . , . , , . , , (, ). , , is , , . is -122 Linux . , , , . echo cat.5.4.2. echo echo , . . [user]$ echo ', !', , ( , ).5.4.3. cat cat . 4. , . cat . , , cat . , . . , , , , . , . , , cat, . , : cat. +, , . +, . cat , , , cat . 5. bash123 , , , , .5.5. /, , , / , /.5.5.1. >, /home/jim/dir.txt /home/jim/dir.txt , is; , ; , ; , , > . > . , (, ). , /home/jim/report.txt :[user]$ cat /home/jim/report.txt > we -w [user]$ cat /home/jim/report.txt > Ipr , > . f i l e [user]$ cat>file [user]$ >file cat [user]$ > f i l e cat ( - , ) , , , [user]$ f i l e l > file2 - . , . , . . stdin 0, stdout 1, stderr 2. (, > ):command N > N (, 1, 2) . , 1, . . . , > 1 >. , . &, , :command N > & , N , . , , , }^ 2>&1, i>&2 stdout stderr. , . . , . 5. bash1255.5.2. / ( ). , , , ( , ) -- |. , |, , |. :[user]$ cat myfile | grep Linux | we -1 , cat, . . myfile, grep, , "Linux". grep , , we -l, . , , , , - . , , , , - , . , . , - , |, ;. , , . ( , ) , . !, . , .5.5.3. ( grep) , , -. ( ), , 126 Linux ( - ). cat, more, less, we, cmp, dif f, , . 5.1. 5.1. - grep, fgrep, egrep tr , , , , 3 : , 1- , , 2- , , , ( )comm sed tee, "" , , ( ). , tse i>&fiie. , , , , , . . UNIX Linux, (. [1.4] ) - (. [1.8] ). , , .5.6. . bash . ( ) , , - 5. bash127 ( ), : *, @, #, ?, (), $, !, , _ (). , , . . , $ . , [user]$ echo name name, [user]$ echo $name name ( , , ).5.6.1. : , ( ) . () ( ). , ( 1, . .). set. ( . 5.8). , () (. 5.2). 5.2. . , . , - , , IFS ( ). "$*" "$1$2. . .", IFS. IFS , @ , . , . , "$@" "$1" "$2" ... , ( @ )128 Linux 5.2 () # ' , set (PID) (PID) ( ) . bash , $0 . ( , )() $ ! () , , , ; . , . [user]$ name=value name , a value ( ). . . , . , . , , unset. (environment) . set (, , set | less). . , s e t ( ) [user]$ echo $rame(, ). 5. bash129 , set, . , , RANDOM. [user]$ echo $RANDOM . , 032 768.5.6.2. PSI. , bash , . "\s-\v\$". - bash , . PSI , , . , PS2, , - , . PS2 ">". , cat . ftp, . , , select. , PS4, , bash . - "+". , PSI PS2. , , , . 5.3 ( , ; . man- bash). 5.3. \ \d \h \ (ASCII- 07) ", , ", , , , 17 (hostname) 130 Linux 5.3 () \t \ \@ \ \w \w 24- : HH:MM:SS (::) 12- : HH:MM:SS 12- / , ( ) ( ) #, , $, \nnn \ \s \# \\ \[ , nnn ( ) (a backslash) ( , ) \1 \! ( ) , , . , , , , , (word splitting). , . 5.7. , ( , )[root]# P S l = " [ \ u @ \ h \ W ] \ $ " , , @, , , ( ), $ ( 5. bash131 ) ( root).5.6.3. PATH PATH. , bash ( , ) , . . PATH /usr/local/bin, /bin, /usr/bin, /usr/XHR6/bin, . . :/usr/local/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/XHR6/bin: , :[root]# =$ PATH:new_path , PATH. , , PATH . : , , ( ).5.6.4. /FS (Internal Field Separator), , , . " .5.6.5. ( PWD), cd ( , , Midnight Commander). ( ) , , .132 Linux 5.6.6. export - , . , export, . . [user]$ name=Vcilue [user]$ export name=value ( ) , . . .5.7. - , " " . "" (expansion). bash : (brace expansion); (tilde expansion); ; ; CJ ( ); (word splitting); (pathname expansion). , . .5.7.1. . , - , . :[user]$ mkdir /usr/local/src/bash/ {old, new, dist, bugs} [root]! chown root /usr/{ucb/{ex, edit} , lib/{ex?. ?*, how ex}} 5. bash133 /usr/local/src/bash/ old, new, dist bugs. : /usr/ucb/ex /usr/lib/ex?.?* /usr/ucb/edit /usr/lib/ex?.?* /usr/ucb/ex /usr/lib/how_ex /usr/ucb/edit /usr/lib/how_ex ( , ) () , , , . : a { d , c , b } e ade abe. , , , , ( ).5.7.2. (~), ( , ) (login name). ( ), . , , . ( ) , , . , , ( ), . +, ( PWD). -, OLDPWD.5.7.3. $ , . , $, ; , , . . -134 Linux . , ( , ), $ {parameter}. , , , . , , , , (. ). , "$@" ( . . 5.3). .5.7.4. bash. . :$(command) 'command' , , , $, ', \. $(command), . , .5.7.5. . :$[expression] $ ( (expression)) expression , , expression . expression . expression , 5. bash135ARITHMETIC EVALUATION man- bash. , [user]$ echo $ ( ( 2 + 3 * 5 ) ) "17". , bash .5.7.6. , ( , ) (word splitting). , -, IFS, . IFS , . , .5.7.7. (pathname expansion) , ( ), . , -f, bash *, ? [. , , , . , , , nuiiglob , . , , , , . (. 5.4). 5.4. , . , my*.txt myday.txt, myweek.txt mymonth.txt ( ), a *.jpg jpg 136 Linux 5.4 () . , file7.txt file1.txt filex.txt, file10.txt [. . . ] , . , , ; , , , . ! , , ( ) , , is. , , , , GIF, JPEG, AVI . . JPEG, [user]$ Is * . j p g , , 0200 0499:[user]$ Is -I 0 [ 2 - 4 ] ? ? . *5.7.8. , \, ' ", .5.8. Shell , . bash if then else case, for, while, until, .5.8.1. if test ( []) :if l i s t l then Iist2 else lists fi 5. bash137 iistl, Hst2 l i s t s , . , : { l i s t } . if , iistl. , , . 0, iist2; , lists. , if, , . if :if list then list [ elif l i s t then l i s t ] ... [ else l i s t ] fi( , ). , if elif, test, [ ]. test 0, , 1 . test . , test expression :[ expression ] ., test [ , - , bash ( [ , ). , test if . if:if [ -e textmode2.htm ] ; then Is textmode* elsepwd fi test ( [...]) .138 Linux 5.8.2. test , test, , . (" "). -a f i l e, file . -b f i l e, file . - f i l e, file . -d f i l e, f i l e . - f i l e , f i l e . -f f i l e, f i l e . -g f i l e, f i l e . -h f i l e -L f i l e, file . -k f i l e, f i l e "sticky bit". - f i l e, file (FIFO). - f i l e, file . -s f i l e, f i l e . 5. bash -t fd139, fd . - f i l e, file . -w f i l e, file . - f i l e, f i l e . - f i l e, f i l e , . -G f i l e, f i l e , . -S f i l e, f i l e . -N f i l e, file , . f i l e l -nt f i l e 2, f i l e l , file2. f i l e l -ot f i l e 2, filel , file2. f i l e l -ef f i l e 2 , filel file2 (inode).! - optname, optname. . man bash. -z string , .140 -n string Linux , . stringl == string2, . == =. stringl !== s t r i n g 2, . stringl < string2, stringl stringa ( ). stringl > t r i n g 2, stringl string2 ( ). argl OP arc-2 OP : -eq (), - ( ), -it ( ), -1 ( ), -gt (), -">. . +. , , 6. Midnight Commander159 . , , . +, +. Linux: , , (chdir) ("..") . +. ; < . +. ; >.6.6. Midnight Commander , . , . Midnight Commander . . 6.4. 6.4. - , , , , , , . . , ( , , ) , , , . , 160 Linux 6.4 () ' , () ( ) () , . - , . 6.4 , , . (, ). , . , , +. . . . . Midnight Commander , , . shell (. . 6.11), , shell (. . 5). shell , (. man ed). (/), , . "" . " " ("" ) . . 6. Midnight Commander161 " " () , , , . ( ), , . + +. . , . - (Show mini-status) , -. , . . + , . , , , -, , . , , , , . Midnight Commander , Midnight Commander . , , . , . . , , ( "" ). CJ (+,). . / (+,). chown. (). . (+,). .162 Lin (+,). . . 4.4. Midnight Commander , @ ( , ~). - ( - ), , . (+). , , ( ). (+). , ( ). . , , . , , , . ,' .6.7. / ( ) . , (). (wildcards) , . , , / (. 6.6). , , ( : ) -. , () , -. , / , 6. Midnight Commander163, , | .| | :- i '?'' ;; ? ; '{(:- ( ) .': / : , : - KWrite. ;' KEdit : . , naftie = " 2 . 3 ;.gv">'.-.' " ;;' ' ' "':''' ' '; : ' 1 . "':. -:';;:; " '' ''- h3>12 /3 .2 , . Nedit 5 Nedit '. : : Nedit . . -; .( : Nedit. - : ' - (Mark : : Edei), . GPL , -. '..?; , : , . : ' , KE / > : -.';"-' '< irr.g SRC=' img/'nedit '. ,'gif " NOSAVE > < /center? ': :G : :: : - :" ' ":; ;.'".' KWrite . Nedi t . .. : Web-: http:/xnedit . org .. 12.11. Nedit ., ( , ) Nedit KEdit KWrite , , . , , , shell , . . Preferences | Text Fonts (. 12.12). , Browse (. 12.13). , KOI8-R. , , , , , . 12. 389ri|?lli ii. 12.12. NeditBB .(adobei; eour ier:( adob ; ';:;is o|6S9 ,-r' .3): |courier (bi^stf ,;:courier (eronyx, KOIB, ri^C.||||||| >;. :;'..{1 't;^^er,;n^: :. 12.13. Nedit390 Linux , , FAR MS Windows Midnight Commander, , , , Nedit +, + +. , - . +, . , Edit. , . , Nedit +, +. Edit (Lower-case Upper-case), , , . File , . , Open Previous , . Include file ( +) , Print . Search , ( -). Preferences. , . Language Mode (, HTML ), ( ), (Tabs), , , , , / . Shell . , , ispell, . .nedit . , ispell, - 12. 391 -d russian ( ). ~/.nedit , . [nedit] .Xdefaults . , , , . . . Windows ( ). Help, , . , - . Macro, , , (, ASCII, ). , , , Nedit ASCII- . , . (. [1.6] ).12.7. , " " , . - . Nedit , a Netscape Composer , , HTML-.12.7.1. : ; , , ;