صورة الجنة في القرآن الكريم portrayal of paradise in the holy qoran...

THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ONLANGUAGE AND RELIGION

Friday, 24 October 2014

Convention Hall UIN Sunan Kalijaga

RELUNG-RELUNG AGAMA Potret Akomodasi Sosio-Kultural, Politik, dan Pendidikan

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LANGUAGE AND RELIGION

Quo-Vadis Language and Literature in the Religious Life?

Keynote Speakers:

Anthony J. Liddicoat Ibrahimian Sahiron Syamsuddin Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra

ISBN

978-602-1048-03-0

Cetakan Pertama Oktober 2014

Published by

Azzagrafika Publishing

Seturan 2 Num.128 Caturtunggal Depok, Sleman, Yogyakarta Telp/Fax. +62274486466

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عوبا وق

﴾١٣الحجرات: ﴿ش

O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another…(QS al-Hujurat [49]: 33)

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

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DAFTAR ISI

Keynote Speakers:

Anthony J. Liddicoat Research Centre for Languages and Cultures University of South Australia LANGUAGE APPROACHES IN THE PUBLIC PRACTICE OF RELIGION (hlm. 1-15) Sahiron Syamsuddin UIN Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta, Indonesia IN SEARCH FOR THE INTEGRATION OF HERMENEUTICS AND ‘ULUM AL-QUR’AN (hlm. 16-32) Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra Antropologi Budaya, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta Indonesia KAJIAN ANTROPOLOGI DAN BAHASA DI INDONESIA (hlm. 33-58)

Presenters:

Sugeng Sugiono UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Indonesia READING RELIGIOUS PHENOMENON THROUGH SIGN POWER (hlm. 59-72) Bermawy Munthe UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Indonesia WACANA MAHASISWA UNIVERSITAS KAIRO DALAM AL-QAHIRAH AL-JADIDAH KARYA NAJIB MAHFUZ (hlm. 73-87)

Hanung Triyoko STAIN Salatiga

ISLAMIC ENGLISH: THE CASE IN ENGLISH TEACHING

LEARNING IN INDONESIA (hlm. 88-106)

International Conference on Language and Religion

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Ismail Sulaiman

STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa NAD ACCULTURATION AND RELIGIOUS LIFE CHALLENGE THE TIONGHOA ETHNIC IN SYARIA LAND TOWARD PEACE AND HARMONY IN ACEH (CASE STUDY IN ACEH TAMIANG DISTRICT) (hlm. 107-121) Muhammad Najib Al Adib UNSIQ Wonosobo Jawa Tengah STUDY ON A PESANTREN-BASED SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT IN WONOSOBO (hlm. 122-135) Muhammad Zuhri Dj. STAIN Watampone BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH (A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS) (hlm. 136-151) Saifuddin Ahmad Husin IAIN Antasari Banjarmasin BECOMING LOCAL: USE OF MALAY AND DUTCH LOANWORDS IN ARABIC CORRESPONDENCES OF THE ARABS IN THE 19TH CENTURY INDONESIA (hlm. 152-170) Sri Sarwanti, Lilia Indriani English Deparment FKIP Tidar University SCAFFOLDING-ICT BASED TECHNIQUE TO PROMOTE 2013

CURRICULUM CHARACTER BUILDING AMONG

RURAL EFL STUDENTS (hlm. 171-190)

Yusri Linguistic Science Program, Faculty of Humanities Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia IMPROVEMENT MOTIVATION AND RESULT THE

GERMAN LANGUAGE LEARNING THROUGH

COOPERATIVE LEARNING MODEL TYPE TWO STAY TWO

STRAY LANGUAGE CLASS XI MAN I WATAMPONE

(hlm. 191-205)


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Roma Ulinnuha UIN Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta, Indonesia THE RELATIONSHIP OF RELIGION AND IDENTITY’S REDEFINITION IN LITERARY REPRESENTATION POST 9/11 AMERICA AS SEEN IN LINDA J. KOLOCOTRONIS’ INNOCENT PEOPLE (2003): IDENTITY, THE SELF AND AGENCY (hlm. 206-223) Santhy Hawanti University of Muhammadiyah Purwokerto TEACHER’S WAYS OF WORKING WITH GIVING

FEEDBACK: PRACTICES IN ELT CLASSROOM IN

PRIMARY SCHOOLS (hlm. 224-239)

Witriani UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Indonesia READING RELIGION IN THE MOVIES, THE

CONTESTATION BETWEEN RELIGIOUS IDENTITY AND

CULTURAL BUSINESS (hlm. 240-253)

Muhammad Hisyam Maliki Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta, Indonesia LANGUAGE VARIETIES AND FUNCTIONS ON SYIIR NGUDI SUSILO BY K.H. MUSTOFA BISRI (hlm. 254-269) Khristianto1, Sulasih Nurhayati2, dan Arif Budiman3 1,2 Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto 3Fakultas Adab dan Ilmu Budaya UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta JAVENESE POETRY AS DA’WAH PACKAGING IN THE BOOK RIAYATAL HIMMAH OF KH AHMAD RIFA'I (hlm. 270-279) Rosiana Rizqy Wijayanti Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta, Indonesia IMPLICATURE OF HUMOROUS UTTERANCES IN WIJAYANTO’S SERMON (hlm. 280-298)


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Ubaidillah UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Indonesia

) دراسة تحليلية سلوكية لسانية(صورة الجنة في القرآن الكريم

PORTRAYAL OF PARADISE IN THE QORAN (Linguistic Behaviorism Analysis) (hlm. 299-318)

Erna Wardani Universitas Jenderal Soedirman Purwoerto MULTILINGUAL LITURGY IN PENTECOSTAL SERVICE AT JAVANESE CHRISTIAN CHURCH PURWOKERTO

(hlm. 319-332) Ulyati Retno Sari UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Indonesia

SALAHUDDIN AYYUBI’S SYMBOL REPRESENTATION OF ISLAMIC TOLERANCE IN THE “KINGDOM OF HEAVEN” MOVIE (hlm. 333-348)


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FOREWORD

We realize that language has a dominant role for education and social communication including in the religion domain. Many religious problems in the 21st century come from the inappropriate use of language. Indonesia as the biggest moslem country in the world has the responsibility to contribute towards harmonious and mutual understanding between Eastern and Western countries to view the world.

State Islamic University (UIN) Sunan Kalijaga as one of the leading universities in Indonesia always cares about and pays great attention to interfaith dialogue to reduce social conflicts in Indonesia. To implement this target, UIN Sunan Kalijaga actively promotes religious harmony both in local or international level. One of the ways is by holding special events to discuss the current issues in religious life, like the upcoming event of International Conference on Language and Religion (ICLR), which shows the concern of English Department to realize the vision and mission of the university.

The papers in this conference hopefully give contribution how to face the religious life challenges and create inter-religious harmony. Besides, it aims to formulate the language and literature contribution in the religious life. By organizing this event, the English Department of Faculty of Adab and Cultural Sciences UIN Sunan Kalijaga also makes an effort to realize the vision and mission of the institution to become the center of culture, language, and literature development which contributes to human life.

Yogyakarta, 24th October 2014 Committee

Dwi Margo Yuwono

LANGUAGE APPROACHES IN THE PUBLIC PRACTICE OF RELIGION

Anthony J. Liddicoat Research Centre for Languages and Cultures

University of South Australia

Abstract

Religious institutions represent a very specific context in which decisions about language are made because language plays a role in religion that is different from its role in other areas of human activity. This difference lies in the ways particular religious groups understand the nature and purpose of language and these religious understandings influences how languages are chosen for religious purposes and how these purposes are understood. This paper will examine how religious groups use language in public acts of worship and the ways that religious views of language influence language practices. It will argue that there are two dominant understandings of language that are at play in religious contexts. The first is the idea of language as a sacred object. The second is language as a communicative tool. These two understandings are not mutually exclusive and both may be present in particular religious practices, although in some contexts one may predominate over the other. The paper will examine how these views play out in different world religions.

A. Language and Religious Observance

The relationship between religion and language planning and policy (LPP) is complex. Religion may be a factor influencing language planning in the non-religious domain, it may be a site for LPP work, and it may be a site where other LPP decisions are played out in a specific context. This paper will examine the nature of LPP work in one particular context of religious language use – religious observance. This context already raises complexities for thinking about LPP because religious observance

Anthony J. Liddicoat


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is both a public and a private matter and language choices made may be either individual or collective: that is in religious observance language has both private and public dimensions. For this reason, the present paper will focus only on the public dimension of religious observance as this is the site of language use where decision-making and established norms and practices are most obvious and easily studied. In particular, the focus of this paper will be on the use of languages for liturgical purposes – that is, the language used for the rites and rituals of public worship.

The use of language is fundamental to the public practice of religion and different religious groups use languages in different ways in their public worship. This means that religious groups are involved in some forms of decision-making about language use in religious contexts. However, the language of public religious observances has not been widely considered in the literature on language policy and planning (examples include Ferguson, 1982; Liddicoat, 1993, 2012a, 2012b, 2013; Pennycook & Makoni, 2005; Spolsky, 2003).

B. Approaches to liturgical language

There are a number of different ways in which religious groups determine the language to be used in their public religious observance. In some cases, the selection of a liturgical language is set by precedent: that is it represents the continuation of an ancient usage. This is the case, for example in the use of Classical Arabic in Islam, Hebrew in Judaism, Sanskrit in Hinduism, Pali in Sri Lankan Theravada Buddhism and Latin in Catholicism (until 1970s). In such cases the use of a particular language is dictated by the practice of the religion not by the languages spoken by the faithful. It may be case that few worshipers know or can understand the language in which worship is conducted. It is also often the case that the languages used for religious observance may be used primarily or solely for religious purpose, either for some of for all communities of worshipers. Alternatively, the choice of liturgical language may be considered as something which can be legitimately planned by the faithful. This is the case in many forms of Christianity, such as Protestantism, Traditional Orthodoxy and Modern Catholicism but is also the case for some

”Language Approaches in the Public Practice of Religion”


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forms of Buddhism and other religions. The possibilities are associated with two fundamentally different understandings of the nature and purpose of religious languages – sacrality and comprehensibility (Liddicoat, 2012b, 2013).

The sacrality perspective on language is one that starts from the idea that particular languages are sacred and therefore are most fitting for liturgical use. The idea of sacredness may be the result of a particular theology that associates the language with a divine use as in the case of Arabic as the language chosen by God as author of the Qu’ran in Islam or Hebrew as the language used by God in the creation of the world in Judaism. It may also result from a long tradition of religious use of a language by particular institutions, as in the case of Latin as a sacred language in older forms of Catholicism. When a sacred language is used for liturgical actions it is used primarily its purpose is usually the performance of a religious act in a way which is reverent and mystical. It can also reflect a particular understanding of the nature of public worship in which the liturgical act is seen as undertaken between the performer of the act (for example a priest) and its divine recipient, while the faithful are secondary participants who witness the liturgical act or have a limited role in its performance. For example, in Orthodox Christianity the part of the faithful is performed by a choir, in traditional Catholicism the role of the faithful was performed by a server, in spoken services, or by a choir and servers in sung service or in Islam where the linguistic parts of the liturgy are performed primarily by the imam, with the faithful responding. The relationship of the faithful to the liturgy is therefore primarily one of observer and understanding of the liturgy by the faithful is not seen as a necessary element of liturgical practice.

The comprehensibility perspective views the role of liturgical language as communicative; it has a role in communicating with the faithful and the force of the liturgy comes from its being understood. From this perspective liturgical action is seen either as a collective religious act, as a form of instruction or as a way of propagating beliefs and the liturgical language needs to permit participation and allow for access to the liturgical action. This particular view of language became highly theologised during the



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Protestant reformation in Europe when using the language of the faithful in public worship became a fundamental tenet of belief. For example Article XXIV (Of speaking in the Congregation in such a tongue as the people understandeth) of the 1563 Anglican Articles of Religion states:

It is a thing plainly repugnant to the Word of God, and the custom of the Primitive Church, to have publick Prayer in the Church, or to minister the Sacraments in a tongue not understanded of the people.

The two perspectives relate to two very different orientations to experiences of the divine. In the sacral view, an experience of the divine is seen as mysterious, numinous and transcendent and the worshipper engages with the divine through mediated, symbolic ritual. In addition, the experience of the divine orients primarily to the affective domain and is understood as being primarily an emotional communion not anchored in a literal understanding of the words of the of the liturgy. The sacral view may therefore place a very limited emphasis on the language itself as a constituent part of the liturgy, as in the case in traditional Catholic and Orthodox liturgies. The comprehensibility view, one the other hand, sees an experience of the divine as immanent and personal and the worshipper engages more directly with the divine through collective communication. This view emphasizes the cognitive dimension: worship is an intellectual communion oriented to understanding the divine person or divine acts. Understanding the language is therefore central to the proper execution of any liturgical act as liturgical acts have an important propositional dimension. In such a view, public language is addressed not only to a divine person: the worshippers themselves are also understood as audience. These views can be taken as representing poles on a continuum with various practices located at different points along the continuum. Moreover, both views may co-exist in understandings of liturgical languages and the views of a community may shift between emphasizing sacrality and emphasizing comprehensibility over time.



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C. Effects the two perspectives on language use

These two perspectives have direct consequences for the ways that religious institutions respond to language issues. The sacrality perspective is strongly associated with linguistic conservatism and established or ancient language forms are seen as being more appropriate for religious use than contemporary forms. This conservatism can become fundamental to understandings of language use, as in the case of the decrees of the Council of Trent promulgated by the Catholic Church as a response to the Protestant Reformation. In Session 7, Canon 9 states:

Si quis dixerit, ecclesiae Romanae ritum, quo secreto et submissa voce verba consecrationis proferuntur, damnandum esse, missamque nonnisi in lingua vulgari celebrari debere ... anathema sit. [If anyone says that the rite of the Roman Church, according to which a part of the canon and the words of consecration are pronounced in a low tone, is to be condemned; or that the mass ought to be celebrated in the vernacular tongue only… let him be anathema.]

That is the idea that a vernacular language could be a legitimate language for religious use is seen as sinful and ultimately leading to damnation.

The comprehensibility perspective is associated with the adoption of the languages of the local community of the faithful for religious purposes. This was central to the LPP of the Protestant Reformation: Luther emphasized the development of a German language liturgy for reasons of both theology and church government. One key element of Protestant LPP has therefore been the development of religious resources in many languages and the establishment of Bible translation activities. The work of Protestant missionaries has developed many languages as liturgical languages, especially in Africa and the Pacific.

There are in fact complex interactions between the two perspectives over time. The impact of linguistic conservatism can be seen even in religious traditions which initially adopted a comprehensibility view of liturgical language. This is the case in Anglican Protestantism with the retention of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer in to twentieth century liturgical practice. This is



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the case for example in Orthodox Christianity where classical varieties have been maintained as liturgical languages, Greek and Armenian Churches. Linguistic conservatism may also lead to a situation in which a language is maintained for liturgical use long after the community has ceased to use it for other functions, as in the case of Old Church Slavonic in Orthodox churches in the Slavic world, Coptic in Egyptian Christian communities, Ge’ez in Ethiopian Christianity and Pali in Theravada Buddhism. Moreover, the emphasis on sacrality may lead to the deliberate selection of archaic varieties for liturgical use. For example the 1662 version Book of Common Prayer used a more archaic version of English than those developing the 1552 Anglican Service Book (Nervalainen, 1991).

Alternatively, religious institutions that had promoted an ancient language for sacral reasons may change their theological position in relation to language and adopt a comprehensibility perspective. This has been the case, for example, for the Catholic Church, since the Second Vatican Council when a uniform Latin liturgy, which had long been defended against calls for translation and vernacularisation, was replaced with a vernacular liturgical norm that has led to the proliferation of translations into many languages. While the Catholic Church’s decision to adopt a vernacular liturgy was a wide theological change of orientation, such changes may also been seen at local levels. This has often been the experience of religious organizations in diasporic contexts relating to migration in which subsequent generations shift from the language of their ethnic origin to the language of their host society. This has led for example to some diasporic Orthodox Churches introducing the language of the host country into liturgical practice, even though a classical language variety is maintained as the liturgical norm in their country of origin (Wigglesworth, 2008). In some cases, religious organizations may begin as ethnically based institutions but become less ethnically based over time, either because of changes within the original group or of diffusion of the religion across ethnic groups. Hatoss (2012) for example traces a decline in the use of German by the Lutheran Church in Australia not only because of shift from German to English among the congregations but also because Lutheranism has evolved to become a multiethnic denomination



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in Australia as new patterns of immigration brought into Australian churches Lutherans from other countries speaking other languages.

Religious organizations with a comprehensibility perspective in relation to liturgical language do not, however, always adopt the language of the faithful as the normal liturgical language. This has been especially the case in contexts of colonialism, where the colonizer’s language has been used as the liturgical language. In such situations, religious conversion and thus religious practice becomes closely the colonial project of imposing the metropolitan language and culture on colonized societies. In this case, missionary work may involve a considerable element of language education to prepare new converts for participation in public worship. For example, in the South Australian colony, Governor Grey forbade the use of the Kaurna language in the services of the Lutheran mission in Adelaide and forcibly relocated the children to the Native School Establishment (Amery, 2001) and English-only establishment. Henceforth the religious development of indigenous people was to be through English not through their own language. Similarly, the Buddhist Dhammacarik program, established in 1965 to propagate Buddhism among the animist hill tribes sought to disseminate religion as a strategy to integrate minorities into the Thai nation and to establish loyalty to Thailand in precarious border regions (Platz, 2003). The language of proselytizing chosen by the Dhammacarik program was Thai the official language, and this was articulated closely with the desire to use Buddhism as a vehicle for assimilating hill tribes to the Thai nation. In some cases, the adopting of a local vernacular as a liturgical language may become a vehicle for spreading that language to other groups to create supralocal liturgical languages. This is often the case where a religious mission is located in a plurilingual area and the use of a single language is institutionally easier than adopting and developing multiple languages for religious purposes. Dunn (2007), for example, reports that in New Georgia (Solomon Islands) the Methodist mission first developed as Roviana as a liturgical language for a mission located in a Roviana speaking area. When the Mission expanded to Touo speaking Ughele Island, Roviana was used as the liturgical language of both



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communities and in the Mission school. Crowley (2000) also reports the extension of languages as mission lingua francas in Vanuatu. In these cases, the practices of religious bodies with a comprehensibility perspective of language use may come to resemble the practices of bodies that have a sacral view. The teaching of English to converts to Protestantism in order to enable them to fulfil their religious obligations may parallel the teaching of Arabic for similar reasons in Islamic schools in non-Arabic-speaking areas.

The interactions between language practices and language perspectives are therefore complex. While sacral views of language and their associated linguistic conservatism may preserve fixed patterns of language use, comprehensibility perspectives are often much more complex. In particular, in comprehensibility views other factors, such as perceptions of particular registers as most appropriate for religious use, the impact of tradition, wider language policies and even local institutional imperatives may influence language use in ways which seem to compromise the comprehensibility perspective.

D. Influence of perspectives on the reception of language decisions

It is possible that language perspectives may change within a particular organization. Where the change is from sacral language to comprehensible language, the change itself tends to be sudden, although the change may be preceded by a long period of debate about language use. The change in the Catholic Church from Latin to vernacular languages for example was enacted by the Second Vatican Council’s Sacred Constitution on the Liturgy promulgated in 1963 (Second Vatican Council, 1998) and this constituted an abrupt change between a Latin only language policy for the Roman liturgy to one of linguistic pluralism. However, the debates about the use of the vernacular date back to the controversy over the Chinese liturgy of the 17th century (Bontinck, 1962; Liddicoat, 1993). The change from a comprehensible perspective to sacral one is usually a slow evolution resulting from developing linguistic conservatism over time that comes first to preserve a language variety from a particular time and then asserts this as a linguistic norm. This was



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the case for example, with the Anglican 1662 Book of Common Prayer, which itself was based on norms of older prayer books and Bible translations (Nervalainen, 1991), and remained the liturgical norm in English-speaking churches for almost three centuries until the modern English revisions of the 20th century. This linguistic conservatism existed alongside a prevailing comprehensibility view that led to the translation of the prayer book into other modern languages and represents a tension between sacral and comprehensibility views within Anglicanism.

The movement from a sacral view of language to a comprehensible view, because it is usually so rapid may be problematic for religious organization and may lead to resistant to change, at least among some groups within the organization. Resistance may be based on perceived attributes of the language, usually aesthetically attributes, but is most often linked to non-linguistic arguments about the change (Dinges, 1987). The substitution for a vernacular language for a sacral language may for example be seen as theological corruption. One result of this resistance has been the establishment within religious organizations of bodies that maintain former language use in the face of a changed language policy. This is the case, for example, of the Prayer Book Societies in Anglicanism, which maintain the use of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, and of the Priestly Fraternity of St Peter in the Catholic Church. The resistance to language change in such contexts may even lead to schism in order to preserve the sacral language. This has been the case in the Catholic Church, where some Traditional Mass Catholics (including the Society of St Pius X and Sedevacantist groups such as the Society of St Pius V) have separated from the Church and have even declared the Church to be apostate.

E. Hybridity of practice

One consequence of the complexity of the interactions between sacral and comprehensibility perspectives is that liturgical practice may in fact be hybridized with some aspects of public religious observance conducted in different languages. This hybridity of practice frequently represents different under-standings of various components of public worship. Religious groups which emphasis the comprehensible may use other



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languages in their services, as in the case of Latin versions of sung liturgical texts in otherwise vernacular Anglican or Lutheran ceremonies. In this case, the texts are regular parts of the liturgical service and their function can be considered as known by worshipers – that is worshipers are assumed to know the vernacular language versions of these texts. Moreover, these elements may be considered as liturgical adornment rather than as core components of worship, a view that in Western Christianity is supported by a strong musical tradition of setting for these texts in which liturgical function is often subordinated to artistic form. The interventions of a sacral language into an otherwise comprehensibility-oriented liturgical tradition are usually limited and reserved for more peripheral aspects of the public action of the liturgy. In contrast, within sacral perspectives the use of vernacular languages may relate to core aspects of the liturgy, where the purpose of the act is related to its comprehensibility for participants. This applies most commonly to the language used in sermons, in public devotions of a more personal nature and in the making of vows, especially marriage vows.

F. Sermons

In the case of sermons, the comprehensibility view of language often prevails even in traditions that are otherwise sacral in their approach. In liturgical traditions with a comprehensibility view, the choice of language for preaching is usually the same as the main liturgical language, as both are chosen for the same reason. Where the liturgical variety is an older variety of the language spoken in the community, the sermon typically uses a contemporary language variety, except where quoting religious texts. This has been the case for example in the Anglican tradition in which the Book of Common Prayer has been used.

In liturgies with a sacral orientation to language, a comprehensibility orientation may govern the choice of language for the sermon and preaching is done in the local language of the faithful. In Judaism, the sermon at weekly services is usually delivered in the language of the community and this practice has been an element of synagogue worship since its development



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with preachers using Aramaic in Palestine and Greek in diasporic communities, and is evidenced in early Talmudic Judaism (Joseph, 1890). The same is true of the sermon in the Latin-rite Catholic Church homily. The Carolingian reform synod of 813 required that homilies be delivered “in rusticam romanam linguam aut theotiscam quo facilius cuncti possint intelligere que dicuntur” [In rustic Romance or German so that those present can more easily understand what is said] (Jungmann, 1986 [1951] I: 458) explicitly emphasizing the need for comprehensibility. In Islam, similarly, the Friday sermon is usually delivered in the language of the congregation, even though the service is conducted in classical Arabic (Mattock, 2001) and the Pali language liturgy of Sri Lankan Theravada Buddhism includes a sermon in Sinhala (Coperahewa, 2009). In the case of sermons the communication is between preacher and people not between people and God so comprehensibility is central to the purpose of the sermon.

In some cases, however, a sacred language may be used in sermons even though it is not widely spoken: Although comprehensibility would seem to be the main consideration for sermons, there is evidence in some preaching practices for a sacral orientation to language. For example, in both mediaeval Catholicism, Latin was used in sermons long after Latin had ceased to be known by congregations and macaronic sermons, which mixed Latin and a local vernacular, formed part of preaching practice (Constable, 1994). Similarly in mediaeval Judaism, vernacular sermons were often interspersed with biblical quotations in Hebrew, which preserved the sacred nature of scripture (Saperstein, 1983). In the early modern period, in many Jewish communities a tradition of vernacular preaching gave way to one of preaching in Hebrew. The motivation for this appears to have been one of identity: Hebrew sermons were considered an important marker of differentiation for Jews living in predominantly Christian societies in which vernacular preaching was the norm (Meyer, 1988).

Preaching is thus a language activity in which the selection of language orients relatively strongly to a comprehensibility orientation to language because this accords best with the function of preaching within a religious context. Nonetheless,



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other ways of understanding language may influence the actual practices chosen by individuals and communities.

G. Public devotions

In some cases, religious groups that use a sacred language for most liturgical functions may use another language for extra-liturgical public devotions. For example, traditional Catholicism has usually used vernacular languages for public prayers, reciting the rosary, following the Stations of the Cross, etc. These activities are not the formal, central acts of worship of the institutional Church but rather pious activities carried out by and for lay people. In this case, the act of worship is made by individuals rather than by the institutional church and so participation is central to the act of worship. As acts of the faithful, it is necessary for them to be performed in the language of the faithful in order for them to achieve their devotional purpose.

H. Vows

In some religions, vows are made in the context of a public ritual. This is especially the case for marriage, but can apply to other types of vows. Acts of public worship that involve the making of vows may be done in the vernacular even in religious traditions that have a sacral view of language. For example, in traditional Catholicism the marriage vows may be exchanged in the vernacular, even though the rest of the liturgy is performed in Latin, although the possibility always exists that vows may be exchanged in Latin. The renewal of baptismal vows by the faithful during the Holy Saturday ritual may also be done in the vernacular. In Judaism the reading of the marriage contract may be done in the vernacular, or it may be in Aramaic. In this case, the reading in Aramaic is the fossilization of an earlier vernacular tradition. In these cases, the vows are a binding public act of the individuals involved and the individuals themselves require no particular qualifications for participating in the vows. The focus of the liturgical action is on a sacred undertaking and this requires comprehension of the vow itself as a constituent element of the undertaking. Thus, the possibility of performing the vow in the vernacular language plays an important role in the accomplishment of the vow. Some vows however may always be



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restricted to the sacral language, as in the case of the priestly ordination vows of the traditional Catholic Church, which were always performed in Latin. These vows are fundamental to the sacral role of the priest – a role which is performed primarily through the sacral language. The priest can therefore be understood as an individual who is considered to be a competent user of the language and the vow itself is embedded in the sacred nature of priesthood.

I. Concluding comments

The choice of a liturgical language is not simply the resolution of a linguistic problem; it is fundamentally connected to ideas of religious conduct and integrated into the symbolic systems of the religion. Decisions about liturgical language reflect understandings of the nature and purpose of liturgy as a collective action. Such understandings may be codified in some way within a religious group or they may be worked through locally by particular groups of worshipers. Language planning for religious observance is a negotiation between views of language as a means of communication and as an expression of religious sentiment. These views of language relate to views of worship: the immanence of worship as a local linguistic act and the transcendence of worship as a form of collective religious expression. Choices of liturgical language therefore encode aspects of the self-concept of the religious group, not just their assessment of their linguistic needs.



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Jungmann, J. A. (1986 [1951]). The Mass of the Roman rite: It origins and development (Missarum sollemnia).(F. A. Brunner, Trans.). Allen, Tx: Christian Classics.

Liddicoat, A. J. (1993). Choosing a liturgical language: The language policy of the Catholic Mass. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 16(2), 123-141.

Liddicoat, A. J. (2012a). Language planning and religion. Current Issues in Language Planning, 13(2), 73-75.

Liddicoat, A. J. (2012b). Language planning as an element of religious practice. Current Issues in Language Planning, 13(2), 121-144.



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Liddicoat, A. J. (2013). Language planning in religious observance. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.

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Pennycook, A., & Makoni, S. (2005). The modern mission: The language effects of Christianity. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 4(2), 137-155.

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IN SEARCH FOR THE INTEGRATION OF HERMENEUTICS AND ‘ULUM AL-QUR’AN

Sahiron Syamsuddin

UIN Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

1. Introduction One of the controversial issues in the field of the

interpretation of the Qur’an is whether hermeneutics that is used for the interpretation of the Bible can be used for the interpretation of the Qur’an. Some Muslim scholars point out that it is impossible, or even not allowed for Muslims, to interpret the Qur’an using hermeneutical methods. The most famous reason for this is that hermeneutics does not match with the nature of the Qur’an. Some others tend to see that it can be included into the ‘Sciences of the Qur’an (‘ulum al-Qur’an). They argue that through it one can even improve the discipline. This essay will show that some hermeneutical theories accord with the Qur’an interpretation and therefore should be part of the ‘ulum al-Qur’an. Before mentioning these theories, it would be to give some reasons why we need hermeneutics.

2. Hermeneutics

First of all, in terms of the definition of hermeneutics (in a broad sense) in the Western tradition of thinking, we find four terms that are related to each other: Hermeneuse, hermeneutics (in a sense), philosophical hermeneutics and hermeneutical philosophy. Ben Vedder defines in his work the term Hermeneuse as “die inhaltliche Erklaerung oder Interpretation eines Textes, Kunstwerkes oder des Verhaltens einer Person” (interpretation of a text, arts or behavior of a person).1 According to this definition, the term refers to the practice of explaining all things that can be or must be interpreted. It does not refer to any exegetical methods. The field that speaks of certain exegetical methods for the purpose of getting ‘correct’ and deep understanding of an

1 Ben Vedder, Was ist Hermeneutik? Ein Weg von der Textdeutung zur Interpretation der

Wirklichkeit (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2000), p. 9. See also Matthias Jung, Hermeneutik zur Einführung (Hamburg: Junius, 2001), pp. 19-23.

”In Search for the Integration of Hermeneutics and ’Ulum al-Qur`an”


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object is called “hermeneutics”.2 In “philosophical hermeneutics”, the exegetical methods do not take an important position. It rather concerns with things that can be regarded as foundations and requirements of interpretation and its methods. So, its core is to search for conditions that pave the way for the interpretation.3 Hermeneutical philosophy is meant to be a philosophical branch that deals with the interpretation, in which human beings are considered first and foremost as “exegetical beings”. Epistemological, ontological, ethical and aesthetical aspects of human beings are mostly discussed in it. 4

If we look at the Islamic tradition related to the interpretation (i.e. ‘ulum al-Qur’an), we will find that out of the four hermeneutical terms and fields only two terms, namely Hermeneuse and hermeneutics in the sense of methodical procedures, are given enough attention by Muslim scholars from different countries and periods. In terms of Hermeneuse, or tafsir/ta’wil in Arabic, they have produced a huge number of tafsir-works, such as Jami‘ al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an (by at-Tabari), Mafatih al-Ghayb (by Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi), al-Manar (by ‘Abduh and Rashid Rida) and Tafsir al-Mishbah (by Quraish Shihab). To this field belong also some works that are by intention not dedicated purely to the interpretation of the Qur’an, but consist of the interpretation of several Qur’anic verses. Preachings in mosques and other places, in which preachers quote and explain the meaning of Qur’anic verses, belong to Hermeneuse as well. In short, all exegetical practices can be included into this term. As in relation to Hermeneuse, Muslims have long tradition with Qur’anic hermeneutics. This can be seen from the fact that many scholars (‘ulama) have written so many books on methods of interpreting the Qur’an, such as al-Burhan fi ‘Ulum al-Qur’an (by az-Zarkashi), al-Itqan fi ‘Ulum al-Qur’an (by as-Suyuti), al-Fawz al-Kabir fi Usul at-Tafsir (by ad-Dihlawi), Mabahith fi ‘Ulum al-Qur’an (by as-Subhi) etc. However, it seems that the exegetical methods would not be improved by the majority of Muslim scholars in the contemporary

2 See Vedder, Was ist Hermeneutik, p. 9-10; Jung, Hermeneutik zur Einführung, p. 9. On

page 20 Jung defines hermeneutics as Methodenlehre der sachgerechten Auslegung (method of correct interpretation).

3 See Vedder, Was ist Hermeneutik?, pp. 10-11; Jung, Hermeneutik zur Einführung, p. 21-22. 4 Vedder, Was ist Hermeneutik?, p. 11.

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period, in which Western scholars have experienced deeply with hermeneutical methods in interpreting texts, the methods which are seen to be more appropriate with modernity and modern civilization. Only few Muslim scholars, such as Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd,5 Muhammad Talbi6 and Abdullah Saeed,7 are eager to develop the Qur’anic hermeneutics by adopting some hermeneutical methods embeded in the Western tradition in order to respond to contemporary challenges.

Unlike Hermeneuse and Qur’anic hermeneutics, philosophical hermeneutics and hermeneutical philosophy have not yet received enough attention from Muslim scholars. On the contrary, Western experts of hermeneutics are very familiar with these two fields. I believe that the embryos of the philosophical hermeneutics and hermeneutical philosophy were already proposed by Muslim philosophers and scholars in the past. However, these are not improved by later Muslim generations. In order to develop Islamic theories of interpretation, Muslims have to search for what the Muslim philosophers and scholars proposed in this field and to learn from Western hermeneutics. However, this article would focus on what Muslims can learn from the Western hermeneutics.

3. MuslimThinkers and Hermeneutics

As stated above, few Muslim thinkers are interested in integrating hermeneutical theories in a broad sense to the ‘ulum al-Qur’an, insofar that they accord with the nature of the Qur’an as divine revelation. This can be accepted for some reasons. First, to adopt knowledge from other cultures was conducted by Muslim scholars in the past. Such philosophers and theologians as al-Kindi, al-Farabi and Ibn Rushd learnt Greek philosophy, Indo-Persian sciences and technology. Thank to this openness, they could establish ‘advanced’ Islamic civilization. Second, hermeneutic and ‘ulum al-Qur’an have the same object, i.e. text. Third, many hermeneutical theories may strengthen what is found in the ‘ulum al-Qur’an. Fourth, through hermeneutics (in a broad sense), the ‘ulum al-Qur’an can be developed more

5 See Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Ishkaliyyat al-Qira’a wa Aliyyat at-Ta’wil. 6 See Muhammad Talbi, ‘Iyal Allah (Tunis: Saras li-l-Nashr, 1992). 7 See Abdullah Saeed, Interpreting the Qur’an (London and New York: Routledge, 2006).



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sophisticatedly, especially if the field of ‘ulum al-Qur’an is combined with philosophical hermeneutics and hermeneutical philosophy. It will not only represent a pedagogic knowledge of the interpretative strategies, but also become stronger and more advanced due to philosophical thoughts. Fifth, the interpretative product would be more appropriate for contemporary needs, if one combines between exegetical methods found in the ‘ulum al-Qur’an and those in the hermeneutics.

4. Text and Context: Gracia

Although the usage of hermeneutics in the interpretation of the Qur’an is plausible, it does not mean that all hermeneutical theories can be applied. One should search for some theories that are in accordance with the nature of the Qur’an as divine revelation. One theory that does not accord with its nature is, for example, that one should go into the psyche of the author in order to understand correctly a text he composes. The theory that is proposed by Friedrich Schleiermacher is impossible to be applied to the Qur’an, because its author is Allah and no one can go into His psyche.

However, there are many applicable theories. Here I would like to give two examples: Jorge J. E. Gracia’s and Hans-Georg Gadamer’s hermeneutics. Gracia builds a quite comprehensive concept of hermeneutics. In his book, A Theory of Textuality, he discusses the fundamental issues on hermeneutics. He begins his book by proposing the nature of text, which is the object of his hermeneutics. Having discussed it, he continues to explore a theory of understanding before focusing on the nature and method of interpretation. In this article, I outliene explore his theories of interpretation and how far they can be used for developing Qur’anic hermeneutics.

In relation to the concept of text, Gracia defines a text as a historical entity, in that it is produced by the author or emerges in a certain time and place for a certain purpose. Thus, it is always part of the past, and when we interact with it, someone should play a role as a historian and try to ‘go into’ the past. The problem arising is that the interpreter almost does not have direct access to the meaning of the text. The interpreter only has access to the entities used by the author of a text in conveying certain message

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or meaning. So, an effort to discover the historical meaning is a fundamental problem in hermeneutics. Gracia tries to propose a solution to this hermeneutical problem by “the development of textual interpretation” whose aim is to bridge the gap between a situation in which a text was produced and a contemporary one in which an interpreter who tries to discover the meaning of a historical text. Before elaborating his thoughts more deeply, his idea on the nature of interpretation is first explained here.

Gracia explains that “interpretation” is an English term from the Latin “interpretatio” derived from the verb interpres which etymologically meant “to spread abroad”. He asserts that the word interpres also means an agent between two parties, a broker or negotiator, and an explainer, expounder and translator. The Latin term interpretatio comes to at least three possible meaning: (1) “meaning”, so that to give interpretation is equivalent to give the meaning of whatever is being interpreted, (2) “translation” (a translation of a text from a certain language to other), and (3) “explanation” and by this an interpretation is meant to bring out what is hidden and unclear, to make plain what is irregular, and to provide an account of something or other.8 Gracia realizes that the object of interpretation is essentially not only a text, but also facts, behavior, people, and even the world. He asserts however that hermeneutics he builds in his two major books is a textual hermeneutics, in which the terminological meaning of interpretation is as below.

Gracia states that terminologically, interpretation can be defined into three meaning. First, an interpretation is the same thing as an understanding one has of the meaning of a text.9 In this case, he refers to, for example, Hirsch.10 In some cases, understanding is indeed only one, for example: 2+2=4. However, in many cases, interpretation is indicated by two things: (1) a certain interpretation is not the only possible and valid understanding of a text, and (2) the interpreter’s subjectivity plays

8 See Gracia, A Theory of Textuality: the Logic and Epistemology (Albany: State University of

New York Press, 1995), p. 147. 9 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 148. 10 See E.D. Hirsch, Jr., “Three Dimensions of Hermeneutics,” New Literary History 3

(1972), p. 246.



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significant role in interpretation.11 With regard to to this matter, Gracia states that the truth of interpretation can be plural. Second, an interpretation is a process or activity whereby one develops an understanding of a text. In this meaning, an interpretation involves decoding to the text to understand its meaning, and this understanding is not to be identical with the meaning itself.12 Third, an interpretation refers to texts which involve the three things, (1) interpretandum (the text being interpreted), (2) the interpreter, and (3) interpretans (the commentary added to it). Interpretandum is a historical text, while interpretans is the commentary one added by the interpreter, so that interpretandum is more easily understood.13 Thus, interpretation consists of both of interpretandum and interpretans.

According to Gracia, the general function of interpretation is ‘to create in the contemporary audiences’ mind understanding to the text being interpreted’. He divides it to the three specific functions, i.e. historical function, meaning function and implicative function. First, an interpretation functions to produce in the contemporary audiences the understanding of the author and historical audiences to a text. This is the historical function. The second function is to produce in the contemporary audiences the understanding, in which they can understand the meaning of the text, whether or not the meaning is intended by the author or historical audiences or not. The third function is to produce an understanding so that contemporary audiences can understand the implication of the meaning of the text being interpreted.14

As stated before, each interpretation, according to Gracia, must contain information/explanation added to the interpretandum. It then brings out what Gracia called as ‘interpreter’s dilemma’, especially related to the function of

11 See Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 148. See also Ernst Konrad Specht, “Literary-

Critical Interpretation–Psychoanalytical Interpretation,” translated by John M. Conolly dan Thomas Keutner, in John M. Conolly dan Thomas Keutner (ed.), Hermeneutics versus Science? Three German Views (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988), p. 154.

12 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 148. 13 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 148-149. The concept of differentiation between

understanding and making understandable found also in Schleiermacher, Hermeneutics, p. 96. This differention is rejected by Hans Georg Gadamer dalam Truth and Method, p. 274.

14 See Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 155-164.

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historical interpretation. In one hand, the additional commentary indicates the distortion of the text being interpreted, and on the other, without interpretans, the interpretation may be not be able to make contemporary audiences understand the text being interpreted for there are cultural and time distance between them and the text. To solve this problem or dilemma, Gracia proposes ‘the Principle of Proportional Understanding’. This principle requires that the interpretation must firstly produce the objective meaning. Gracia argues that the understanding of the contemporary audiences through interpretation must similar to that of the author of the text and the historical audiences. Thus, the main aim of interpretation is:

To create a text that produces in the audience (the contemporary audience) acts of understandings that are intentionally the same to those produced by the historical text in the historical author and the historical audience of the historical text.15

Furthermore, an interpreter has the right to develop understanding as the continuation of the objective understanding, so that the text being interpreted has the significance and is applied in accordance with the time and place in which it is interpreted. It is this development of the meaning to which Gracia refers by the meaning and implicative function.

Gracia then divides the interpretation into two categories: (1) textual interpretation, and (2) non-textual interpretation. Whether an interpretation is classified to the first or second one depends on the aim of interpretation. Gracia said that:

A textual interpretation is precisely the sort of interpretation we have been discussing in this chapter. It is an interpretation of a text that adds to the text whatever is thought by the interpreter to be necessary to get certain results in contemporary minds in relation to the text, when those results are taken in one of three ways: First, as the re-creation of the acts of understanding of the historical author and the historical audience, that is, as the understanding of the meaning the historical author and the historical audience had; second, as the production of acts of understanding whereby the meaning of the text, regardless of what the historical author and historical audience thought, is

15 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 157.



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understood by the contemporary audience; and third, as the production of acts of understanding whereby the implications of the meaning of the text are understood by the contemporary audience.16

The definition above shows that textual interpretation is an effort to grasp the meaning of the text being interpreted (interpretandum). On the basis of the reality of interpretation, textual interpretation aims to grasp the original or historical meaning of interpretandum, as intended by the author and the historical audiences, to produce a new meaning by the interpreter assuming that the interpreter has a role in producing the meaning for the context in which the text is interpreted, and to grasp the implication of a text. Gracia’s exploration of the three interpretative functions and result of interpretation here does not relate to the concept of interpretive truth, but merely to the reality of interpretation.

As for the second type of interpretation, i.e. non-textual interpretation, he defines that “it is one that, although it may be based on a textual interpretation, has something else as its primary aim even if such an aim involves or is a kind of understanding.”17 To him, this non-textual interpretation does not function or aim to reveal the meaning of the text and, or the implication of the meaning of text, as is intended by the textual interpretation, but to reveal what beyond the textual meaning. According to Gracia, historical interpretation in broad meaning, in which an interpreter tries to add some historical accounts that are not mentioned in the text under interpretation, is one example of the non-textual interpretation. Historical interpretation does not only interact with the meaning and implication of the text being interpreted, or in Amin al-Khulli’s terms “ma fi n-nass (what is inside the text), but also reveals and explains “ma hawla n-nass (what is surrounding the text).18 Gracia’s statement below is interested to be considered:

The ultimate aim of the historian is to produce an account of the past and that account includes not only textual interpretations,

16 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 164. 17 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 164-165. 18 See Amin al-Khuli, Manahij Tajdid fi n-Nahw wa-l-Balaghah wa-t-Tafsir wa-l-Adab (Kairo:

Dar al-Ma‘rifah, 1961), p. 312-317.

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but also the reconstruction of the larger context in which the text was produced, the ideas that the historical author did not put down in writing or express in speech, the relations among various texts from the same author and from other authors, the causal connections among texts, and so on.19

In sum, the historical interpretation and other non-textual interpretations, such as psychological, philosophical, legal, scientific, literary, and inspirational interpretations, aim to produce understanding which involves not only the text being interpreted, its meaning and implication, but also its relation to others.

When we carefully look at the theory of the nature of interpretation proposed by Gracia, we will come to the conclusion that interpretation, textual or non-textual, is composed of some other information that is added to the authorial meaning. This is closely related to the theory of interpretive truth.

For Garcia, the truth value of interpretation can be plural. The questions arising are what interpretive truth is and whether it is possible to say that an interpretation is correct or incorrect of true or false. He insists that it is not easy to determine the truth value of an interpretation, especially textual interpretation, for, as it has been mentioned above, it has three functions. Someone who conducts a historical interpretation claims that her or his interpretation is true, for he or she has produced in contemporary audiences an understanding that is the same as what was understood and intended by the author of a text being interpreted. One who focuses on the meaning function states that his or her interpretation is true, for he or she succeeds in producing in the contemporary audiences an understanding of the “significance” of a text being interpreted for contemporary period. Meanwhile, an interpretation stressing on its implicative function considers his or her interpretation as true, because it produces an understanding of the implication of the text’s meaning to contemporary audiences. Accordingly, Gracia says that it is not relevant to determine whether an interpretation is correct or false. What is relevant is to say that such interpretation is more effective or less effective, or more appropriate or less

19 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 165.



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appropriate.20 The relativity of exegetical truth here does not tend to ‘negative relativity’, unlimited relativity. This relativity of truth does not mean that everybody is allowed to interpret a text on the basis of his or her own willing or subjectivity, unlimitedly. An interpreter who wants to know the original or historical meaning of a text should analyze the language used at the time in which it emerged and pay attention to its historical context. Moreover, when one is willing to extend the interpretation into its meaning and implicative, he or she is subjects to a certain rule, so that his or her explanation still has close connection to the original meaning.

On the basis of the nature and reality of interpretation explained above, Gracia argues that interpretive truth is not monolithic, but plural. The plurality of interpretive truth is not only related to the non-literal interpretation in which an interpreter has more roles in determining the meaning, but also to the textual interpretation. The meaning and implication functions of the interpretation admit interpretive differences among interpreters due to the diversity of their horisons. Gracia shows the example that, in the reality of interpretation, Aristotle’s works are interpreted by many people. In this case, Gracia agrees with Immanuel Kant who argues that we will never reach the ‘final and definitive descriptions in science and philosophy.’21 This statement is in line with what is said by Issa J. Boullata, an emeritus professor in McGill University, when he describes the reality in the Qur’anic interpretation. He says, “Meaning has been shown to depend on so many elements in the text and its context, as well as in the relationship of both to other texts and contexts, that a single interpretation can no longer be considered to be sufficient or claim finality for itself.”22 Jane D McAuliffe says, “No exegetical agenda is ever finally fixed. The last word has yet to be spoken.”23

The plurality of textual interpretation does not mean that interpretive truth is relative and unlimited, or in Gracia’s term,

20 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 173. 21 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, pp. 168-169. 22 Issa J. Boullata, “Introduction,” in Issa J. Boullata (ed.), Literary Structures of Religious

Meaning in the Qur’an (Richmond: Curzon Press, 2000), p. xi. 23 Jane D. McAuliffe, Qur’anic Christians: an Analysis of Classical and Modern Exegesis

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 292.

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‘infinitive regress’, for each interpretation must contain interpretandum (the text being interpreted) and interpretans (additional commentary which is still related to interpretandum),24 in which the additional commentary depends on many factors, such as the expertise of the interpreter and his or her background and experience. It also does not mean that all interpretations are true, in the sense that an interpreter interprets according merely to his or her will. An interpretation will be considered true as long as the additional commentary (1) explains the intention of the text being interpreted, and (2) is not contrary in principle with what is intended by the text.

That an interpretation must be composed of interpretandum and interpretans indicates that, for Gracia, it must contain objectivity and subjectivity at the same time. It raises the question of to what extend the subjectivity of an interpreter and the objectivity of interpretandum play a significant role in an interpretation. On that basis, an interpretation will be considered highly subjective, if an interpreter pays only little attention to the language of a text being interpreted and its historical factors having role in determining the meaning of the text. An interpretation is regarded as highly objective, if in the interpretation interpretandum and other factors determining the historical meaning of the text become the priority of an interpreter.25

5. Gracia’s Hermeneutics and Ulum al-Qur’an

Understanding Gracia’s hermeneutical theory and method, I would prove that his thought is beneficial to develop the ‘Qur’anic sciences’ (‘ulum al-Qur’an) as well as the exegetical activity. I would discuss some significance of the integration between Gracia’s hermeneutics and Ulum al-Qur’an. In this regard, this integration has, at least, two benefits: (1) the possibility of developing a philosophical theory of the Qur’an interpretation, and (2) the strengthening of interpretation ethics.

We acknowledge that it is difficult to find philosophical works on ‘ulum al-Qur’an in Islamic world. Only few works

24 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 171. 25 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 174.



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discuss about the subject. On the other, philosophical hermeneutics, a branch in General hermeneutics which discusses fundamental issues related to interpretive activity (tafsir, exegesis, Auslegung; Hermeneuse) and method of interpretation, has rapidly developed in the West. Such works as Truth and Method by Hans Georg Gadamer and A Theory of Interpretation by Gracia are just examples. Further, Western scholars, such as Heidegger in his Work Sein und Zeit, have achieved what they called hermeneutical philosophy.

The small number of such works in the Islamic world is partly caused by a pragmatic factor, in a sense that ‘ulum al-Qur’an is merely viewed as the pedagogical aspect in the field of Qur’anic interpretation. It only accommodates what are applicable in the interpretive practice. Scholars of ‘ulum al-Qur’an do not consider important the addition of philosophical aspects to this methodical one. The embryo of philosophical hermeneutics, however, has been found in some classical works in Islamic history, such as Qanun al-Ta’wil by al-Ghazali dan Fashl al-Maqal by Ibn Rusyd. Nowadays, some works of Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Hasan Hanafi and Muhammed Abid al-Jabiri can be classified as works on ‘ulum al-Qur’an, which have philosophical characteristics. This model needs to be developed.

To develop ‘ulum al-Qur’an, Muslim scholars need to study what have been thought by some Muslim scholars in the past as well as by scholars of hermeneutics of the Western tradition. To pay attention to hermeneutical thoughts from the Islamic tradition is needed, because, in addition to the fact that one would find the embryo of such philosophical hermeneutics, the thought are rooted in the same, or similar, theological tradition. The ‘necessity’ of taking into account the Western thought on this field is based on the fact that contemporary scholars of hermeneutics in the West have succeeded in achieving a huge number of hermeneutical theories. Moreover, they have come to what they called hermeneutical philosophy. These are expected to strengthen the position of ‘ulum al-Qur’an in the future.

One example of how some aspects of ‘ulum al-Qur’an can be developed concerns with the definition of the term tafsir. In the books of the discipline, the term tafsir, which etymologically means kasyf (to reveal) and bayan (to explain), is defined as: “fahm

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kitab Allah al-munazzal ‘ala nabiyyihi Muhammad wa-bayan ma‘anihi wa-istikhraj ahkamihi wa-hikamihi” 26 (to understand the book of God, to explain its meaning and to extract its laws and wisdom). The above-mentioned definition of tafsir proposed by Badr al-Din al-Zarkashi shows us three substantial activities in the interpretation of the Qur’an: i.e. (1) to understand (fahm, verstehen), (2) to explain (bayan, erklaeren) and (3) to extract (istikhraj, extrahieren). These three components have essentially covered substantial matters in the activity of interpretation. However, they are not explained sophisticatedly. The question of ‘what is the distinction between these three words is not found in the work of al-Zarkashi.. Probably, he wanted to let his readers to check them in other works. However, without direct explanation, the readers may not realize the significant distinction of them. It is clear that Gracia’s exploration of the nature of understanding and interpretation (including the definition and functions of interpretation) could complete the explanation of the definition of tafsir. Gracia explores the term ‘understanding’ deeply. He says: “Understanding is not, however, the same as meaning. Understanding is a kind of mental act whereby one grasps something, which in the case of texts is their meaning.”27 Understanding is a mental act, an effort to grasp the meaning of the text. Thus, understanding is psychological and personal, in the sense that it is on the interpreter’s mind before he or she expresses it publicly, in a written or oral form.

Bayan (explanation) is the continuation of fahm (understanding). After an understanding of a text emerges in the interpreter’s mind or soul, he or she continues another activity, i.e. to explain the meaning of the text by analyzing possible aspects that are realated to it, such as linguistic and literary ones, in order to deliver its message to the public through a written or oral form. This activity is called in Arabic bayan. Unfortunately, al-Zarkasyi does not deeply explore the term bayan in his definition of tafsir. Probably he did not need to do it for a certain reason. Therefore, it is then the responsibility of contemporary scholars to complete this lack. The theory of the function of interpretation, especially

26 Badr al-Din al-Zarkasyi, al-Burhan fi ‘Ulum al-Qur’an (Cairo: Maktabat Dar al-Turath,

n.d.), 1:13. 27 Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 103.



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historical function and meaning one, can help us to explain the form of bayan. Likewise, the concept istikhraj ahkamihi wa-hikamihi can be elaborated by the term ‘implicative function of interpretation’. In sum, there should be such explanation of the definition of tafsir in the Islamic tradition, for it really helps the readers to understand its aspects. Yet, we are difficult to find them in the works of ‘ulum al-Qur’an. By integrating the hermeneutical theory, in this case the theory of Gracia, into the Islamic tradition, we can construct a more sophisticated and deeper definition of tafsir.

The second benefit of the integration of hermeneutics into the ‘ulum al-Qur’an is that it may develop the ethics of interpretation. For example, such theories as those of pluralistic truth, diversity of interpretative functions and subjectivity-objectivity in the interpretation can play an important role in avoiding the truth claim. Recently, fundamentalist groups have emerged in many places in the Islamic world. They consider their own interpretation of religious texts as the only true. This kind of view and attitude is contrary to the ethics of interpretation. This ethic says that an interpreter should not claim that his or her interpretation is the only true interpretation, for in fact there are many factors which limit an interpreter to come to the only exegetical truth. Practically, some earlier scholars had provided us lessons to avoid the truth claim. Al-Imam al-Syafi‘i, for example, said: “What I think is true, but it is possibly false, while what others think is false, but it may also be true”. His statement indicates that he did not regard himself as the most correct. Mutual respect among scholars of Islamic law, sufis, and Muslim philosophers in the past also showed clearly that they were in the correct ethic of interpretation. Such ethic should continue to be strengthened and developed in the current situation, so that we have tolerant attitude towards different interpretations.

6. Gadamer and ‘Ulum al-Qur`an

Another example of hermeneutical theories that might develop ‘ulum al-Qur`an is what Hans-Georg Gadamer mention in his works. He proposes the theories of ‘historically effected

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awareness’,28 ‘pre-understanding’,29 ‘fusion of horizons’30 and ‘application’31 proposed by Hans Georg Gadamer. In short, we can say that, according to these theories, everyone has his own horizon of understanding which results from historical situations in which he lives. This horizon creates pre-understanding, through which he can understand a text and make ‘dialogue’ with it. However, this pre-understanding should not impose on his understanding of the text in order that he does not misunderstand it. In reverse, he should let the text speak to him. He should also be aware that the text has its own horizon. So, if one interprets a text from the past, he must consider its historicity, meaning that he must look at its historical situations. In this case, both horizons have their own position and must be fused in the process of understanding. The awareness of the historicity of a text can prevent interpreters from misunderstandings. Thus, the pre-understanding of the interpreter and his/her contemporary horizons of understanding could impose on the interpretation without any proper reflection. This was already emphasized by Gadamer:

Das [d.h. den Text zu verstehen] bedeutet aber, dass die eigenen Gedanken des Interpreten in die Wiedererweckung des Textsinnes immer schon mit eingegangen sind. Insofern ist der eigene Horizont des Interpreten bestimmend, aber auch er nicht wie ein eigener Standpunkt, den man festhält oder durchsetzt, sondern mehr wie eine Meinung und Möglichkeit, die man ins Spiel bringt und aufs Spiel setzt und die mit dazu hilft, sich wahrhaft anzuzeigen, was in dem Texte gesagt ist. 32

The interpretation of a text, Gadamer argues, is like a conversation in which an interviewer tries to understand those who are being interviewed: “Die Auslegung ist wie das Gespräch

28 Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode, pp. 306-307. 29 Gadamer, Das Problem des historischen Bewusstseins, p. 5. 30 Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode, p. 367. 31 Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode, p. 313; Idem., “Text and Interpretation,” pp. 393-394. 32 It [i.e. to understand the text], however, means that the thoughts of the interpreter are

always brought in the reawakening of the meaning of the text. To this extent, the horizon of the interpreter could be influential, but it is not like a specific position that must be enforced firmly; it is rather an opinion and a possibility that one brings into play, and through its help, it is truly shown what is said or meant in the texts. See Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode, p. 392.



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ein durch die Dialektik von Frage und Antwort geschlossener Kreis”33 (the interpretation is like the conversation through the dialectic of question and answer closed circle). This comparison aims to avoid any misunderstanding of what someone says or what a text means. In conversation, this avoidance is easier than that in the interpretation of a text, but the hermeneutical mechanism is the same. The task of an interpreter resembles the task of a journalist: to get true information about what happened and what someone said. In other words, the first task of interpretation is to find out the original historical meaning which is in fact something fixed and immutable. The other task of interpretation is to explain how the Qur’an can be of importance for Muslims living in the moment of interpretation (i.e. in the present and future), in which the challenges and situations are or will be different from those at the time of the revelation.

In terms of religious and moral texts that should be implemented in the life, Gadamer adds the theory that these texts should be reinterpreted by paying more attention to their main messages (“meaningful sense”, Sinngemäß), not to their literal meaning. This represents balanced hermeneutics that gives fair position to the objectivity of the text and the subjectivity of the interpreter. To my mind, these theories are very suitable with the interpretation of the Qur’an. They accord, for example, with the theories of asbab an-nuzul (occasions of revelation), naskh (abrogation), makki-madani (Meccan and Medinan revelation) etc. Even, through the hermeneutical explanation these theories of ‘ulum al-Qur’an become more ‘elegant’ and reasonable.

33 Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode, p. 392.

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References

Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid, Ishkaliyyat al-Qira’a wa Aliyyat at-Ta’wil. al-Khuli, Amin, Manahij Tajdid fi n-Nahw wa-l-Balaghah wa-t-Tafsir

wa-l-Adab, Kairo: Dar al-Ma‘rifah, 1961. al-Zarkasyi, Badr al-Din, al-Burhan fi ‘Ulum al-Qur’an, Cairo:

Maktabat Dar al-Turath, n.d. Boullata, Issa J., “Introduction,” in Issa J. Boullata (ed.), Literary

Structures of Religious Meaning in the Qur’an, Richmond: Curzon Press, 2000.

Gadamer, “Text and Interpretation” Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode. Gracia, A Theory of Textuality: the Logic and Epistemology. Albany:

State University of New York Press, 1995. Hirsch, E.D. Jr., “Three Dimensions of Hermeneutics,” New

Literary History 3, 1972. Jung, Matthias, Hermeneutik zur Einführung, Hamburg: Junius,

2001. McAuliffe, Jane D., Qur’anic Christians: an Analysis of Classical and

Modern Exegesis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Saeed, Abdullah, Interpreting the Qur’an, London and New York: Routledge, 2006.

Specht, Ernst Konrad, “Literary-Critical Interpretation–Psycho-analytical Interpretation,” translated by John M. Conolly dan Thomas Keutner, in John M. Conolly dan Thomas Keutner (ed.), Hermeneutics versus Science? Three German Views, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

Talbi, Muhammad, ‘Iyal Allah, Tunis: Saras li-l-Nashr, 1992. Vedder, Ben, Was ist Hermeneutik? Ein Weg von der Textdeutung zur

Interpretation der Wirklichkeit, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2000.

KAJIAN ANTROPOLOGI DAN BAHASA

DI INDONESIA

Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra Antropologi Budaya, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya

Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta Indonesia 1. PENGANTAR Tidak mudah sebenarnya memetakan kajian-kajian antropologi dan kajian bahasa di Indonesia, karena adanya beberapa kendala yang tidak mudah diatasi. Pertama adalah tidak mudahnya memperoleh informasi mengenai jurnal-jurnal ilmiah yang me-muat hasil-hasil kajian antropologi dan bahasa di Indonesia, karena tidak adanya ja-ringan jurnal ilmiah yang representatif dan mudah diakses. Kedua, sulitnya mendapat-kan informasi mutakhir mengenai penerbitan hasil kajian antropologi dan bahasa beru-pa buku-buku karena tidak adanya pusat informasi mengenai penerbitan buku-buku il-miah di Indonesia. Ketiga, Tidak adanya pusat informasi perjurnalan dan perbukuan yang mudah diakses, yang dapat memberikan informasi mengenai perkembangan mu-takhir jurnal-jurnal dan buku-buku ilmiah di Indonesia. Oleh karena itu, pemetaan kaji-an antropologi dan bahasa dalam makalah ini haruslah dipandang sebagai sebuah upaya awal dari upaya besar melakukan pemetaan atas hal yang sama di masa-masa yang akan datang. Mengingat pemahaman saya mengenai antropologi dan ilmu bahasa (linguistik) ti-dak sama, maka pemetaan kajian antropologi dan linguistik di sini juga menggunakan perspektif yang berbeda. Untuk memetakan kajian antropologi, saya menggunakan perspektif paradigma, sehingga kajian-kajian antropologi yang saya ketahui kemudian dapat diklasifikasi berdasarkan atas jenis paradigma yang digunakan dalam penelitian. Untuk pemetaan kajian bahasa saya menggu-nakan perspektif permasalahan, sehing-ga kajian-kajian liinguistik yang saya ketahui dapat dikelompokkan atas dasar hasil yang didapat oleh kajian-kajian tersebut. Meskipun cara telaah seperti ini akan

Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra


34

mem-buat hasilnya tidak sebanding satu dengan yang lain, namun hal itu tidak akan mengu-rangi manfaat dari hasil pemetaan tersebut.

Pemetaan kajian antropologi berdasarkan paradigma akan menghasilkan peta ten-tang paradigma-paradigma antropologi yang telah digunakan oleh para peneliti di In-donesia. Atas dasar peta ini para peneliti kemudian dapat menggunakan paradigma-paradigma antropologi yang belum banyak digunakan di Indonesia, atau mengem-bangkan lebih lanjut berbagai paradigma yang telah digunakan. Pemetaan kajian ke-bahasaan atas dasar masalah akan menghasilkan peta tentang permasalahan yang telah dikaji oleh para peneliti bahasa di Indonesia. Dengan demikian para peneliti ke-bahasaan di Indonesia akan dapat memperdalam meneliti masalah-masalah yang te-lah dikaji, atau membuka lahan permasalahan baru yang masih belum dijamah oleh peneliti lain.

Pemetaan kajian-kajian antropologi di sini saya mulai dari masa 1960an, ketika to-koh antropologi Indonesia, Koentjaraningrat, mulai menerbitkan buku-buku hasil pene-litiannya. Dengan membandingkan berbagai hasil kajian antropologi Indonesia di masa itu dengan masa kini, dapat diketahui perkembangan paradigmatis dari antropologi se-bagai salah satu cabang ilmu sosial-budaya. Perkembangan baru terlihat di masa per-tengahan 1980an, ketika buku-buku dan tulisan antropologi yang lebih teoritis mulai bermunculan, yang kemudian berpengaruh terhadap corak paradigma yang digunakan oleh sarjana-sarjana antropologi Indonesia dalam penelitian-penelitian mereka. Atas dasar inilah paparan mengenai peta kajian antropologi di Indonesia di sini dibagi da-lam dua periode besar. Periode pre-1985, dan periode post-1985. 2. PARADIGMA ANTRO-INDONESIA PRA-1985

Pada masa 1960-1985, penelitian-penelitian antropologi di Indonesia pada umum-nya mengikuti salah satu corak dari tiga corak penelitian di masa itu, yaitu: (a) peneliti-an deskriptif atau etnografis, yang tidak sangat analitis; (b) penelitian deskriptif tipolo-gis; dan (c) penelitian deskriptif mengenai perubahan-perubahan masyarakat dan ke-budayaan, yang sedikit lebih analitis (Ahimsa-Putra, 2007). Kebanyakan penelitian ini

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ditujukan terutama untuk dapat menghasilkan informasi yang sebaik-baiknya menge-nai masyarakat dan budaya tertentu, yang akan dapat memberikan pemahaman yang lebih baik pada pembaca mengenai masyarakat dan kebudayaan di Indonesia. Etno-grafi ini juga diharapkan akan dapat bermanfaat untuk studi perbandingan kebudaya-an, yang lebih luas cakupannya.

a. Deskripti-Etnografis Paradigma deskriptif etnografis dalam antropologi Indone-

sia terlihat terutama pada berbagai tulisan dari Koentjaraningrat mengenai suku-suku-bangsa yang telah ditelitinya, baik itu secara langsung ataupun melalui studi kepusta-kaan. Sebagian dasar paradigma ini dipaparkan dalam bukunya Atlas Etnografi Sedu-nia. Dalam hal ini perlu diingat bahwa Koentjaraningrat jarang sekali –untuk tidak me-ngatakan belum pernah- berbicara mengenai paradigma yang melatarbelakangi tulis-an-tulisannya. Cap paradigma deskriptif, etnografis adalah istilah yang saya gunakan untuk menyebut paradigma yang tidak pernah dinyatakan secara eksplisit oleh Koen-tjaraningrat tersebut.

Hasil dari penggunaan paradigma tersebut dalam studi kebudayaan adalah kum-pulan deskripsi kebudayaan yang diteliti. Deskripsi ini dikatakan bersifat etnografis karena merupakan uraian mengenai unsur-unsur kebudayaan yang dianggap penting pada semua suku-bangsa di dunia, terutama matapencaharian dan organisasi sosial. Matapencaharian mencakup antara lain: pertanian, peternakan, perikanan, berburu dan meramu, sedang organisasi sosial meliputi antara lain: kelompok-kelompok keke-rabatan, pola menetap setelah menikah, perkawinan, istilah kekerabatan, pelapisan sosial dan integrasi politik dan suksesi (Ahimsa-Putra, 2007).

b. Deskriptif-Tipologis Paradigma penelitian yang secara tidak begitu disadari di-

perkenalkan oleh Koentjaraning-rat adalah paradigma deskriptif tipologis, yang terlihat terutama dalam penelitian Koentjaraningrat serta beberapa ahli antropologi dari gene-rasi sesudahnya. Ada beberapa ciri utama dari paradigma ini. Salah satunya adalah adanya tipologisasi atau klasifikasi atas gejala yang diteliti. Masing-masing tipe ka-dang-kadang diberi nama, kadang-kadang juga tidak, namun pada setiap tipe atau ke-las



36

ada ciri-ciri yang umum dan menonjol, yang membedakannya dengan tipe atau ke-las yang lain. Hasil penelitian dengan paradigma ini terlihat misalnya pada buku Koentjaraningrat Introduction to Peoples and Cultures of Indonesia and Malaysia (1975). Dalam buku ini Koentjaraningrat mengklasifikasi masyarakat Indonesia yang berbagai macam itu ber-dasarkan atas pola adaptasi mereka, sebagaimana terlihat pada mata pencaharian mereka. Meskipun Koentjaraningrat mengatakan bahwa pengelompokkan puluhan ke-budayaan Indonesia dan Malaysia menjadi empat macam tipe kebudayaan berdasar-kan atas “the number of cultural influences integrated in the culture”, akan tetapi yang kemudian lebih terlihat justru aspek matapencaharian dan lokasi topografis kebudaya-an tersebut. Empat tipe kebudayaan yang dikemukakan adalah: (1) kebudayaan-kebudayaan yang berdasarkan atas perladangan berpindah, dengan tanam-tanaman seperti ubi talas, ubi jalar, dan ubi-ubian lainnya; (2) kebudayaan-kebudayaan peda-laman yang berdasarkan atas pertanian kering dan basah, dengan padi sebagai ta-naman utamanya; (3) kebudayaan pantai yang berdasarkan atas pertanian kering dan basah, dengan padi sebagai tanaman utama; (4) kebudayaan pedalaman berdasarkan atas pertanian padi basah (1975b: 52-59).

c. Perubahan (Jangka Pendek) Paradigma perubahan merupakan salah satu paradigma

yang populer di kalangan ahli antropologi,.yang memang membuat antro-pologi kemudian mirip dengan sejarah. Meskipun demikian, hasil penelitian dengan perspektif perubahan ini tetap berbeda dengan hasil penelitian ahli sejarah pada umumnya, karena dalam hal ini para ahli antropologi jarang meneliti proses perubahan yang berlangsung dalam waktu yang lama. Jika toh proses perubahan yang diteliti ter-nyata berlangsung dalam waktu yang cukup lama, maka strategi penulisan hasil pene-litian ini kemudian berbeda dengan strategi penulisan ahli sejarah pada umumnya.

Dalam penelitian dengan paradigma ini ahli antropologi memusatkan perhatian pa-da perubahan-perubahan masyarakat dan kebudayaan, atau pada salah satu gejala sosial-budaya tertentu, bukan pada peristiwa-peristiwa yang khusus. Misalnya



37

saja perubahan pada matapencaharian, pada sistem kepercayaan, pada sistem kekera-batan, dan seterusnya.

Tiga macam paradigma itulah yang terlihat dalam tulisan-tulisan etnografi yang muncul di tahun-tahun sebelum 1985. Sebagian besar tulisan ini muncul dalam bentuk artikel-artikel yang kemudian dihimpun menjadi sebuah buku dengan editor Koentjara-ningrat. Para penulisnya adalah sarjana-sarjana antropologi yang hampir semuanya adalah anak-bimbing Koentjaraningrat sewaktu mereka mahasiswa (Ahimsa-Putra, 2007) 3. PARADIGMA ANTRO-INDONESIA POST-1985

Periode setelah 1985 yang berlanjut sampai kini -yang berarti selama kira-kira 20 tahun, merupakan periode ketika antropologi sebagai sebuah disiplin mengalami per-kembangan yang pesat di Indonesia. Ini sangat terlihat pada paradigma yang diguna-kan oleh para ahli antropologi dalam penelitian-penelitian mereka. Beberapa paradig-ma baru yang muncul dalam antropologi di Barat terlihat lebih jelas setelah tahun 1985 sementara itu paradigma-paradigma yang sudah muncul sebelumnya juga tidak meng-hilang, sehingga paradigma-paradigma antropologi di Indonesia menjadi lebih banyak dan lebih bervariasi.

a. Deskriptif, Tipologis, / Klasifikatoris Sebagaimana halnya paradigma perban-dingan cross-

cultural, perkembangan paradigma deskriptif tipologis ini juga tidak ba-nyak terjadi pada unsur-unsur pemikiran teoritis yang mendasarinya, tetapi lebih pada datanya. Untuk dapat melakukan tipologisasi kebudayaan yang cukup komprehensif diperlukan data etnografi yang cukup banyak dan lengkap mengenai kebudayaan-ke-budayaan yang ada atau mengenai gejala kebudayaan yang akan diklasifikasi. Data semacam inilah yang terlihat bertambah jumlahnya dalam tulisan-tulisan yang dihasil-kan oleh para ahli antropologi Indonesia, walaupun tidak semua etnografi tersebut di-tujukan untuk menjadi bahan bagi pengembangan kajian yang deskriptif tipologis (Ahimsa-Putra, 2007)



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Sistem taksonomi, tipologi, atau klasifikasi ini memang sangat diperlukan dalam ke-giatan ilmiah agar data yang begitu banyak dan bervariasi dapat dikuasai dengan cara tertentu atau dapat dipahami dari suatu sudut pandang tertentu serta tampak memiliki keteraturan. Meskipun demikian, perlu diingat di sini bahwa kategorisasi atau ketera-turan tersebut sebenarnya merupakan hasil kerja dari pikiran kita, dan tidak inherent terdapat dalam data yang berhasil dikumpulkan (Ahima-Putra, 2007).

Data etnografi yang telah terkumpul akhirnya memunculkan suatu kebutuhan untuk memiliki sebuah gambar yang agak umum mengenai masyarakat dan kebudayaan di Indonesia. Untuk itu diperlukan sebuah sistem klasifikasi masyarakat dan kebudayaan di Indonesia yang akan memungkinkan peneliti memahami variasi tersebut dengan agak mudah. Klasifikasi ini didasarkan pada kriteria tertentu yang dapat dipilih oleh se-orang peneliti sesuai dengan kebutuhannya. Tonggak utama dari kehadiran paradig-ma semacam ini dalam antropologi Indonesia adalah buku Koentjaraningrat mengenai masyarakat Indonesia dan Malaysia. Buku ini berada dalam satu jalur dengan buku dari Hilderd Geertz (19 ) yang juga menampilkan tipe-tipe masyarakat dan kebudaya-an di Indonesia.

Walaupun paradigma perbandingan ini telah muncul sebelum tahun 1985, namun pada periode setelah 1985 tetap tidak terlihat adanya wacana yang lebih teoritis me-ngenai studi perbandingan kebudayaan ini. Bahkan studi-studi kebudayaan secara komparatif tidak terasa begitu populer. Yang terlihat pada masa ini adalah perkemba-ngan yang cukup pesat pada tataran data etnografinya

b. Fungsionalisme Fungsionalisme dalam antropologi hadir ketika

Malinowski da-pat melakukan penelitian lapangan dalam waktu yang relatif lama di kalangan orang Trobriand. Dengan strategi ini, ahli antropologi dapat memusatkan perhatiannya pada peristiwa-peristiwa atau unsur-unsur budaya tertentu dalam suatu masyarakat, dan menghubungkannya dengan unsur-unsur yang lain, atau mencoba memahami kebera-daan unsur budaya



39

tersebut dengan memperhatikan fungsi unsur tersebut dalam ke-budayaan. Sebagaimana yang terjadi pada aliran fungsional dalam antropologi di Ing-gris, aliran ini juga muncul di Indonesia karena fokus studi antropologi yang semakin tajam, yang didukung dengan penelitian lapangan pada masyarakat tertentu.

Masa setelah 1985 dalam antropologi di Indonesia juga ditandai oleh semakin po-pulernya paradigma fungsionalisme-struktural di kalangan para ahli antropologi Indo-nesia. Dalam analisis semacam ini peneliti menggunakan model organisme atau sis-tem untuk memahami masyarakat atau kebudayaan yang diteliti. Kebudayaan di sini dilihat sebagai suatu kesatuan dari berbagai elemen yang saling berhubungan atau berkaitan satu dengan yang lain secara fungsional, dan fungsi tidak lain adalah sum-bangan atau kontribusi yang diberikan oleh suatu unsur kepada unsur-unsur yang lain atau kepada bekerjanya keseluruhan sistem. Dengan digunakannya model sistem ini, tugas peneliti kemudian adalah menetapkan unsur-unsur apa saja yang membentuk suatu kebudayaan dan memperlihatkan hubungan fungsional antar unsur-unsur terse-but, sehingga kebudayaan tersebut bisa tampil sebagai suatu kesatuan yang utuh, yang jika salah satu unsurnya mengalami perubahan, maka unsur-unsur yang lain ju-ga akan mengalami perubahan.

Paradigma fungsional berhasil muncul dalam antropologi Indonesia ketika generasi antropologi Indonesia yang baru mulai muncul. Kajian antropologi yang begitu jelas je-jak fungsionalnya adalah kajian mengenai trah dari Syafri Sairin. Walaupun Syafri ti-dak sangat sadar akan paradigma fungsional yang dimanfaatkannya dalam kajian ini –terbukti dia tidak berbicara mengenai fungsionalisme dalam antropologi dalam buku-nya-, namun dia banyak menggunakan kata “fungsi”. Keinginan memahami unsur bu-daya lewat kacamata fungsional ini muncul karena Syafri tidak lagi memusatkan per-hatian pada kebudayaan secara umum, dalam hal ini budaya Jawa, tetapi salah satu unsur budaya Jawa saja, yakni trah atau organisasi sosial yang didasarkan pada hu-bungan-hubungan kekerabatan. Kajian fungsional ini semakin populer di kalangan ahli-ahli antropologi dari angkatan setelah Syafri Sairin, angkatan tahun 1970-1980an, dan kebanyakan kajian ini adalah mengenai rituil, yang sebagian



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dimuat dalam buku yang diedit oleh Koentjaraningrat, Ritus Peralihan (19 ).

1) Fungsionalisme-Struktural Kalau kajian fungsional menekankan pada fungsi-fungsi

dari suatu gejala sosial-budaya tertentu dalam arti yang luas, telaah fungsional-struktural memusatkan perhatian pada fungsi dari suatu gejala sosial-budaya terhadap struktur sosial yang ada dalam suatu masyarakat. Paradigma fungsional-struktural ter-masuk dalam paradigma dengan epistemologi positivisme, karena dalam paradigma ini -sebagaimana dikatakan oleh salah satu tokoh utamanya, A.R.Radcliffe-Brown- model yang digunakan untuk memandang gejala sosial-budaya diambil dari ilmu alam, yakni model organisme. Dengan kata lain, peneliti yang menggunakan paradigma fungsional-struktural beranggapan bahwa gejala sosial-budaya adalah seperti gejala alam. Konsep yang sangat penting dalam pendekatan ini adalah struktur sosial, yang oleh A.R.Radcliffe-Brown didefinisikan sebagai hubungan-hubungan antarindividu yang dapat diamati dalam kehidupan sehari-hari (1945).

Kajian fungsional-struktural ini terlihat misalnya dalam kajian-kajian dari Suparlan (1991), Danandjaja (1989) dan Ahimsa-Putra (1988). Penelitian Ahimsa-Putra menge-nai hubungan patron-klien di Sulawesi Selatan -yang diilhami oleh kajian James C. Scott tentang gejala yang sama di Asia Tenggara pada umumnya- pada dasarnya mencoba menunjukkan gejala tersebut sebagai hasil dari kondisi-kondisi sosio-struk-tural tertentu dalam masyarakat, dalam hal ini masyarakat Bugis dan Makassar. Ini agak berbeda dengan kajian Suparlan mengenai hunian liar di Jakarta. Di mata Supar-lan, hunian liar di Jakarta merupakan “unsur yang terkait dengan unsur-unsur lainnya secara menyeluruh, dan fungsional dalam tingkat-tingkat tertentu” (1991: 11). Kajian dengan perspektif struktural-fungsional namun tidak sangat eksplisit misalnya adalah kajian Digdoyo (2004) mengenai peran warok dalam dalam masyarakat Ponorogo.



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2) Etnosains (Fenomenologi) Beberapa penelitian dalam antropologi yang muncul pada

tahun 60an, yang menggunakan paradigma ethnoscience (etnosains), merupa-kan kajian-kajian yang dekat dengan pandangan fenomenologi yang berkembang da-lam sosiologi (lihat Ahimsa-Putra, 1986). Oleh karena itulah, saya memilih mengguna-kan istilah antropologi fenomenologi, yaitu antropologi menggunakan pandangan-pandangan epistemologis dari filsafat fenomenologi sebagai landasannya.

Akar dari paradigma fenomenologis atau etnosains dalam antropologi sebenarnya sudah terlihat dalam buku Malinowski yang sangat terkenal, The Argonauts of the Western Pacific. Dalam buku mengenai orang-orang Trobriand ini Malinowski antara lain mengatakan bahwa tujuan akhir dari seorang penulis etnografi (baca: ahli antropo-logi) adalah “to grasp the native’s point of view, his relation to life, to realize his vision of his world" (1961: 25). Dengan kata lain, ahli antropologi harus dapat memandang dunianya sebagaimana masyarakat yang ditelitinya memandang dunia tersebut. Ini tentu bukan pekerjaan yang mudah.

Sebagai sebuah pendekatan yang pada awalnya banyak memperhatikan sistem klasifikasi manusia mengenai lingkungan dan hubungannya dengan aktivitas manusia, pendekatan etnosains dengan sendirinya sangat mudah untuk dibawa masuk ke bi-dang kajian antropologi ekonomi dan ekologi, karena pada bidang kajian inilah perila-ku manusia terhadap lingkungannya merupakan obyek utama penelitian. Tidak meng-herankan bilamana di Indonesia etnosains ini juga terlihat pertama-tama dalam kajian antropologi ekonomi dan kemudian antropologi ekologi. Dalam antropologi ekonomi pendekatan ini terlihat misalnya dalam kajian Ahimsa-Putra mengenai penjaja sate da-ri Madura di Yogyakarta (19 ) dan kajian Destha T.Rahardjana (2003) mengenai pengusaha pakaian konveksi di Mlangi.

Kajian antropologi fenomenologis yang berusaha menampilkan pandangan masya-rakat secara umum, dengan cara pelukisan yang tidak formal, dilakukan misalnya oleh Pranowo (1985) dan Sasongko (1991). Keduanya membahas tentang persepsi ma-syarakat yang tinggal di lereng gunung



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Merapi. Sebelumnya, kajian tentang persepsi penduduk lereng Merapi ini telah pernah dilakukan oleh Laksono (1985b). Kajian-kaji-an etnoekologi ini tampaknya bertambah populer kini di kalangan ahli antropologi Indo-nesia. Beberapa mahasiswa pascasarjana antropologi telah ada yang mulai melaku-kan kajian-kajian etnoekologis, seperti misalnya Amsikan (2000), yang meneliti ten-tang kearifan ekologi orang Biboki di Timor, dan Lahajir (2001). Kajian dari Lahajir ten-tang etnoekologi orang Dayak Tunjung Linggang di Kalimantan Timur juga telah diter-bitkan (2001). Kajian-kajian yang lain terlihat dalam studi mengenai strategi adaptasi, seperti misalnya yang dilakukan oleh Arifin (1998) di kalangan orang Talang di daerah Lampung, oleh Griapon (2005) mengenai pengetahu-an lokal orang Genyem di Papua dan perilaku mereka dalam bidang kesehatan (Ahimsa-Putra, 2007).

3) Tafsir Kebudayaam (Hermeneutis) Menelaah suatu kebudayaan dengan cara menafsir ini dalam antropologi sudah mulai terlihat dalam hasil-hasil kajian dari Ruth Benedict (19 ). Meskipun demikian, sebagai sebuah paradigma sekaligus epistemolo-gi dalam antropologi, hermeneutik baru mendapat wujudnya yang jelas dan eksplisit dalam kajian-kajian antropologi yang dikerjakan oleh Clifford Geertz dan Victor Turner.

Tafsir budaya yang berada dalam jalur Victor Turner adalah tafsir yang dilakukan oleh Irwan Abdullah (1985; 1986) mengenai makna simbol-simbol gunungan kakung (laki-laki) dalam upacara Garebeg di Kraton Yogyakarta. Setahu saya, inilah analisis yang cukup rinci mengenai unsur-unsur simbolis dari sebuah rituil di Jawa. Apa yang dilakukan sejalan dengan yang ditunjukkan oleh Victor Turner dalam analisisnya ten-tang rituil penyembuh-an di kalangan orang Ndembu di Afrika. Dengan teliti Abdullah memaparkan berbagai unsur yang ada pada gunungan dan apa makna masing-ma-sing unsur ini menurut pandangan pembuatnya, yakni pihak Kraton (1991).



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Dari periode tahun 1980an kajian antropologi dengan perspektif interpretif Geertz sama sekali belum terlihat, namun mulai tahun 1990an studi ahli antropologi pada jalur ini semakin lama semakin banyak. Di antaranya adalah kajian Budi Susanto (1993) mengenai sebuah peristiwa unik di kota Yogyakarta, analisis Ninuk Kleden atas kese-nian topeng Betawi (19 ); analisis Irwan Abdullah atas mitos menstruasi (2002); anali-sis Ahimsa-Putra (2003) atas wacana perdebatan di sekitar tokoh pencetus ide Se-rangan Oemoem 1 Maret 1949 di kota Yogyakarta, studi dari Wei (2005) mengenai pe-maknaan orang Tionghoa di Indonesia terhadap keberadaan mereka dalam masyara-kat Indonesia, studi Apriyani (2004) mengenai fenomena kawin-cerai (merarik-bese-ang) di kalangan orang Sasak di Lombok, kajian dari Damis (1999) mengenai taptu hi-jrah yang diselenggarakan oleh kaum muda muslim di kota Manado, kajian dari Brata (2003) mengenai sebuah peristiwa politik di Yogyakarta, Pisowanan Ageng, yang ter-jadi pada awal era Reformasi, kajian dari Darmana (2004) mengenai seni prasa di Ba-li. Budi Susanto (1993) mencoba menafsir sebuah peristiwa unik di kota Yogyakarta, yang tidak mendapat liputan pers yang luas. Dari pembacaannya atas “Peristiwa Yogya tersebut” Budi Susanto sampai pada kesimpulan bahwa peristiwa tersebut me-rupakan “siasat kebudayaan politis rakyat Yogya”.(Ahimsa-Putra, 2007)

4) Strukturalisme (Lévi-Strauss)

Analisis struktural Lévi-Strauss berangkat dari pandangan bahwa fenomena sosial-budaya, seperti misalnya pakaian, menu makan-an, mitos rituil dan sebagainya, merupakan gejala yang sama dengan gejala kebaha-saan (seperti ‘kalimat’ atau ‘teks’), karena gejala-gejala tersebut mempunyai makna tertentu atau diberi makna tertentu. Selain itu, gejala tersebut menghasilkan makna le-wat suatu mekanisme artikulasi (Pettit, 1977: 42). Seperti halnya gejala kebahasaan, maka gejala sosial-budaya juga dapat dipandang sebagai sign atau ‘tanda’, dan seba-gaimana kata de Saussure, sebuah sign pada dasarnya memiliki dua aspek, signified (tinanda) dan signifier (penanda). Hubungan antara tinanda dan penandanya bersifat arbitrair, semena-semena, dan karena



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itu hanya atas dasar konsensus. Tidak ada hu-bungan intrinsik antara tinanda dan penandanya. Di tahun 1990an aliran ini mulai lebih dikenal setelah adanya kuliah mengenai strukturalisme Lévi-Strauss di jurusan antropologi UGM yang diberikan oleh P.M.Lak-sono dan H.S. Ahimsa-Putra. Pada awalnya pengetahuan mengenai strukturalisme Lévi-Strauss masih terbatas pada pengetahuan saja, namun setelah munculnya buku Strukturalisme Lévi-Strauss, Mitos dan Karya Sastra, tidak sedikit mahasiswa antropo-logi yang kemudian mencoba menerapkan cara analisis struktural ini dalam skripsi dan tesis mereka.

Diilhami oleh cara analisis struktural yang digunakan oleh Lévi-Strauss ketika menganalisis sebuah mitos Indian, Ahimsa-Putra menganalisis sebuah mitos yang cu-kup panjang dari kalangan orang Bajo. Dengan keberhasilannya menampilkan struktur tertentu yang ada dalam mitos ini, dibantu dengan data etnografi orang Bajo yang cu-kup lengkap Ahimsa-Putra sampai pada penafsiran bahwa mitos Bajo tersebut meru-pakan hasil dari upaya orang Bajo untuk memahami kontradiksi-kontradiksi empiris yang mereka alami dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.

Keunggulan analisis struktural untuk mitos dibanding dengan analisis yang lain ter-lihat kembali ketika Ahimsa-Putra menerapkan analisis yang sama untuk memahami dua cerita pendek dan sebuah novel karya-karya Umar Kayam. Analisis struktural ini telah berhasil menampilkan keterkaitan antarteks (intertekstualitas) di antara karya-karya sastra tersebut. Bahkan, lebih dari itu Ahimsa-Putra kemudian berhasil menam-pilkan transformasi-transformasi yang ada antara kenyataan empiris dalam masyara-kat Jawa, dengan ceritera Umar Kayam tentang priyayi Jawa, serta pandangan hidup orang Jawa (lihat Ahimsa-Putra, 2001).

Paradigma struktural ini kemudian dicoba diterapkan untuk memahami dan meng-ungkap struktur rumah-rumah tradisional di Indonesia. Leily (1998) misalnya, mencoba membandingkan struktur rumah tradisional Jawa (joglo) dengan rumah Cina. Purwadi (2002) mencoba mengungkap struktur di balik rumah tradisional Sumba dan menun-jukkan transformasinya dengan struktur yang ada dalam aspek-aspek



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budaya lain ma-syarakat Sumba, sedang Dadang (1999) memilih mengungkap struktur di balik rumah tradisional Palembang.

4. PENELITIAN BAHASA

Sebagaimana telah saya katakan, pemetaan mengenai penelitian bahasa di sini berbeda dengan pemetaan penelitian antropologi, yaitu berdasarkan atas masalah atau hubungan bahasa dengan fenomena di luarnya, terutama dengan kebudayaan. Dari sejumlah penelitian yang telah dilakukan, setidak-tidaknya dapat ditemukan tiga macam penelitian kebahasaan yang terkait dengan kebudayaan, yakni mengenai (a) bahasa dan pengetahuan khas; (b) bahasa dan pola pikir; (c) bahasa dan perasaan, persepsi manusia; dan (d) bahasa, wacana dan perubahan kebudayaan. Pemetaan ini tentu berbeda dengan pemetaan yang menggunakan perspektif linguistik

Bahasa dan Pengetahuan Khas. Pengetahuan manusia merupakan hasil dari proses adaptasi terhadap situasi dan kondisi lokal. Oleh karena itu khasanah penge-tahuan ini biasanya bersifat khas. Artinya, pengetahuan yang dimiliki oleh suatu ke-lompok, komunitas, sukubangsa atau masyarakat tersebut tidak dimiliki oleh kelom-pok, komunitas, sukubangsa atau masyarakat yang lain. Seringkali pengetahuan yang sangat penting dalam suatu masyarakat ini terlihat sangat sepele bagi masyarakat yang lain, sebagaimana yang terlihat pada kajian Metzger dan Williams (1966) menge-nai kayu bakar (firewood) pada masyarakat Indian Tzeltzal.

Bagi masyarakat tertentu, klasifikasi tentang kayu ini terlihat sangat tidak penting, sehingga kajian antropologi yang ilmiah atas kategori-kategori berkenaan dengan kayu ini terlihat sangat tidak penting. Namun, tidak demikian bagi orang Tzeltzal. Jika ditelu-suri lebih lanjut, akan terlihat bahwa klasifikasi kayu tersebut merupakan salah satu unsur budaya yang sangat penting dalam kehidupan orang Tzeltzal, karena mereka ini masih menggunakan kayu sebagai bahan bakar utamanya. Kehidupan mereka ternya-ta sangat tergantung pada ketersediaan kayu ini. Di sinilah pengetahuan mengenai ka-yu menjadi sangat penting bagi orang Tzeltzal. Dengan pengetahuan mereka menge-nai kayu dan berbagai jenis serta cirinya, orang Tzeltzal dapat



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memanfaatkan kayu dengan baik, dengan effisien, sehingga mereka dapat bertahan hidup di tengah ling-kungan mereka sekarang (Metzger dan Williams, 1966).

Contoh yang lain dapat kita peroleh dari daerah Minahasa, yaitu tentang pemanfa-atan pohon enau di kalangan orang Ratahan, yang diteliti oleh Benny Mogot (1998). Salah satu kegiatan pemanfaatan yang penting adalah menyadap nira dari pohon ter-sebut, yang kemudian dapat diubah menjadi tuak (saguer) untuk diminum, gula merah (untuk campuran minuman dan makanan) dan ”cap tikus”, sejenis minuman keras. Da-lam proses penyadapan ini orang Ratahan mengenal beberapa tahapan atau kegiatan yang tercermin dalam bahasa atau istilah-istilah yang mereka gunakan. Pengetahuan mengenai kegiatan-kegiatan ini merupakan pengetahuan khas yang dimiliki oleh orang Ratahan, yang tidak dimiliki oleh sukubangsa lain. Meskipun ada sukubangsa lainnya yang juga mengenal penyadapan nira dan pembuatan tuak, belum tentu pengetahuan mereka mengenai kegiatan ini sama.

Orang Ratahan menyebut kegiatan ”mengambil tuak” /maawey/, yang secara garis besar dibagi menjadi tiga kegiatan, yaitu ”mengolah mayang” /mamiho? oley/, ”menya-dap tuak” / manalur / dan ”memungut tuak” /maawey/. Kegiatan ”mengolah mayang” dapat dibagi lagi menjadi beberapa bidang kegiatan yang lebih kecil, yaitu ”member-sihkan mayang” /mamorsi oley/, ”memukul mayang” /manengko oley/, ”menggoyang mayang” /mularu oley/, ”memotong mayang” /mamoto? oley/, ”mengiris mayang” /ma-nuwas oley/. Kegiatan ”membersihkan mayang” terdiri dari beberapa kegiatan lagi, yai-tu: ”mengeluarkan ijuk” /matas kampuhan/, ”memotong pangkal pelepah” /matas kalu-pa/, dan ”mengupas mayang” /mulisi oley/ (Mogot, 1998). Rangkaian kegiatan /maa-wey/ dapat digambarkan dengan skema seperti pada halaman berikut. Skema ini sedi-kit berbeda dengan tabel yang disusun oleh Mogot. Perbedaan terdapat pada kategori /maawey/ yang menurut saya terdiri dari tiga sub-kategori kegiatan, yaitu /mamiho? oley/, ?manalur/, dan /maawey/, sedang menurut Mogot ada dua kategori saja, yaitu /mamiho? oley/ dan /maawey/.



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Skema 1. Sistem Klasifikasi Kegiatan Pengambilan Tuak Dalam Bahasa Ratahan

Pengetahuan yang khas ini seringkali sangat dijaga

dengan sadar kerahasiaannya oleh pemiliknya, karena jika kelompok lain mengetahuinya penguasaan mereka atas hal-hal tertentu akan disaingi oleh kelompok lain, dan mereka mungkin akan kalah da-lam persaingan. Oleh karena itu, ada kelompok-kelompok yang kemudian mencipta-kan ”bahasa rahasia” tertentu yang hanya diketahui oleh anggota kelompok tersebut. Inilah yang kemudian dikenal sebagai bahasa ”preman”, karena memang pada mula-nya diciptakan oleh para preman untuk menjaga kerahasiaan informasi yang mereka miliki, dan untuk menjaga keamanan mereka. Dengan adanya ”bahasa rahasia” ini mereka dapat berkomunikasi sesama mereka di tempat terbuka, di hadapan warga masyarakat yang lain, tanpa takut akan diketahui oleh orang lain apa yang sedang mereka percakapkan (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013)

Pada suku-sukubangsa tertentu pengetahuan yang khas ini juga merupakan kha-sanah pengetahuan yang sangat rinci dan bervariasi, sehingga merupakan sebuah khasanah pengetahuan yang sangat berharga tidak hanya bagi masyarakat pemilik-nya, tetapi juga bagi masyarakat yang lain. Jika pengetahuan seperti ini hilang maka hilanglah sebuah khasanah pengetahuan yang tak ada duanya, yang juga merupakan hilangnya sebuah wawasan kemanusiaan yang dimiliki umat manusia. Oleh karena setiap bahasa merupakan sebuah kekayaan intelektual yang tidak ada



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duanya, maka kelestarian setiap bahasa sebenarnya sangat perlu untuk dipertahankan.

Bahasa dan Pola Pikir, Para ahli antropologi -yang

diawali oleh pandangan dari Edward Sapir dan Benjamin L.Whorf- telah menunjukkan bahwa bahasa tidak hanya memuat pengetahuan, tetapi juga memuat suatu logika, suatu cara berfikir, suatu cara memahami dunia, suatu kecerdasan yang bersifat khas. Logika atau kecerdasan ini berbeda dengan isi pengetahuan. Kecerdasan, logika, cara berfikir, merupakan ke-mampuan untuk menganalisis, memahami dan menjelaskan gejala-gejala yang diha-dapi lewat sudut pandang tertentu. Kemampuan ini juga mencakup di dalamnya ke-mampuan untuk merangkai elemen-elemen pengetahuan tertentu sedemikian rupa sehingga muncul suatu konfigurasi pengetahuan baru yang khas, yang memperluas cakrawala pemikiran yang telah ada.

Termasuk dalam logika berfikir adalah patokan-patokan yang digunakan oleh suatu masyarakat atau kelompok sosial untuk membedakan sesuatu dengan sesuatu yang lain, atau menyamakan sesuatu dengan sesuatu yang lain. Inilah yang dimaksud de-ngan patokan untuk mengklasifikasi, menggolong-golongkan berbagai gejala yang di-hadapi. Sebagai contoh adalah sistem klasifikasi kayu bakar yang didapat oleh Metz-ger dan Williams dari kalangan orang Indian Tzeltzal di atas. Berdasarkan atas penilai-an tertentu orang Tzeltzal membagi kayu bakar pada umumnya menjadi dua jenis: yang bagus dan yang jelek. Kayu bakar yang bagus adalah yang memiliki ciri: keras, membakar dengan kuat, cepat kering, apinya panas, sedang kayu bakar yang jelek adalah yang: lunak, cepat menyala (cepat habis terbakar), lambat kering, apinya tidak sangat panas (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013) Tabel 1. Evaluation of firewood ____________________________________________________________________________ Good Poor ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Hard wood Soft wood 2. Burns strongly Burns quickly 3. Dries rapidly Dries slowly 4. It fire is hot Its fire is only a little hot ____________________________________________________________________________

Sumber : D’Andrade, 1995: 60.



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Klasifikasi kayu bakar orang Tzeltzal menunjukkan bahwa mereka memiliki pola pi-kir tertentu berkenaan dengan kayu tersebut. Penilaian mereka atas kayu bakar dihu-bungkan dengan ciri-ciri yang ada pada kayu dalam hubungannya dengan pembakar-an dan api. Di sini klasifikasi atas dasar jenis pohonnya tidak relevan. Patokan untuk kayu yang berhubungan dengan pembakaran ada empat yaitu: keras-lunaknya, pem-bakarannya, cepat-lambatnya mengering, dan [anas api yang dihasilkan. Patokan ini merupakan salah satu bagian dari pola pikir orang Tzeltzal dalam memandang ling-kungan fisik/material mereka, khususnya mengenai kayu (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013).

Klasifikasi kayu pada orang Tzeltzal di atas dapat dikatakan bersifat ”ekonomis”. Namun demkian, tidak setiap klasifikasi unsur lingkungan ini selalu berdasarkan pada prinsip ”ekonomi”. Sebagaimana dikatakan oleh Levi-Strauss (1966), gejala-gejala em-piris tertentu seringkali mendapat perhatian besar dari suatu masyarakat bukan karena manfaat praktisnya, tetapi karena gejala tersebut juga memiliki manfaat ”teoritis”nya. Artinya, melalui wacana tentang gejala tersebut masyarakat dapat menyampaikan dan mengembangkan gagasan-gagasan tertentu. Sistem klasifikasi tidak selalu berdasar-kan prinsip ”good to eat”, tetapi juga bisa berdasarkan atas ”good to think (with)”.

Bahasa, Perasaan dan Persepsi Manusia. Bahasa juga memengaruhi dunia rasa manusia, karena melalui bahasa manusia menerima dan memahami situasi, kon-disi tertentu yang membuat manusia dapat merasa gembira, sedih, marah, dan seba-gainya. Tanpa rasa atau perasaan, manusia sebagai mahluk tidak akan lengkap, bah-kan menjadi lebih rendah daripada hewan, karena hewan pun masih memiliki rasa. Mengenai rasa ini ternyata juga banyak variasinya. Masing-masing masyarakat atau kebudayaan memiliki pandangannya sendiri menge-nai rasa yang mereka alami. Rasa ini bisa merupakan sesuatu yang dirasakan pada fisik, bisa juga sesuatu yang tidak bersifat fisik.

Untuk rasa yang berkaitan dengan fisik misalnya, orang Jawa memiliki istilah se-nep, mules, perih, panas, adem, senut-senut, cekot-cekot, dan sebagainya, sedang untuk yang non-fisik, yang lebih berkaitan dengan hati orang Jawa punya istilah ayem, tresna, seneng (bungah), susah, mangkel, nesu, anyel, dan sebagainya. Sebagian isti-lah-istilah tentang rasa ini dapat diterjemahkan ke



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dalam bahasa lain dengan cukup mudah, sebagian lagi tidak. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa meskipun secara fisik manu-sia dapat mengalami rasa yang ”sama”, namun persepsi atau kesadaran tentang rasa itu bisa berbeda-beda antara masyarakat yang satu dengan masyarakat yang lain, atau komunitas yang satu dengan komunitas yang lain.

Selain perasaan, hal lain yang sedikit-banyak berkaitan dengan rasa adalah per-sepsi manusia, misalnya tentang sesuatu yang indak atau tidak indah dipandang ma-ta. Ada berbagai kata yang kita gunakan untuk menyatkan keindahan sekuntum bunga misalnya Kita bisa mengatakan bunga itu indah, cantik, bagus, sesuai dengan apa yang kita rasakan melalui penglihatan kita. Kita bisa mengatakan bunganya ’bagus’, tapi kata ini dirasakan masih kurang menampilkan kualitas yang lain dari bunga itu, se-hingga kita kemudian memilih kata ’indah’. Kata yang ’indah’ mungkin dirasakan masih belum dapat menampilkan kualitas yang lain lagi dari bunga itu, sehingga kita merasa lebih tepat kalau bunga tersebut kita katakan ’cantik’. ’Bagus’, ’indah’ dan ’cantik’ de-ngan demikian juga merupakan kata-kata yang menunjukkan kualitas tertentu pada suatu benda atau yang dibendakan.

Berbagai perasaan manusia tidak akan dapat sepenuhnya disampaikan tanpa me-lalui bahasa, sehingga bahasa juga merupakan perangkat simbol yang menyimpan pengetahuan, pemahaman tentang rasa dan persepsi suatu kolektivitas manusia. Jika demikian maka kepunahan suatu bahasa adalah kepunahan sebuah perangkat simbol untuk memahami, memaknai dan mewujudkan perasaan-perasaan tertentu, dan ini berarti juga terjadinya pemiskinan atau pendangkalan aspek rasa dalam kehidupan manusia, yang juga berarti menurunnya kualitas kemanusiaan itu sendiri.

Jika kita sepakat dengan pandangan bahwa dimensi non-fisik manusia mempunyai dua dimensi lagi, yaitu (a) dimensi pikiran, pengetahuan atau kognisi (cognition), dan (b) dimensi perasaan atau afeksi (affection), maka paparan di atas menunjukkan bah-wa bahasa merupakan wujud empiris, wujud simbolis dari dua dimensi tersebut. Me-lalui bahasa manusia mewujudkan, menyatakan gagasan atau pemikirannya. Gagas-an mengenai dirinya, komunitasnya, masyarakatnya, nenek-



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moyangnya, lingkungan alamnya, mengenai dunia spiritualnya. Melalui bahasa pula manusia mewujudkan pe-rasaannya, sedih dan gembiranya, kekaguman dan kebenciannya, keluguan dan ke-canggihannya. Bahasa memang merupakan perangkat simbol yang mewujudkan dan sekaligus juga membentuk kemanusiaan kita. Bahasa, Wacana dan Perubahan Kebudayaan. Hubungan antara bahasa –da-lam arti sebuah perangkat simbol untuk komunikasi- dan perubahan masyarakat serta kebudayaan di sini tidak dapat bersifat langsung, karena bahasa di sini merupakan se-buah sistem yang otonom, yang mempunyai dinamika internalnya sendiri. Keterkaitan antara bahasa dengan kebudayaan berlangsung melalui sebuah proses yang biasa di-sebut wacana atau perbincangan, yang merupakan praktek kebahasaan. Dalam pro-ses perbincangan inilah bahasa diaktualisasikan, digunakan untuk menyampaikan pe-san-pesan, digunakan untuk membangun suatu pemahaman, pengetahuan atau ”ideo-logi” tertentu, untuk mempengaruhi mereka yang terlibat dalam proses komunikasi. Oleh karena itu, pemahaman mengenai perubahan kebudayaan melalui perspektif ke-bahasaan (linguistik) hanya dapat diperoleh jika kita menganalisis praktek-praktek ke-bahasaan atau proses-proses wacana dan bahasa yang menjadi sarananya. Itulah mengapa di masa kini analisis wacana (discourse ana-lysis) menjadi salah satu topik yang sangat diminati dalam kajian mengenai bahasa dan kebudayaan.

Perubahan kebudayaan dalam arti yang paling luas, biasanya mencakup paling se-dikit tiga hal, yakni perubahan masyarakat, perubahan kebudayaan itu sendiri -dalam arti yang lebih sempit- dan perubahan lingkungan. Meskipun secara empiris unsur lingkungan ini berada di luar masyarakat dan kebudayaan, namun dalam wacana per-ubahan kebudayaan dalam arti yang sangat umum -terutama yang menyangkut hu-bungan manusia dengan lingkungan-, seringkali unsur lingkungan juga dibicarakan, karena lingkungan di sini bisa mencakup unsur-unsur lingkungan yang dibuat oleh ma-nusia. Selain itu, ketika berhadapan dengan manusia, lingkungan alam yang tidak di-ciptakan oleh manusia pun lantas menjadi bagian dari kebudayaan, karena lingkungan alam tersebut dalam



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pandangan manusia tidak lagi ”sebagaimana adanya”, tetapi sudah dipahami, dimaknai dengan menggunakan kerangka berfikir tertentu. 5. PENUTUP

Dalam makalah ini saya mencoba memaparkan secara singkat pemetaan awal sa-ya atas penelitian-penelitian yang telah dilakukan oleh ahli antropologi dan ahli linguis-tik di Indonesia. Pemetaan penelitian antropologi dilakukan dengan menggunakan pa-radigma penelitian sebagai patokannya. Hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa penelitian an-tropologi di Indonesia telah dilakukan dengan menggunakan berbagai paradigma. Pa-da awalnya paradigma yang banyak digunakan adalah paradigma yang deskriptif et-nografis dan tipologis. Namun seiring dengan semakin banyaknya sarjana antropologi yang melanjutkan studinya ke luar negeri, penelitian antropologi selanjutnya mulai ba-nyak memanfaatkan paradigma-paradigma yang lebih analitis, seperti paradigma fung-sional, fungsionalisme-struktural, strukturalisme, dan tafsir kebudayaan.

Sementara itu pemetaan penelitian kebahasaan menggunakan kriteria permasa-lahan sebagai dasar pemetaan, yaitu hubungan antara bahasa dan gejala sosial-buda-ya lainnya. Hasil pemetaan menunjukkan adanya empat permasalahan yang telah di-teliti, yaitu masalah (a) bahasa dan pengetahuan khas; (b) bahasa dan pola pikir; (c) bahasa dan perasaan, persepsi; dan (d) bahasa, wacana dan perubahan kebudayaan. Sebagai suatu gejala kebudayaan, bahasa dapat diperlakukan sebagai sebuah sistem yang otonom, dengan dinamika internalnya sendiri. Namun, berkenaan dengan kebu-dayaan atau gejala-gejala non-bahasa dan perubahannya, bahasa hanya dapat dihu-bungkan dengan gejala tersebut melalui praktek penggunaannya, yang biasa disebut ”wacana”, ”perbincangan”. Melalui proses perbincangan inilah bahasa kemudian men-dapatkan dinamikanya, dan bahasa terkait dengan dunia kehidupan sehari-hari manu-sia pendukungnya (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013).

Sebagai suatu gejala kebudayaan, suatu bahasa pada dasarnya adalah sebuah gudang pengetahuan, yang menyimpan berbagai macam hal yang diketahui oleh ma-syarakat pendukungnya. Suatu bahasa dengan demikian merupakan harta



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yang sa-ngat bernilai tidak hanya bagi masyarakat pemiliknya, tetapi juga bagi masyarakat yang lain, bagi kelompok manusia yang lain. Suatu bahasa bernilai bagi kemanusiaan itu sendiri. Melestarikan bahasa atau melindungi suatu bahasa dari kepunahan adalah melindungi sebuah pengetahuan kolektif, yang merupakan salah satu harta warisan kebudayaan manusia. Melestarikan suatu bahasa berarti melestarikan kebudayaan dan kemanusiaan (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013).

Sehubungan dengan itu, kegiatan pelestarian bahasa perlu mendapatkan perhatian yang lebih besar, agar upaya tersebut dapat dilakukan secara sistematis dan effisien, dan hasilnya juga maksimal. Kepunahan suatu bahasa seringkali adalah sebuah ke-niscayaan. Untuk mengurangi derajat kehilangan yang diakibatkan oleh kepunahan tersebut, perlu dilakukan pelestarian bahasa, meskipun pasif sifatnya. Hal ini setidak-tidaknya akan menyadarkan kita bahwa setiap bahasa sangat mungkin akan mengha-dapi nasib yang sama. Oleh karena itu pula, untuk bahasa-bahasa yang masih hidup, pelestarian aktiflah yang lebih perlu untuk dilakukan (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013). DAFTAR PUSTAKA Ahimsa-Putra, H.S. 1997.“Etnolinguistik: Beberapa Bentuk

Kajian”. Widyaparwa 49 (Oktober):1-18. _________. 2009. ”Bahasa, Sastra dan Kearifan Lokal di

Indonesia”. Mabasan 3 (1): 30-57 _________. 2012. Pelindungan Bahasa dan Sastra : Metode, Teknik dan

Prosedur. Makalah Diskusi Kebahasaan dan Kesastraan _________.1985. “Etnosains dan Etnometodologi: Sebuah

Perbandingan”. Masyarakat Indonesia XII (2): 103-133. _________. 1986. Minawang: Hubungan Patron-Klien di Sulawesi

Selatan. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.



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_________. 1995. “Levi-Strauss di Kalangan Orang Bajo: Analisis Struktural dan Makna Ceritera Orang Bajo”. Kalam 6: 124-143.

_________.1996. “Sungai dan Air Ciliwung: Sebuah Kajian

Etnoekologi”. Prisma: _________.1997. “Antropologi Koentjaraningrat: Sebuah Tafsir

Epistemologis” dalam Koentjaraningrat dan Antropologi di Indonesia, E.K.M.Masinambow (ed.). Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.

_________. 1998.“Levi-Strauss, Orang-Orang PKI, Nalar Jawa, dan

Sosok Umar Kayam: Telaah Struktural-Hermeneutik Dongeng Etnografis Dari Umar Kayam” dalam Umar Kayam dan Jaring Semiotik, A.Salam (ed.). Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.

_________.1999°. “Ekonomika Manusia Jawa: Agama dan Perilaku

Ekonomi Dalam Perspektif Antropologi Struktural”. Gerbang 5 (02): 88-97.

_________.1999b. Struktur Simbolisme Budaya Jawa Kuno: Yang

Meneng dan Yang Malih. Makalah Sarasehan Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Budaya Jawa. Balai Kajian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional, Yogyakarta.

_________.1999c. “Arca Ganesya dan Strukturalisme Levi-Strauss:

Sebuah Analisis Awal” dalam Cerlang Budaya, Rahayu S. (ed.). Jakarta: UI Press.

_________.1999d. “Etnografi Kritis: Mungkinkan di Indonesia?”.

Jerat Budaya 1: _________.2000a. “Strukturalisme Levi-Strauss Untuk Arkeologi

Semiotik”. Humaniora 12: 1-13. _________.2000b. “Wacana Seni Dalam Antropologi Budaya:

Tekstual, Kontekstual dan Post-Modernistik” dalam Ketika



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Orang Jawa Nyeni, H.S.Ahimsa-Putra (ed.). Yogyakarta: Galang Press.

_________.2002. Tari ‘Srimpi’ dan Struktur Simbolisme Budaya Jawa.

Makalah seminar. _________. 2007. Strukturalisme Lévi-Strauss, Mitos dan Karya Sastra.

Yogyakarta: Kepel Press Bryant, C.G.A. 1985. Positivism in Social Theory and Research. New

York: St.Martin’s. Casson, R.W. 1981. Language, Culture and Cognition: Anthropological

Perspectives. New York: MacMillan. D’Andrade, R. 1995. The Development of Cognitive Anthropology.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Daeng, H.J. 1985. “Pesta, Persaingan dan Harga Diri Pada

Beberapa Kelompok Etnis Flores” daam Peranan Kebudayaan Tradisional Indonesia Dalam Modernisasi, R. Dove (ed.). Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.

Danandjaja, J..1985. Penelitian Antropologi dan Sosiologi Mengenai

Kebudayaan dan Masyarakat Indonesia. Makalah simposium kebudayaan Indonesia-Malaysia, tentang peninjauan kembali teori, pengembangan dan penerapan Antropologi- Sosiologi.

_________,1989 Kebudayaan Petani desa Trunyan Bali. Jakarta: UI-

Press. Geertz, C. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic

Books. Goodenough, W.H. 1964. “Cultural Anthropology and

Linguistics” dalam Language in Culture and Society, D.Hymes (ed.). New York: Harper and Row.



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Hutchins, E. 1981. “Reasoning in Trobriand Discourse” dalam Language, Culture and Cognition: Anthropological Perspectives, R.W. Casson (ed.). New York: Mac Millan.

Irwan Abdullah. 1984. Arti Simbolis Gunungan Kakung Pada

Upacara Garebeg: Suatu Kajian Pandangan Hidup Jawa. Skripsi Sarjana Muda. Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Gadjah Mada.

Koentjaraningrat.1961. Some Social-Anthropological Observations on

Gotong-Royong Practices in Two Villages of Central Java. Ithaca: Cornell University Modern Indonesia Project, Monograph series.

_________. 1964. Atlas Etnografi Sedunia. Jakarta: Dian Rakjat. _________.1984. “Ciracas dan Cilangkap: Dua Desa di Pasar Rebo,

Selatan Jakarta” dalam Masyarakat Desa di Indonesia Masa Kini. Jakarta: Lembaga Penerbit Fakultas Ekonomi, Universitas Indonesia.

_________.1993.Masalah Kesukubangsaan dan Integrasi Nasional.

Jakarta: UI-Press. Kuhn, T. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: The

University of Chicago Press. Laksono, P.M. 1985. “Persepsi Setempat dan Nasional Mengenai

Bencana Alam: Sebuah Desa di Gunung Merapi” dalam Peranan Kebudayaan Tradisional Indonesia Dalam Modernisasi, M.R.Dove (ed.). Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.

Levi-Strauss, C. 1963. Structural Anthropology. New York: Basic

Books. _________. 1966. The Savage Mind. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Malinowski, B.1920. Argonauts of the Western Pacific.



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Mansoben, J.R. 1985. “Ritus K’bor dan Arti Simboliknya dalam Kebudayaan Biak-Numfor, Irian Jaya” dalam Ritus Peralihan di Indonesia, Koentjaraningrat (ed.). Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.

Marzali, A. 1987. “Teori dan Metode Antropologi Turner”.

Masyarakat Indonesia 2, Thn. XIV:127-141 Metzger, D. and G.Williams, 1966. “Some Procedures and Results

in the Study of Native Categories”. American Anthropologist 68: 389-407.

Naroll, R.1970. “Epistemology” dalam A Handbook of Method in

Cultural Anthropology, R. Naroll dan R.Cohen (eds.). New York: Columbia University Press.

Mogot, B. 1998. Bahasa Ratahan Dalam Proses Pemanfaatan Pohon

Enau, di Kecamatan Ratahan, Kabupaten Minahasa. Tesis Pascasarjana Linguistik. Universitas Sam Ratulangi.

Ninuk Kleden-Probonegoro. 1987. “Teater Topeng Betawi Sebagai

Teks dan Maknanya: Suatu Tafsiran Antropologi”. Masyarakat Indonesia 2, Thn.XIV: 101-126.

Phillipson, M. 1972. “Phenomenological Philosophy and

Sociology” dalam New Directions in Sociological Theory, P.Filmer et al. London: Collier-MacMillan.

Pranowo DS, H.A. 1985. Manusia dan Hutan: Proses Perubahan

Ekologi di Lereng Gunung Merapi. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.

Radcliffe-Brown, A.R. 1952. Structure and Function in Primitive

Society. New York: Free Press. Rossi, I. 1973. “Structuralism as Scientific Method” dalam The

Unconscious in Culture, I.Rossi (ed.). New York: E.P.Dutton.



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Saifudin, A.F. 1991. “Some Notes on Clifford Geertz’s Interpretive Anthroplogy”. Antropologi Indonesia 49, Th.XV: 4-11.

Sairin, S. 1982. Javanese Trah: Kin-Based Organization. Yogyakarta:

Gadjah Mada University Press. Sasongko Triyoga, L. 1991. Manusia Jawa dan Gunung Merapi:

Persepsi dan Sistem Kepercayaannya. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.

Sumarauw, E.J. 1985. “Lepasi: Upacara Purifikasi dan

Kesejahteraan Umum di Sangir Talaud” dalam Ritus Peralihan di Indonesia, Koentjaraningrat (ed.). Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.

Suparlan, P. 1991. “Struktur Perkotaan dan Kehidupan Hunian

Liar”. Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial 1: 6-13. Turner, V. 1970. The Forest of Symbols. Ithaca: Cornell University

Press. Wallace, A.C. 1981. “Culture and Cognition” dalam Language,

Culture and Cognition: Anthropological Perspectives, R.W.Casson (ed.). New York: MacMillan

READING RELIGIOUS PHENOMENON THROUGH SIGN POWER

Sugeng Sugiyono UIN Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

A. Exploring Language, Analyzing Meaning By considering how complicated the relation between language and religion is, this discussion tries to start with Wittgestein’s statement; religious, ethic, and esthetic are connected by transcendental value in a thought that lies outside world entity and hardly can be expressed.1 All those three aspects cannot be expressed easily by language because they refer to something that exceeds world boundaries and quit of the assumption of how hard to reveal the existence of supernatural aspect through unequal common language. Islamic culture sets to progress along with the fact of history of human whom God greets them through His language. The way of how God reveals the Holy Book is not a simple matter. It becomes the essence of what it is called by “wahy” as God’s word and as a divine discourse which Quran is what Prophet Muhammad SAW comprehends and delivers it to his people. “Wahy” as God’s word is a concept of linguistics. The aspect of how to comprehend and to deliver the form of its religious phenomenon and of its performance can be analyzed through the language. The matter of language from Adam creation itself has become a never ending topic of debate for theologian, philosopher, and linguist.

There is no existence of science without language because it produces meaning, including religious meaning. However, meaning is a significant representation of sign, though a meaning sometimes appears based on vague and crucial notion. Sometimes meaning is viewed as a part of science, not as an element of religion. Science considers that causality influences to characteristic of all things whereas religion considers that the

1 Kaelan, Filsafat Analitis Menurut Ludwig Wittgentein, Yogyakarta, Paradigma,

2004, p. 108.

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thing which affects the characteristic of all things is the highest value.

It can be said that meaning can be found without using religious aspect. But on the broad aspect, especially on the history of 20s century, culture as a meaning system will always connect to religion2. However, religion is about meaning, not about causality, and it is looked for by human.

When Quran is transformed or is revealed through Arabian language (bi lisan ‘Arabi mubin), there is always question about how to comprehend it correctly as a way to get the significant interpretation of verses as the signs. Various ways and methods are developed continuously, started from self reference for scholar of The Salaf to hermeneutic method for modern philosopher. Discourse of Quran is always questioned, but is it right? Of course, because beside of diachronic facts of Quran, it always serves synchronized content that is in line with the importance of guideline for the present of better mankind. When there is always question about Holy Book (Quran), and automatically question always appears for science as well, including language that has more possibility for debate and discussion. As a science, language has not become a final postulate yet as well as Albert Einstein who finally comes up with the theory of relativity and defines that everything is relative. He gets to the point of conclusion that science and religion must complete and energize each other.

From the outside form, religion is reflected through the world of discourse (text) and behaviour. Phenomenally, these become the things that can be read and be meant by human language. Beside as medium to express the existence of God, language exists in every human behaviour in creating communication with Him in various symbols and signs. There are spoken language and body language as the personification of message from heaven. For God’s word (wahy) along with its conjugation has become technical term in Islamic terminology, especially when it refers to the communication of divine message for the prophets.

2 Holmes Roston, Ilmu dan Agama: Sebuah Survai Kritis, Yogyakarta: Islamic

University Sunan Kalijaga, 2006, page. 34.

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In Quran, the use of word “wahy”and its verb conjugation is not confined to the prophets only, but it is also used generally to describe the form of communication between God and His creation, between prophet and his people, and between fellow being. From History of Islamic Thought perspective, the essence matter of “wahy” for either verbal form or idea has become issue that creates a long debate. As a theological mystery, it is hard to comprehend it through humand mind because it is a mysterious thing and because God is the speaker and human as is the hearer.

Moreover, God is not spatiotemporal entity, He is pure spirit. God exceeds speed or mass and passes over time. After relativity theory invention, man starts to see at a glance of what is meant by immortality for God before, while for space and time are determined only for the creation that is confined to His word (firman); kun fayakun (His command is “Be” and it is).

In theory of relativity, there is nothing can get in the way of signal that is faster than light, indeed is faster than speedy light and the superluminal process is not a physics as what people know it is. There is nothing can prevent the reality of deity that has the comprehensive connection to any kind of way and determine nature as the hologram that stands outside of human mind capacity3. B. Language of Wahy

There are specific characteristics of the three Semitic religions; Jew, Christianity, and Islam. They are the perspective of historical source, end of life guarantee, and the truth of religious exprerience of the faithful that lies on the fact that God by Himself who has revealed Him to mankind. In Islam, “wahy” means Allah words (kalam). He reveals it through language; not a mysterious language but a clear and understandable human language4.

Semantically Wahy has the same meaning with Allah word (kalam). Surely because it is Quran, it uses the word “kalam” on the process of “wahy”. Quran clarifies that it is revealed verbally, although in another way it also emphasizes the

3 Holmes Roston, Ilmu dan Agama: Sebuah Survai Kritis, Yogyakarta: Universitas

Islam Negeri Sunan Kalijaga, 2006, hlm. 95 4 Toshihiko Izutzu, Relasi Tuhan dan Manusia, Pendekatan Semantik terhadap al-

Qur`an, translator. Agus Fahri Husein (Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana, 2003), page. 166

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intimate relevancy to Prophet Muhammad saw person, heart, and mind (al-kalâm bi al-quwwah). In another word, Allah word (kalam) was born in the heart and mind of Prophet Muhammad saw, then its form possibly refer to him (al-kalâm bi al-fi’l). Fazlur Rahman also concludes that Quran is Allah word in a common meaning and it is also defined as Prophet Muhammad word 5.

It is hard to deal with the conclusion that Allah word (kalam) is mysterious thing and different to human language and behaviour, but because semantically it is word, surely it has all the main characteristics of human words.

Toshihiko Izutsu differs the use of “wahy” based on semantics essential into three categories. First, “wahy” is the form of communication that has been done by two persons for the real actualization of wahy. The process of sending the message from A to B is not a mutual relationship, but it is a unilateral communication. Second, “wahy” should not have verbal characteristic and does not always have linguistics characteristic. Third, there are mysterious and personal things between both of the two persons who involved in it6.

Human thought reaches the perfection of it through language, and then there are two consequences for it. First, human language manifests the Holy Book7 or wahy. Second, the Holy Book should have special characteristics; absolute for the content and relative for the understanding. This is what is called by absolute linguistics form (śabât an-naşş) for the text and relative concept for the understanding.8

In the theory of linguistics that is proposed by Sapir Whorf and is supported by Humbolt, it is stated that the relative human language precisely often finds its deep meaning when it is presented through its connection with God, both for motional connection and performative connection. Both those two aspects

5 Fazlur Rahmân, Islam, translator. Ahsin Muhammad (Bandung: Pustaka

Publisher), 1984, page. 32. 6 Toshihiko Izutsu, Relasi Tuhan dan Manusia, page. 173. Look at the explanation

of Al-Zarqani in Al-Burhân fi ‘Ulûm al-Qur`ân, page. l63. It explains about the meaning of wahy as the form of secret and unusual communication between Allah and His people for general people

7 Allah words for Prophet Muhammad saw as the last prophet 8 Muhammad Shahrûr, Al-Kitâb wa al-Qur`ân Qirâ`ah Mu’âşirah (Kairo: Sina li an-

Nsyr, 1992), page. 46.



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have the same strong influence in forming the formula of religious spiritual power that frequently cannot achieve the essence of various actualizations. It happens because the weakness in understanding it through language and the failure in getting the significance toward the signs of God greatness.

There is another factor of failure in experiencing religious message beside the weakness of language itself that cannot get the essential meaning of it; it is external experience that hardly can be explained. If language could express all human experiences through it, then all what Prophet Muhammad saw experienced in heaven (Sidratul Muntaha) could be explained through language and some of the secret of heaven would be known. But in fact it does not, heaven and hell only can be generalized through sequence of limited expression.

The basic characteristic and function of proposition are having literal meaning. But, when it has to give the appropriate expression related to the fact of language function itself, it needs metaphor and mysticism. That is why; the existence of God is a mystical fact that has to be expressed although it hardly can be told.9

When there is something that cannot be expressed through poetic language, possibly it needs the use of religious language. Religious language talks about itself and does not need any pronoun. It does not take any language theory and explanation. It becomes unexpressed thing even it contains of something that has been uttered. Then it comes up as another way for language that cannot be tied up, but by language itself.10 To the present time, people have difficulty to translate and find an appropiate shift for the word of “taqwa” or of “nikah” as religious term in another language. Deity meaning may will be easier to be expressed through religious behaviour than verbal language.

As well as language that always exists and participates in wherever people stand and do any activity, religion will always live in every human act although religious concept and religious intensity of someone and another are different. It can be known why atheism, agnosticism, and deism are categorized as religion.

9 George Pitcher, The Philosophy of Wittgenstein, Englewood Cliffs, New Yersey,

1964, page. 100. 10 Kaelan, Filsafat Analitis, page. 111.

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In the tradition of philosophy and anthropology, not all what is called and is categorized as religion has to have a holy book and prophet just like Abrahamic religions.11

C. Two Languages, One Phenomenon When there is someone waves the hand, he/she talks in different level. There is subject intention; a dimension that is completely separated from nerve impulse and empirical muscle movement. One language gives many causes, while another offers many reasons. One language becomes objective explanation, while another comes up as subjective explanation; not only an explanation about personal experience, but also an explanation about an experience to face the world.

Therefore, it needs to reconsider when we discuss about the correlation between language and religion because they are tightly connected. Moreover, all the Holy Books which have been revealed on earth have closely similar feature; hidden messages behind the language. Syrian, Hebrew, and Arabic become the languages that have a strong religious nuance. Language may become a function as a medium of religious discourse that surely may relate to language of any community insofar as it becomes the way to talk and discuss about religious matter (language and religion). There are two phenomena of language that are pre-eminent in religious discourse.

1. According to Johan Meuleman, language as a form of God’s utterance in a Holy Book can be recognized through three aspects. The first aspect, Jews, Christianity, and Islam as religions stand as the sign, precisely the sign of God’s Greatness and God’s The One. The second aspect, the Holy Books that become the base of most religions stand as a set of sign that indicates particular meaning that needs deep exploration in the process of its interpretation. The third aspect is that the text of Holy Book is a set of sign that delivers God’s message (language in religion). As well as the second aspect, here language concerns the

11 Komaruddin Hidayat, Memahami Bahasa Agama: Sebuah Kajian Hermeneutik,

Jakarta: Paramadina Publisher, 1996, page.75.



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matter of connection between informant, text, and recipient.

2. Language that touches the symbol of religious behaviour both performative language and creative language is not just an act, but it is a discourse that is implemented along with the act as well as the language of salat (ritual prayers and actions performed five times daily in Islam) and hajj ritual. In various observance of religious duty, people use Liturgy language to deliver particular prayers in “spiritual communication”. In another side, there is written text language on the paper that needs exegesis explanation to interpret it by using science methodology, especially language science.

The concept of langue plays the main role of concept formation of specific verbal language of Quran. At a glance, the word “lisān” with its conjugation form in Quran implies one of possible meanings that Quran is spoken language in its time of revelation. As well as the other languages in the world, Quran language passes verbal period before at last it transforms into written language. The term of “lisān” in Quran becomes the most appropriate expression from the space and time perspectives because it was revealed to Arabians who were generally illiterate (ummîyy)12. In History of Islamic Thought, the idea of the essence of Quran; is revealed in verbal form or in idea that has become one of the matters that causes long controversy. While most of Muslim scholars have a notion that Quran comes up in its articulation and meaning.13

12 The word of ummîyy is unusual word that is used by Arabian in the era of Pre-

Islam. It is unknown for its use of word derivation in literary manuscript of Jahiliah (ignorance). Quran uses the word ummîyy not to show the disgrace or language error of Arabian, but it is used to differentiate it from the scribe. Allah words in allazîna yattabi’ûna ar-rasûl al-ummiyya and fa`âminû billâhi wa rasûlihi an-nabîyy al-ummiyy is the form of Allah’s invitation for the scribe of Israeli to right and clarrifie the arrival of a messenger who had been referred to in their Book though were not from their offspring. Prophet Muhammad saw was not a scribe and it is a contadiction to the tradition that demands for the specialty of the scribe for the next prophet as well as what had been revealed to them (Israeli) from the previous prophets.

13 Al-Zarkasyî, Al-Burhân fî ‘Ulûm al-Qur`ân, Mesir: Isa al-Babi al-Halabi, tt page 229.

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Fazlur Rahman clarifies that “another substance” through one way “dictates” Quran with absolute authority. The voice that comes from the clear spoken base of life can not be blamed and importunate for acceptance. It does not only Quran that means “reading text”, but the text of Quran itself at some parts declares that it is revealed not only in the form of “meaning” or ideas but also in verbal form. The term of Quran as “revelation” is “wahy” that closely relates to the meaning of “inspiration” without ignoring the verbal form14. D. Language and the Power of Sign (Semiotics)

With the existence of mind, culture and language potential, mankind is able to manipulate abstract symbol, to produce tools, to live the culture, and to learn both science and religion. It becomes historical awareness as per-impossible for chimpanzee and comes up as a pure nature, although chimpanzee has similar anatomy of hand and brain with human’s.

Semiotics is a science that analyzes the signs in human life. All the things that exists in life is believed as the sign; something that has to have meaning. In this understanding, may all people have the same agreement, but when we have to find the meaning of sign, various issues emerge15. In its development, semiotics becomes a set of theory for analyzing human culture, including religion.

In another side, sign and signification plays the main role in understanding religion because the word “verse” (ayah) means sign. Thereby Quran (from “qara’a” which means collect as the root) is a set of signs from Allah which human needs to find the meaning and to implement it in Muslim life. In one of Quran verses, it is said “sanuriyahum ayatina fi al-afaq wa fi anfusihim hatta yatabayyana lahum annahu al-haqq” which means “We will show you Our signs in firmament and in their soul so it is clear for them that it (Quran that is revealed to Prophet Muhammad saw) is true”. The word of “verse” (ayah) is used for the understanding of bad things in general that is unacceptable for any imlementation

14 Fazlur Rahmân, Islam, terj. Ahsin Mohammad (Bandung: PustakaPublisher,

1984), page 32. 15 Benny H. Hoed, Semiotik dan Dinamikan Sosial Budaya, Edisi Kedua, Depok:

Komunitas Bambu, 2011, page. 3.



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such as inna fi zalika la ayah li man khafa azab an-nar16 which in this matter becomes (the punishment from Allah towards deviate Firaun and his people) an example for those who are afraid of Allah’s torture. Therefore verse is a small unit and a part of Quran.

The various meanings of the word “verse” (ayah) in Quran have the similarity to the various meanings of sign in Bible and Christian thought. Therefore as well as Bible and Chirtianity, in principle Quran as the text and Islam as a whole becomes a great source for semiotics analysis17. The word semio, sema, and semion have the same philology root with what has been sated in Quran “sīmā” which means “sign” as in sīma hum fi wujūhihim min asar as-sujūd which means “there is sign in his face for his “sujud” (kneeling position and placing the forhead on the floor as a part of prayer in Islam).

When principally Quran becomes a great source for semiotics, it does not mean that it has been explored massively. The modern semiotics analysis has been applied in Cristianity science since 1970s18. Semiotics analysis of Christianity theology focuses on the text (Bible) and tries to expand the semiotics analysis in various aspects of religious practice, especially in the aspect of liturgy.

Muhammad Arkoun may become the only one Muslim scholar who starts to enrich Islamic studies through semiotics development. Although he always encourages Islamic research to exceed the boundary of study about written texts from classic experts, but he centralizes his concern to various classical text and analyzes it with new method.

The significance of semiotics approach is that it views a text as a whole and as a system of internal connection. This approach opens a possibility to comprehend many aspects from a

16Qur`an, Surah Hud 103. 17 Johan Henrik Meuleman,‘Sumbangan dan Batas Semiotika Dalam Ilmu

Agama’ dalam Membaca Al-Qur`an Bersama Muhammed Arkoun, Yogyakarta’ LKiS, 2012, page. 56.

18 In the emerging era of 'linguistic theology' Guttgemans established in Germany, 'center pour l'analyze du Discours Religieux' in France, ‘Semiotische Analyse door Nederlandse Theologen’ in Netherland French and Dutch groups are suspected to have a relation to AJ Greimas and the 'Flow of Paris' in semiotics while Guttemans stands beyond the semiotic analysis in the narrow sense that is influenced by Jackues Lacan for psychoanalysis and ' Jackues Derrida. For grammatology'

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text that hardly can be explored based on an analysis that contradicts the separated particular element and stands free from the text. According to Arkoun, another significance of semiotics is that semiotics analysis leads us to analyze the text without any previous particular interpretation or any other pre-suspicion19. E. Reading Liturgy Language

Religious language in all prayer (salat) or hajj movements does not only focus on spoken performative language along with verse reading of Quran, but it focuses on mental language of body movement that is more expressive for expressing feeling and mind along with act and movement that contain a lot of deeper meaningful sign.

Standing steadily in prayer (salat) shows the sign of “one” that represents God as The One as the most essential base of God unity. The position of the head portrays human who has intelligence as a gift that is used to think and to find the meaning of God creation through science for stronger base of God unity. For the composition of ruku’ (bowing deeply from the waist during prayer ritual) symbolizes the true respect posture of religious tenet that represents equality, harmonism, integration, and combination of mind (fikr) element and soul (zikr) element. The balanced element of mind (fikr) and soul (zikr) keeps somebody away from the imbalance of religion and avoids someone from the trap of extremism, exclusiveness, and primordial concept. In life context, when someone has not been able to have this ethic, it indicates that he/she has not been able to appreciate and to respect life. Sujud; kneeling position with forehead on the floor as a part of prayer ritual becomes a form of total human defenselessness in front of The Creator where intelligence is placed in low position, even is lower than heart position. Body and all the elements attached to it will return inside of earth, and there is only heart (nafas) as an eternal left thing. For forty years, Adam had been performing “sujud” when he was expelled from heaven until the angel raised him and teached him how to live and to serve the evanescent life.

19 Ibid. page 62 refer to Muhammed Arkoun. ‘Lecture de la Fatiha’ in Lecture du

Coran, Paris: Mainsonneuve et Larose, 1982.



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Hajj journey that starts from “miqat” illustrates human authenticity that comes from Kaaba as the centre of hajj ritual called by bait al-atiq “house of indenpence” which is free from any possesion and is free from any possesor and oppressor. Kaaba has no direction and its directionless concept hardly can be understand. But in this way, universality and absolutism exist. God words; wa lillahi al-masyriqu wa al-magribu fa ainama tuwallu wujuhakum fa samma wajh Allah20 tell that Hajj ritual becomes a way to commemorate Hajar or move (comes from the root of hijrah) from bad quality to the better one. Tawaf; ceremony of circumambulation of the Ka'abah in Mecca seven times is an example of system based on monotheism idea that touches the particle of human and Allah stands as the centre of exsistence.

Kaaba is the symbol of immortality that comes up as centripetal one of tasbih act “swim in circle” of millions of people and all His creations indeed. In tawaf act (ceremony of circumambulation of the Ka'abah in Mecca seven times), tasbih (glorify or recite repeated chant as the confession of faith) recitation becomes the prominent element. It is looked like galaxi movement that symbolizes the essence of monotheism; the flow of millions of people circumambulate it in rumble with the spotless white clothes for all. It becomes the immortal movement.

In contrast to tawaf (ceremony of circumambulation of the Ka'abah in Mecca seven times), sa’i (ceremony of running between the hills of Sofa and Marwa during the hajj) is full of struggle for survival with the spirit of takbir (recitation of Allahu Akbar). Hajar is the most beautiful creature of Allah on earth. Inside of her, intellect intelligence, emotional intelligence, spiritual intelligence, and adversity intelligence21 are collected in one. She is a woman and a mother at once who struggles to provide all what she and her son; Ismail need. She has to survive, she has to stand up, she has to run to find the source of life for pious generation (zurriyyah tayyibah) in the future. Do we know, what is the source of life? It is water. Allah says; Wa ja’alnâ min al-mâ’i kulla syai’in hayyi (and) We create all the living things from water.

20 Qur`an Surah al-Baqarah: 115 21 Adversity quotion, is the spirit for survival which is in Stolts theory defined as a

special intelligence whose only some people has it

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Two third of human body is liquid, two third of earth is also water, and without it, the life on earth will never exist. Arafah becomes the peak of hajj ritual (al-hajju ‘arafah)because it does not only have time and space dimension, but it also has the dimension of spiritual condition . Someone can not be subtituted by another one for it because without seeing Arafah, hajj will not be accepted. Arafah comes from “arafa” and “ma’rifah” as the root which mean know, understand, and science. Then the way of people go down from Kaaba to Arafah symbolizes the phase of human creation. The encounter between Adam and Eve then is followed by knowing and understanding each other. They are created in different sex although they come from the same substance for bearing next generation. It is the first sign of science where the existence of human is as old as the existence of science. The history of human begins from the science and Allah teaches Adam about it by Himself. The journey of people who do hajj from Arafah to Kaaba becomes the journey of people to go back to their origin. People pass over “masy’ar” (a dessert) as a symbol of awarness and “mina” (a place for doing Jumrah “throwing the stone to the pillar as a part of hajj ritual) as a symbol of hope, dream, love, and belief. It symbolizes the journey for going to God; The Creator of Nature

E. The Most Beautiful Language

Al- Jurjani says that the speaker is the one who does know, does understand, and do es comprehend for his own utterance than the other. Jurjani’s statement becomes a part of analogy (kalam nafsy) that views Allah as the only One who knows the meaning of His word (kalam). Because God stands as the source of the utterance (kalam) and He plays the role as Mutakallim (speaker). As mutakallam (hearer) mankind never finds the deepest essence meaning of “kalam” because human existence is tied up by its life, including its language. Being in line with the theory of de Saussure, basically individual parole (kalam) is the expression of the speaker that exists as the phenomenon of psychological mechanism. Therefore, mutakallim interaction with its product and the beauty of language become his own, not the others. It is true when Abu Bakar as-Siddiq recites Quran (early surah Ar-Rum) in front of the unbeliever Quraisy and states that



71

“it is neither my word (kalam) nor Muhammad’s , but it is Allah’s word (kalam)” Is there any beautiful language than Allah’s? Definitely there is no. Is there any beautiful language than human language for God? If any, it is the language of heart.

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Baker, Chris, Cultural Studies, terj. Nurhadi, Yogyakarta: Kreasi wacana, 2011.

Harb, Ali, Naqd an-Nass, Beirut: al-Markaz as-Saqafi al-‘Arabi, ad-

Dar al-Baida`, 1995. Hidayat, Komaruddin, Memahami Bahasa Agama: Sebuah Kajian

Hermeneutik, Jakarta: Paramadina Publisher, 1996 Hoed, Benny H., Semiotik dan Dinamikan Sosial Budaya, Second

Edition, Depok: Komunitas Bambu, 2011 Izutzu, Toshihiko, Relasi Tuhan dan Manusia, Pendekatan Semantik

terhadap al-Qur`an, translator. Agus Fahri Husein, Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana, 2003.

Al-Jurjani, ‘Abd al-Qahir, Dala`il al-I’jaz fi Ilm al-Ma’ani, ed.

Muhammad Abduh, Mesir: Matba’ah al-Mausu’ah, 1961 Kaelan, Filsafat Analitis Menurut Ludwig Wittgentein, Yogyakarta,

Paradigma, 2004. Kramsch, Claire, Language and Culture, New York: Oxford

University Press, 2000. Lehtonen, Mico, The Analysis of Texs, London: Sage Publications,

2000. Pitcher, George, The Philosophy of Wittgenstein, Englewood Cliffs,

New Yersey, 1964.

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Meuleman, Johan Henrik,‘Sumbangan dan Batas Semiotika

Dalam Ilmu Agama’ dalam Membaca Al-Qur`an Bersama Muhammed Arkoun, Yogyakarta’ LKiS, 2012

Rahmân, Fazlur, Islam, terj. Ahsin Mohammad Bandung: Pustaka

Publisher, 1984. Roston, Holmes, Ilmu dan Agama: Sebuah Survai Kritis, Yogyakarta:

State Islamic University, 2006 Shahrûr, Muhammad, Al-Kitâb wa al-Qur`ân Qirâ`ah Mu’âşirah

Kairo: Sina li an-Nsyr, 1992. Syariati, Ali, Hajj, California: Evicena Cultural & Education

Foundation. Al-Zarkasyî, Al-Burhân fî ‘Ulûm al-Qur`ân, Mesir: Isa al-Babi al-

Halabi, tt.

القرآن الكريم صورة الجنة في

) دراسة تحليلية سلوكية لسانية(

PORTRAYAL OF PARADISE IN THE HOLY QORAN

(Linguistic Behaviorism Analysis)

يد اهللـــعب كلية اآلداب جامعة سونان كاليجاكا اإلسالمية الحكومية

أندونيسيا -يوكياكرتا

التجريد

توصف صورة . مهايحالة الجنة ونعإن في القرآن آيات متناقضة عند وصف

الجنة كل التفصيل في عدة آيات من القرآن الكريم، ولكن تعتبر آيات أخرى أنها ال يمكن

وعلى هذه المتناقضة أظن الباحث أن صورة الجنة فيه متعلقة بأحوال المجتمع . وصفها

جذابة جدا في هذه الورقة أراد الباحث أن يشرح لماذا هناك صورة الجنة جسديا . العرب

ووفقا لبلومفيلد، أن النظرية . للمجتمع العرب في عهد النبي محمد حتى صاروا مسلمين

. السلوكية اللغوية توضح أن كون اللغة بسبب وجود مثيرات أدت إلى استجابات لغوية

حاول الباحث على الجمع بين النظرية السلوكية اللغوية والمنهج السماعي والتحريري

وكان غرض هذه الدراسة كشف مثيرات على . يل على البيانات المرجوةلمساعدة التحل

من . شكل أحوال المجتمع العرب الجاهلية التي أدت إلى تصوير الجنة في القرآن الكريم

البحث الذي قام به الباحث، يوجد أن هناك مثيرات على شكل أحوال المجتمع العرب

وأما المثيرات فمنها على . وير الجنة في كالمه الكريمحيث ينزل القرآن ثم أجابها هللا لتص

شكل األحوال الجغرافية التي توصف الجزيرة العربية بوصفها أرضا جرداء صخرية

وصحراء واسعة ومناخا حارا وقلة األمطار حتى تظهر االستجابة على شكل صورة الجنة

باإلضافة إلى ذلك، كان . التي تجرى من تحتها األنهار وفيها فواكه متوافرة لالستهالك

المثير على شكل الحياة الزوجية الملونة بتعدد الزوجات أجابه القرآن الكريم على توافر

بهذه المثيرات التي تنتج االستجابات اللغوية الموجودة في . ال يحدد استمتاعهاحور عين

رغم أنه . مدوصف الجنة انجذبت المجتمع العرب ألن يعتنقوا اإلسالم جاء به النبي مح

مها كما وصفها القرآن بل حقيقة أجذب منه وفقا لقول يكذلك ال تعنى صورة الجنة ونع

رسول هللا إن الجنة لم تر عين قط مثله، ولم تسمع أذن بوصفه، ولم يخطر على القلب

.تصوره، وأنه ال يعلم عظمته إال هللا تعالى

.تجاباتاالسيرات، الجنة، السلوكية، المث: الكلمات الرئيسية

Ubaidillah


300

أـ التمهيد

لقد وصفها . إن الجنة معاد ينتظرها المسلمون بعد أن يموتوا

. القرآن وصفا جميال رائعا في بعض آياته ولكن في بعض اآليات ينافيه

مها توجد كثيرا في بعض اآليات من سورة الواقعة يومن صور الجنة ونع

على سبيل . صفهاوالرحمن أو في اآليات المنتثرة في سور القرآن التي تو

:المثال وصفها القرآن في هذه األية

ها حتن ت جري م

ات ت هم جن

ن ل

حات أ ال الص

وا

ل وعم

ين آمنوا ذ

ر ال

وبش

بل وأ

ن ق نا م

ق ي رز ذ

ا ال

هذ

وا

ال

ق

زقا

مرة ر ن ث نها م م

وا

ق ما رز

لنهار ك

ألا

وا

ت

دون اليها خ وهم ف

رة ه

ط زواج م

يها أ هم ف

ول

ها اب

ش

ه مت ) 52:البقرة(ب

ية أخرى تذكر أن الجنة ال يمكن وصفها كما آرغم أنه كذلك فهناك

:وجد في هذه األية

م عين جزاء بة أ ر

ن ق

هم م ي ل ف

خ

ا أ فس م

م ن

عل

ت

ل

ون ف

وا يعمل

ان

ا ك

) 71:السجدة(

مها حيث توصف يمن هذه المتعارضة أي وصف حالة الجنة ونع

ةصورة الجنة كل التفصيل في عدة آيات من القرآن الكريم وتعتبر آي

أخرى أنها ال يمكن وصفها فأظن الكاتب أن هناك وظيفة سياق أحوال

ومن المعلوم أن . مها فيهيالمجتمع العرب التي تؤثر وصف الجنة ونع

نزول القرآن ال يخلو من دوافع االجتماعية الثقافية العربية رغم أن

إضافة إلى ذلك فالمسائل التي سيبحثها الباحث . مضمونه عالمي ال محلي

هي ما دوافع تؤثر القرآن في وصف الجنة وكيف النقاش بين التعارض

في وصفها؟

Shurah al-Jannah fi Al-Qur’an al-Karim (Dirasah Tahliliyyah Sulukiyyah Lisaniyyah) ”Potrayal of Paradise in the Holy Qoran (Linguistic Behaviourism Analysis)”


301

العرب في وصف الجنة اكتشافا لوجود تأثير سياق أحوال المجتمع

.فيستخدم الباحث النظرية السلوكية اللسانية في هذا البحث

النظرية السلوكية اللسانية هي مقاربة لغوية بوصفها بعضا من

وتنافي .يمكن تحليلهماالتي سلوكية اإلنسان في حالتي المثير واالستجابة

(.mentalism)هذه المقاربة الحالة النفسية

المدرسة السلوكية اللسانية هي امتداد للمدرسة السلوكية في

Bloomfield، ويعد بلومفيلد Watsonعلم النفس التي يتزعمها واطسن

حلقة الوصل بين المدرستين حيث اشتهر ’Language‘صاحب كتاب اللغة

.ار السلوكيين إلى مجال اللغة وتطبيقها على الدراسات اللغويةبنقل أفك

وقد عرف عن السلوكيين نقدهم الشديد للعقالنيين، وتقليلهم من

شأن كل الدراسات التي ال تقتصر في منهجها على السلوك الخارجي،

وترى أن كل المحاوالت التي تصف أو تفسر ما يجري في دماغ اإلنسان

ولذلك فال مكان لما . ي تكهنات تنقصها الموضوعيةأو في عقله إنما ه

يعرف في نظرية اإلشارة بالصورة الذهنية أو نحوها مما ال يمكن

.دراستها دراسة علمية موضوعية

( stimulus)وتقوم النظرية السلوكية على مفهومي المثير

المعروفين في علم النفس السلوكي، ويطلق ( response)واالستجابة

كما يسمى في The Speaker’s Stimulusالمتكلمو مثير أ)المثير

على األحداث التي تسبق الكالم، وتكون سببا في كالم ( اللسانيات

Theالمتكلم، أما األحداث التي تلي الكالم، فتدعى استجابة السامع

Hearer Response .وهكذا يتكون الموقف الكالمي من اآلتي:

1 Harimurti Kridalaksana, Kamus Linguistik. Jakarta: PT Gramedia, 2008), hlm. 32.

Ubaidillah


302

( ج)الكالم، ( ب)ملية الكالم، األحداث العملية السابقة لع( أ)

.األحداث العملية التالية للكالم

:ولتوضيح ذلك آثر بلومفيلد أن يذكر المثال اآلتي

عة، فترى أن جاك وجيل يتجوالن في ممر مسيج، وجيل جائ( أ)

[المثير]فهذا ما سمي بـ . تفاحة على الشجرة

فهذا ما سمي بـ . فتحدث أصواتا بحنجرتها ولسانها وشفتيها( ب)

[الكالم]

فيتخطى جاك السياج ويتسلق الشجرة، ويقطف التفاحة ثم ( ج)

[االستجابة]فهذا ما سمي بـ . يحضرها لجيل، ويناولها إياها، فتأكلها

وقد يستمر الحديث بينهما على نحو يصبح في كل كالم مثير

linguistic)وبذلك يصبح اللفظ أو المبنى اللغوي. الستجابة كالمية أخرى

form) الموقف الذي ينطق فيه "كما يحلو لبلومفيلد أن يسميه شامال لـ

، ويعود سبب "المتكلم ذلك المبنى، واالستجابة التي يحدثها في السامع

امه لمصطلح المبنى بدال من المعنى أو الكلمة إلى اعتبارات منهجية استخد

تقوم عليها النظرية السلوكية أساسا، وتتلخص في استبعاد المعنى من

:الدراسات اللغوية لألسباب اآلتية

صعوبة التعامل مع المعنى، ألن ذلك يحتاج إلى اإللمام بكل ( )

.حاطة بهشيء في عالم المتكلم، وهو ماال يمكن اإل

اختالف المعاني من لغة إلى أخرى، وعلى سبيل المثال فإن ( )

.الحوت في األلمانية يسمى سمكا، والخفاش يسمى فأرا

2 Leonard Bloomfiled, Language. 1st Published. (London & Aylesbury: Great

Britain, 1935), p. 23. 3 Ibid.,p. 22.



303

اختالف شخصيات المتكلمين والتاريخ الثقافي لكل منهم، ( )

وخبراتهم الشخصية، األمر الذي يصبغ المعنى بطابع شخصي ويجعل من

.متكلم الصعب التنبؤ بما يقوله كل

introspectionأن التعامل مع المعنى يحتاج إلى االستبطان ( 4)

أي التحقق بالنظر في داخل عقل اإلنسان، وهو في رأي السلوكيين منهج

4.غير موضوعي

بناء على البيانات المحللة فاستخدم الباحث المنهج السماعي

لمنهج السماعي ال ينحصر قال محسون إن ا. النقلي في جمع البيانات

على استخدام اللغة شفويا فحسب بل يمكن استخدامه في البيانات

يال كيفيا مستخدم وبعد فتحلل البيانات تحل .اللغوية على الشكل التحريري

المنهج االستنتاجي وهو إتيان االستنتاج البدائي أوال ثم تفصيل البيانات كل

.التفصيل حتى ظهر الشرح

تمع العرب عندما ينزل القرآن وأما لمعرفة حقيقة أحوال المج

فيستخدم الباحث دراسة مكتبية حيث تدرس عن أحوالهم االجتماعية

.الثقافية واالقتصادية وهلم جرا

صورة الجنة في القرآن. ب

مها يبعد التحليل على اآليات القرآنية التي توصف أحوال الجنة ونع

تعلق بأحوال المجتمع فوجد الباحث ـ على األقل ـ ثالثة المثيرات التي ت

الحالة : العرب وتظهر االستجابات اللغوية على شكل صورة الجنة وهي

4 Ibid.,p. 139. 5Mahsun, Metode Penelitian Bahasa: Tahapan Strategi, Metode dan Tekniknya

(Jakarta: P.T. Grafindo Persada, 2006), p. 102. 6 Michael Quinn Patton, How to Use Qualitative Methodes in Evaluation. (London:

Sage Publication, 1991), p. 16.

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304

وأما شرحها فكما . فيةاالجغرافية، وانتاج النباتات، والحالة االجتماعية الثق

:يلي

الحالة الجغرافية بوصفها مثير وصف أحوال الجنة في القرآن .1

ويصب في البحر طوال إن جزيرة العرب ليس لها نهر كبير يجري

وليس لها إال أودية تستطيع أن تجمع . المواسم وال تجري عليه السفينة

وأما في .فيها األمطار حتى تكون حارات التجارة للقوافل والحجاج

بوصفها مظهر اإلسالم فموسم الجفاف يجري )مكة والمدينة(الحجاز

أحيانا، وقعت العاصفة . طوال ثالث سنوات فأكثر ليس فيها من أمر عجيب

الرعدية والسيول العظمى وتجري إلى مكة والمدينة وكادت أن تهدم

.الكعبة

هذه الحالة الجغرافية يمكن أن تكون مثيرا لوصف صورة الجنة

من هذا المثير استجابه القرآن استجابا جليا أن . في القرآن كل اإلمكان

المعجم المفهرس أللفاظ القرآن الكريموجد في . في الجنة أنهار تجري

: أية منها ( )توصف الجنة التي فيها أنهار سبع وثالثون أن مبلغ آيات

ى نث

و أ

ر أ

ك

ن ذ

م م نك

ل م يع عمل عام ض أ

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ي وق يل سب

7 Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, terj. R. Cecep Lukman Yasin dan Dedi

Slamet Riyadi (Jakarta: Serambi, 2005), hlm. 20-21.

دار الصدير، : بيروت( ، الجزء الثانيمعجم البلدانياقوت بن عبد هللا الحموي،

.877ـ 87. ص( 77117دار : القاهرة(المعجم المفهرس أللفاظ القرآن الكريم محمد فؤاد عبد الباقي،

187-177. ص( هـ 7141الحديث،



305

ه والل

ند الل ن ع

وابا م نهار ث

ها ألا حت

ن ت م واب

نده حسن الث ه ع آل ){

7(792:عمران

بناء على هذا الوعد الجذاب للعرب الذين يسكنون في الصحاري

واألودية فانجذبوا العتناق االسالم نيابة عن دينهم العتيق وآمنوا بالله

وهذا يخالف حالة المجتمع . هيهورسوله وأن يمتثلوا أوامر هللا ويجتنبوا نوا

الذين يسكنون في األرض التي فيها أنهار تجري كبعض الواليات

لو وصفت الجنة بهذه الصورة أمام سكانها ألبوا أن يعتنقوا . بأندونيسيا

. اإلسالم لتوافر األنهار في أرضهم ومياهها صفية قابلة لالستهالك

رة الجنة التي تجري إن دل ذلك على شيء فإنما يدل على أن صو

من تحتها األنهار استجابة من مثير في المجتمع العرب، على شكل حالتهم

.الجغرافية

انتاج النباتات بوصفها مثير وصف أحوال الجنة في القرآن .2

الهواء الجافة واألرض المتنوعة في الجزيرة العربية تسبب قلة

فيها إال تمرا بوصفه نباتا ليس . النباتات الخضراء تنتج الفواكه الطازجة

رغم أن الشعير مما يطعم أهل الحجاز يوميا فإن هذا النبات ال . مفضال

وفي األودية المثمرة . ينبت إال في اليمن واألودية الخاصة التي فيها مياه

وبطيخ وموز رغم أنها من نبتت فواكه طازجة كرمان وتفاح وبرتقال

.ألنها ال يزرعها إال اليهودالفواكه النادرة عند الحجازيين

77

.وأما اآليات األخرى فتوجد في الملحق 11 Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, terj. R. Cecep Lukman Yasin dan Dedi

Slamet Riyadi (Jakarta: Serambi, 2005), hlm. 22-23.

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من حالة النباتات في الحجاز على األخص نادرة الفواكه الطازجة

توصف . غوية في وصف الجنةتكون هذه الحالة مثيرة تسبب استجابة ل

الجنة أنها مملوءة بالفواكه الطازجة المتوافرة لسكانها القابلة لالستهالك

:وهذه الفواكه الطازجة تذكر باأللفاظ فيما يلى. في أي وقت

ها حتن ت جري م

ات ت هم جن

ن ل

حات أ ال الص

وا

ل وعم

ين آمنوا ذ

ر ال

وبش

نن ألا نها م م

وا

ق ما رز

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بل ث

ن ق نا م

ق ي رز ذ

ا ال

هـذ

وا

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ق

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رة ه

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ول

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وا

ت)52:البقرة(وأ

ما يه فهة اك

ان ف ل ورم

خ

(86:الرحمن) ون

إن هذا الوصف األخروي لمن أطاع هللا ورسوله جذاب عند

. الحجازيين ألن في أرضهم نادرة الفواكه الطازجة كما ذكر فيما سبق

لو . وهذا ال ينجذب به قوم يسكنون في البلد المتوافرة بالفواكه الطازجة

مهم ألبوا أن يعتنقوا اإلسالم لتوافرها في وصفت الجنة بهذه الصورة أما

.بلدهم

إن دل ذلك على شيء فإنما يدل على أن صورة الجنة التي فيها

ثمرات وفواكه طازجة استجابة من مثير في المجتمع العرب، على األخص

.الحجازيين، على شكل انتاج النباتات في أرضهم

وصف أحوال الجنة في الحالة االجتماعية الثقافية بوصفها مثير .3

القرآن

من تقاليد العرب الجاهلية أي قبل ظهور اإلسالم الذي جاء به

وقد ذهب بعض .الزوجات درسول هللا محمد في أرض الحجاز تعد

عرب الجاهلية، لم يعرفوا زواجا مستمرا، ترتبط فيه الالباحثين إلى أن

78

وأما اآليات األخرى فتوجد في الملحق



307

نوا يجرون على نظام المرأة برجل معين، وإلى أجل غير مسمى؛ ألنهم كا

النكاح المؤقت، الذي ظل شائعا بينهم، حتى جاء اإلسالم، فأباحه الرسول

ألصحابه فترة من الزمان، عرف فيها هذا النكاح -عليه الصالة والسالم -

، كما ذهبوا إلى شيوع اإلباحية الجنسية عند "نكاح المتعة"المؤقت باسم

في معجمه " سترابون"مؤرخ العرب قبل اإلسالم، وذلك ما سجله ال

الجغرافي على العرب في بالد اليمن، غير أن الباحثين المحققين قديما

هذا، وأثبتوا أن عالقة الرجل " سترابون"وحديثا، قد أثبتوا بطالن ما سجله

بالمرأة في العصر الجاهلي كانت لها نظم أربعة، أشار إليها الحديث

،ومستخرج أبي عوانة لبيهقيالسنن الكبرى لالصحيح الموجود في

إن : "-رضي هللا عنها -بلسان السيدة عائشة أم المؤمنين، التي قالت

: النكاح في الجاهلية كان على أربعة أنحاء

ا نكاح الناس اليوم يخطب الرجل إلى الرجل وليدته فنكاح منه )أ

.فيصدقها ثم ينكحها

كانوا يسمونه نكاح االستبضاع، وهو أن يقول الرجل : والنكاح الثاني )ب

أرسلي إلى فالن فاستبضعي منه، : المرأته، إذا طهرت من حيضها

ثم يعتزلها زوجها جنسيا، حتى يظهر حملها من ذلك الرجل، فإذا

نه، نسب الولد إلى أبيه ال إلى أمه، وهذا النكاح لم يكن ولدت م

.شائعا عند العرب، وال مقصورا عليهم، كما سنبين ذلك قريبا

نكاح المشاركة أو الرهط، وهو أن يجتمع رجال دون : والنكاح الثالث )ج

العشرة، فيدخلوا على المرأة؛ ليصيبها كل منهم، فإذا حملت،

منهم من تلحق به ولدها، وهذا النكاح الثالث اجتمعوا عندها، لتختار

/http://library.islamweb.net/hadithالمقتبس من " الموسوعة اإلسالمية" 7

hadithsearch.php 70/77/8771في التاريخ.

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كان دخيال على العرب من الفرس في أثناء حكمهم لليمن،

.وتسلطهم على الحيرة قريبا من الكوفة، في عهد الساسانيين

والنكاح الرابع كان نكاح اإلماء البغايا، الالئي كن دخيالت على )د

رفون إال بالنكاح األول العرب، الذين كانت أغلبيتهم العظمي ال يعت

المشروع، الذي أقره اإلسالم فيما أقر من النظم الجاهلية، التي لم

ير بها بأسا في مجموعها، وأدخل عليها ما أدخل من التعديل،

وحاشاه -والتنظيم، والتهذيب؛ ألنه وحي السماء، الذي لم يبح مثال

، كما أباحه "هوريتهجم"نكاح االستبضاع، الذي أباحه أفالطون في -

ليكورغ مشرع إسبرطة، وأباحته شريعة سولون للمرأة التي يعجز

زوجها عن معاشرتها جنسيا، وأقرته شريعة مانو للهنود، وكل هذه

الشرائع الوضعية ال قيمة لها، وال عبرة بها في جنب اإلسالم شريعة

4 .السماء، وخاتمة الشرائع

واستمرت هذه الحالة إلى أن حدد هللا الزوجات ال أكثر من أربع

:زوجات كما قال في كتابه المقدس

يتامى ي ال وا ف

ط قس

ت

ال

فتم أ ن خ حوا وإ انك

ساء ف

ن الن

م مك

اب ل

ما ط

نى م مث

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ت أ

ك

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أ

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وا ف

ل عد

ت

ال

فتم أ ن خ إ

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ث

ل

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دن

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عول

ت

ال

﴾٣:النساء﴿أ

قبل أن ينزل هللا هذه اآلية كان المسلمون يتعددون الزوجات كما

واه اإلمام البخاري بإسناده أن غيالن الثقفي أسلم وتحته عشر وجد فيما ر

. اختر منهن أربعا: نسوة ، فقال له النبي صلى هللا عليه وسلم

المقتبس من " لجاهلية واإلسالماألسرة في ا"تامر عبد الفتاح، 71

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309

: بإسناده أن عميرة األسدى قال -رضي هللا عنه -وروى أبو داود

أسلمت وعندي ثماني نسوة، فذكرت ذلك للنبي صلى هللا عليه وسلم

.ااختر منهن أربع: فقال

أخبرني من : في مسنده -رضي هللا عنه -وقال اإلمام الشافعي

سمع ابن أبى الزياد يقول أخبرني عبد المجيد عن ابن سهل عن عبد

: الرحمن عن عوف بن الحارث عن نوفل ابن معاوية الديلمى قال

: أسلمت وعندي خمس نسوة ، فقال لي رسول هللا صلى هللا عليه وسلم

.شئت، وفارق األخرىاختر أربعا أيتهن

وروى البخاري في كتاب النكاح أن النبي صلى هللا عليه وسلم

آخى بين عبد الرحمن بن عوف وبين سعد بن عوف األنصاري، وعند

األنصاري امرأتان، فعرض عليه أن يناصفه زوجتيه وماله ، فقال له عبد

.بارك هللا لك في أهلك ومالك، دلني على السوق: الرحمن بن عوف

من واقعية االجتماعية الثقافية للمجتمع العرب مما يخص بتقليد

تعدد الزوجات معلوم أن اتجاهاتهم الجنسية ضخمة واستجابها القرآن

ا دخل المسلمون الجنة سوف يزوجهم هللا بحور استجابة لغوية بأن عندم

. عين بوصفها وسيلة ممتازة لتوفير حاجياتهم الجنسية

حقيقة ال يمكن إنكاره أن اإلنسان يحتاج إلى العالقة الجنسية كله

إال أن العرب وبالخصوص في العصر الجاهلى وصدر اإلسالم لهم تقليد

ك فإن تزويجهم بحور عين بناء على ذل. جنسي خاص وهو تعدد الزوجات

مها مما يخص بتقليدهم يعندما يوصف القرآن الجنة ونع استجابة مناسبة

.الجنسية

70

/http://library.islamweb.net/hadithالمقتبس من " الموسوعة اإلسالمية"

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حور عين استخدم القرآن ألفاظا متنوعة لوصف هذا النعيم وهي

:أزواج مطهرة وقاصرات الطرف، وخيرات حسان، على سبيل المثالو

يخ م ب

ك

ئ بنؤ

ل أ

ق

ن ذ

ن ر م جري مات ت م جن ه

ند رب وا ع

ق ين ات ذ

ل م ل

ك ل

يها ين ف د النهار خ

ها ألا حت

ت

رة ه

ط زواج م

ـه وأ

ـه والل

ن الل

ضوان م ور

باد عال ير ب ﴾72:آل عمران)بص

جناهم ب ك وزو لذ

ينك (25:الدخان)حورع

ندهم وع رفرات الط اص

ين ق (56:الصافات)ع

ن يه سانف يرات ح78(. 1:الرحمن) خ

تزويج إن دل ذلك على شيء فإنما يدل على أن صورة الجنة ب

جتماعية من مثير االالمسلمين المطيعين بحور عين استجابة مناسبة

.بتقليدهم في تعدد الزوجاتالثقافية، على األخص

النقاش بين اآليات المتعارضة. ج

ها وهي بين عيممن اآليات المتعارضة في وصف حالة الجنة ون

اآليات التي توصف صورة الجنة كل التفصيل وبين اآليات التي تذكر أن

فإن مدركات : نويرالتحرير والتابن عاشور في الجنة ال يمكن وصفها فقال

العقول منتهية إلى ما تدركه األبصار من المرئيات من الجمال والزينة، وما

تدركه األسماع من محاسن األقوال ومحامدها ومحاسن النغمات، وإلى

ما تبلغ إليه المتخيالت من هيئات يركبها الخيال من مجموع ما يعهده من

أو خمر أو لبن، ومثل المرئيات والمسموعات مثل األنهار من عسل

القصور والقباب من اللؤلؤ ، ومثل األشجار من زبرجد ، واألزهار من

74

وأما اآليات األخرى فتوجد في الملحق



311

ياقوت ، وتراب من مسك وعنبر ، فكل ذلك قليل في جانب ما أعد لهم

في الجنة من هذه الموصوفات وال تبلغه صفات الواصفين ألن منتهى

على قلوب البشر، الصفة محصور فيما تنتهي إليه دالالت اللغات مما يخطر

أعددت لعبادي الصالحين ما ال »فلذلك قال النبي صلى هللا عليه وسلم

وهذا كقولهم في « عين رأت وال أذن سمعت وال خطر على قلب بشر

.هذا ال يعلمه إال هللا: تعظيم شيء

زاد ابن : وقال الحافظ ابن حجر العسقالني في فتح الباري

وال يعلمه ملك : في حديثه" ال خطر على قلب بشر"مسعود عن قول

ووقع في حديث آخر أن . أخرجه ابن أبي حاتم. مقرب وال نبي مرسل

وسى عليه السالم سأل ربه من أعظم أهل الجنة سبب هذا الحديث أن م

غرست كرامتهم بيدي وختمت عليها فال عين رأت وال أذن : منزلة فقال

فال تعلم : ومصداق ذلك في كتاب هللا. سمعت وال خطر على قلب بشر

: السجدة( نفس ما أخفى لهم من قرة أعين

(

ولو تأمل العقل فيما جاء في وصف الجنة ونعيمها لحار في ذلك

ولما استطاع تصوره، فما بالك بما لم يذكر مما ادخره هللا تعالى لعباده

ليس في الجنة شيء : الصالحين، وقد قال ابن عباس رضي هللا عنهما

وعلى كل حال .رواه البيهقي وصححه األلباني. ي الدنيا إال األسماءمما ف

للجنة الثابتة؛ ألنها ال يلزم -صلى هللا عليه وسلم-فال يشكل عليك رؤية نبينا

71

الدار : تونيس) 87الـ ، الجزءتفسير التحرير والتنويرمحمد الطاهر بن عاشور،

.231-232. ، ص﴾ 877لنشر، التونسية ل7

الجزء الثامن "القرآنكتاب تفسير " فتح الباريالحافظ ابن حجر العسقالني،

. 4 . ، ص﴾دار المعرفة، بدون السنة: بيروت)

Ubaidillah


312

على كل ما فيها، أو ما ادخر هللا -صلى هللا عليه وسلم-منها اطالعه

.تعالى لعباده الصالحين من النعيم المقيم األبدي المتجدد

االستنتاج. د

وبعد أن قام الباحث بالتحليل عن صفة الجنة في القرآن الكريم

مستخدم النظرية السلوكية اللسانية، توجد أن هناك مثيرات تتعلق

والمثيرات هي األحوال الجغرافية . وصف الجنة فيه تؤثربالمجتمع العرب

اء واسعة التي توصف الجزيرة العربية بوصفها أرضا جرداء صخرية وصحر

ومناخا حارا وقلة األمطار حتى تظهر االستجابة على شكل صورة الجنة

والمثير اآلخر . التي تجرى من تحتها األنهار وفيها فواكه متوافرة لالستهالك

هم الزوجية الملونة بتعدد حياتهو االجتماعية الثقافية العربية وباألحرى

ال يحدد على توافر حور عين فبهذا المثير أجابه القرآن الكريم . الزوجات

بهذه المثيرات التي تنتج االستجابات اللغوية الموجودة في . استمتاعها

جاء به اليذي وصف الجنة انجذبت المجتمع العرب ألن يعتنقوا اإلسالم

رغم أنه كذلك ال تعنى صورة الجنة . النبي محمد وأن يطيعوا هللا ورسوله

ة أجذب منه وفقا لقول رسول هللا إن ونعيمها كما وصفها القرآن بل حقيق

الجنة لم تر عين قط مثله، ولم تسمع أذن بوصفه، ولم يخطر على القلب

.تصوره، وأنه ال يعلم عظمته إال هللا تعالى



313

ثبت المراجع

المصادر العربية

المقتبس من " األسرة في الجاهلية واإلسالم"تامر عبد الفتاح،

http://www.alukah.net/social/0/4458/ 5في التاريخ / /

5 4.

الجزء "كتاب تفسير القرآن" فتح الباريالحافظ ابن حجر العسقالني،

.دار المعرفة، بدون السنة: بيروت ،الثامن

الدار التونسية : ستوني، تفسير التحرير والتنويرمحمد الطاهر بن عاشور،

. 55 للنشر،

،المعجم المفهرس أللفاظ القرآن الكريم محمد فؤاد عبد الباقي،

هـ 4 4 دار الحديث، : القاهرة

دار : بيروت، الجزء الثانيمعجم البلدان، ياقوت بن عبد هللا الحموي،

. الصدير،

/http://library.islamweb.netالمقتبس من " الموسوعة اإلسالمية"

hadithsearch.phphadith/ 4 5 / / 5في التاريخ.

المصادر األجنبية

Harimurti Kridalaksana, Kamus Linguistik. Jakarta: PT Gramedia, 2008.

Leonard Bloomfiled, Language. 1st Published. London & Aylesbury: Great Britain, 1935.

Mahsun, Metode Penelitian Bahasa: Tahapan Strategi, Metode dan Tekniknya. Jakarta: P.T. Grafindo Persada, 2006.

Michael Quinn Patton, How to Use Qualitative Methodes in Evaluation. London: Sage Publication, 1991.

Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, terj. R. Cecep Lukman Yasin dan Dedi Slamet Riyadi. Jakarta: Serambi, 2005.

http://www.alukah.net/social/0/4458/

http://library.islamweb.net/%20hadith/



Ubaidillah


314

:الملحق

توصف صورة الجنة مع ذكر مثيراتهاالتي جدول اآليات

أنواع النصوص القرآنية أسماء السور

المثيرات

ر الذ 80: البقرة الحات أن لهم جنات وبش ين آمنوا وعملوا الص

ثمرة تجري من تحتها األنهار كلما رزقوا منها من

زقا قالوا هـذا الذي رزقنا من قبل وأتوا به متشابها ر

طهرة و هم فيها خالدون ولهم فيها أزواج م

يةاف

غرج

الة

الح

ال

اء غير 70: محمد ن م ثل الجنة التي وعد المتقون فيها أنهار م م

ن خمر ن لبن لم يتغير طعمه وأنهار م آسن وأنهار م

اربين وأنهار م ة للش صفى ولهم فيها من لذ ن عسل م

بهم كمن هو خالد في النار الثمرات كل ن ر ومغفرة م

وسقوا ماء حميما فقطع أمعاءهم

ا يدعون فاكهة لهم فيها 01: يس ولهم م

كثيرة وشراب بفاكهة ا يدعون فيها متكئين فيه 07: ص

كثيرة منها تأكلون فاكهة لكم فيها 1: الزخروف

آمنين فاكهة يدعون فيها بكل 00: الدخان

ا يشتهون بفاكهة وأمددناهم 88: الطور م ولحم م

والنخل ذات األكمام فاكهة فيها 77: منالرح

ان فاكهة فيهما 4: الرحمن ونخل ورم

زوجان فاكهة فيهما من كل 08: الرحمن

ا يتخيرون وفاكهة 87: الواقعة م م

ا يشتهون وفواكه 18: المرسالت مم

-7 :الصافات

18

المخلصين وما تجزون إل ما كنتم تعملون إل عباد هللا

علوم كرمون في جنات فواكه أولئك لهم رزق م وهم م

النعيم

ن نخيل وأعناب تجري أيود أحدكم أن تكون له جنة 844: البقرة م

من تحتها األنهار له فيها من كل الثمرات وأصابه

ية ضعفاء فأصابها إعصار فيه نار الكبر وله ذر

رون فاحترقت كذلك يبين هللا لكم اآليات لعلكم تتفك

تتا

بالن اج

تاان

ن ذلكم للذين اتقوا عند ربهم جنات 70: آل عمران قل أؤنبئكم بخير م

طهرة تجري من تحتها األنهار خالدين فيها وأزواج م

ن هللا وهللا بصير بالعباد ورضوان م

: آل عمران

7 4

بهم وجنات تجري من ن ر غفرة م أولئك جزآؤهم م

تحتها األنهار خالدين فيها ونعم أجر العاملين

: آل عمران ن نكم م فاستجاب لهم ربهم أني ل أضيع عمل عامل م



315

ن بعض فالذين هاجروا ذ 770 كر أو أنثى بعضكم م

وأخرجوا من ديارهم وأوذوا في سبيلي وقاتلوا وقتلوا

ألكفرن عنهم سيئاتهم وألدخلنهم جنات تجري من

ن عند هللا وهللا عنده حسن تحتها األنهار ثوابا م

الثواب

: آل عمران

77

لكن الذين اتقوا ربهم لهم جنات تجري من تحتها

ن عند هللا وما عند هللا خير األنهار خالدين فيها نزل م

لألبرار

ك حدود هللا ومن يطع هللا ورسوله يدخله جنات تل 7: النساء

تجري من تحتها األنهار خالدين فيها وذلك الفوز

العظيم

الحات سندخلهم جنات 01: النساء والذين آمنوا وعملوا الص

جري من تحتها األنهار خالدين فيها أبدا لهم فيها ت

طهرة وندخلهم ظال ظليال أزواج م

الحات سندخلهم جنات 788: النساء والذين آمنوا وعملوا الص

ن فيها أبدا وعد هللا حقا تجري من تحتها األنهار خالدي

ومن أصدق من هللا قيال

ولقد أخذ هللا ميثاق بني إسرآئيل وبعثنا منهم اثني 78: المائدة

الة وآتيتم عشر نقيبا وقال هللا إني معكم لئن أقمتم الص

رتموهم وأقرضتم هللا كاة وآمنتم برسلي وعز الز

كفرن عنكم سيئاتكم وألدخلنكم جنات قرضا حسنا أل

تجري من تحتها األنهار فمن كفر بعد ذلك منكم فقد

بيل ضل سواء الس

ه بما قالوا جنات تجري من تحتها األنهار 0 : المائدة فأثابهم اللـ

لك جزاء المحسنين خالدين فيها وذ

ـ 777: المائدة ه ه ادقين صدقهم لهم جنات قال اللـ ذا يوم ينفع الص

ه تجري من ت ضي اللـ حتها األنهار خالدين فيها أبدا ر

لك الفوز العظيم عنهم ورضوا عنه ذ

ن غل تجري من تحتهم 1: األعراف ونزعنا ما في صدورهم م

ه الذي هد ـ األنهار وقالوا الحمد للـ ذا وما كنا انا له

ه لقد جاءت رسل ربنا بالحق لنهتدي لول أن هدانا اللـ

ونودوا أن تلكم الجنة أورثتموها بما كنتم تعملون

ه المؤمنين والمؤمنات ج 18: التوبة نات تجري من وعد اللـ

تحتها األنهار خالدين فيها ومساكن طيبة في جنات

ه أكبر ذ ن اللـ لك هو الفوز العظيم عدن ورضوان م

ه لهم جنات تجري من تحتها األنهار خ 7 : التوبة الدين أعد اللـ

لك الفوز العظيم فيها ذ

تتا

بالن اج

تاان

Ubaidillah


316

الحات يهديهم ربهم 7: يونس إن الذين آمنوا وعملوا الص

بإيمانهم تجري من تحتهم األنهار في جنات النعيم

ثل الجنة التي وعد المت 0 : الرعد قون تجري من تحتها األنهار م

عقبى أكلها دائم وظلها تلك عقبى الذين اتقوا و

الكافرين النار

الحات جنات تجري 8: ابراهيم وأدخل الذين آمنوا وعملوا الص

دين فيها بإذن ربهم تحيتهم فيها من تحتها األنهار خال

سالم

جنات عدن يدخلونها تجري من تحتها األنهار لهم فيها 7 : النحل

ه المتقين ما يشاءون كذ لك يجزي اللـ

ـ 7 : الكهف م جنات عدن تجري من تحتهم األنهار ئك له أول

يحلون فيها من أساور من ذهب ويلبسون ثيابا خضرا

تكئين فيها على األرائك نعم ن سندس وإستبرق م م

الثواب وحسنت مرتفقا

ات عدن تجري من تحتها األنهار خالدين فيها جن 14: طه

لك جزاء من تزكى وذ

الحات جنات 71: الحج ه يدخل الذين آمنوا وعملوا الص إن اللـ

ه يفعل ما يريد تجري من تحتها األنهار إن اللـ

الحات جنات 8: الحج ه يدخل الذين آمنوا وعملوا الص إن اللـ

تجري من تحتها األنهار يحلون فيها من أساور من

ذهب ولؤلؤا ولباسهم فيها حرير

ن ذ تبارك الذي إن شاء ج 77: الفرقان لك جنات عل لك خيرا م

تجري من تحتها األنهار ويجعل لك قصورا

ن الجنة 0: العنكبوت ئنهم م الحات لنبو والذين آمنوا وعملوا الص

ها نعم أجر غرفا تجري من تحتها األنهار خالدين في

العاملين

ـ 87: الزمر ن فوقها غرف ل كن الذين اتقوا ربهم لهم غرف م

ه ه ل يخلف اللـ بنية تجري من تحتها األنهار وعد اللـ م

الميعاد

ه يدخل ال 78: محمد الحات جنات إن اللـ ذين آمنوا وعملوا الص

تجري من تحتها األنهار والذين كفروا يتمتعون

ويأكلون كما تأكل األنعام والنار مثوى لهم

ثل الجنة التي وعد المتقون فيها 70: محمد اء غير م ن م أنهار م

ن خمر ن لبن لم يتغير طعمه وأنهار م آسن وأنهار م

صفى ولهم فيها من ن عسل م اربين وأنهار م ة للش لذ

بهم كمن هو خا ن ر لد في النار كل الثمرات ومغفرة م

وسقوا ماء حميما فقطع أمعاءهم

تتا

بالن اج

تاان



317

ليدخل المؤمنين والمؤمنات جنات تجري من تحتها 0: الفتح

لك األنهار خالدين فيها ويكفر عنهم سيئاتهم وكان ذ

ه فو زا عظيما عند اللـ

حرج ول على األعرج حرج ليس على األعمى 71: الفتح

ه ورسوله ول على المريض حرج ومن يطع اللـ

يدخله جنات تجري من تحتها األنهار ومن يتول

به عذابا أليما يعذنورهم بين يوم ترى المؤمنين والمؤمنات يسعى 78: الحديد

أيديهم وبأيمانهم بشراكم اليوم جنات تجري من

لك هو الفوز العظيم تحتها األنهار خالدين فيها ذ ـ ... 88: المجادلة يمان وأيدهم بروح أول ئك كتب في قلوبهم اإل

نه ويدخلهم جنات تجري من تحتها األنهار م

ـ ه عنهم ورضوا عنه أول ئك خالدين فيها رضي اللـ

ه أل إن حزب الل ـه هم المفلحون حزب اللـيغفر لكم ذنوبكم ويدخلكم جنات تجري من تحتها 78: الصف

لك الفوز األنهار ومساكن طيبة في جنات عدن ذ

العظيم وم التغابن ومن لك ي يوم يجمعكم ليوم الجمع ذ 7: التغابن

ه ويعمل صالحا يكفر عنه سيئاته يؤمن باللـ

ويدخله جنات تجري من تحتها األنهار خالدين

لك الفوز العظيم فيها أبدا ذ ه ويعم .... 77: الطالق ل صالحا يدخله جنات ومن يؤمن باللـ

تجري من تحتها األنهار خالدين فيها أبدا قد

ه له رزقا أحسن اللـه توبة نصوحا : التحريم يا أيها الذين آمنوا توبوا إلى اللـ

سيئاتكم ويدخلكم جنات ربكم أن يكفر عنكم عسى

ه النبي تجري من تحتها األنهار يوم ل يخزي اللـ

بين أيديهم والذين آمنوا معه نورهم يسعى

ا وبأيمانهم يقولون ربنا أتمم لنا نورنا واغفر لن

كل شيء قدير إنك على الحات لهم جنات 77: البروج إن الذين آمنوا وعملوا الص

لك الفوز الكبير تجري من تحتها األنهار ذ

تها جزاؤهم عند ربهم جنات عدن تجري من تح : البينة

ه عنهم ورضوا ضي اللـ األنهار خالدين فيها أبدا ر

لك لمن خشي ربه عنه ذ

نبالج

تاان

تتا

ا

Ubaidillah


318

الحات أن لهم جنات 80: البقرة ر الذين آمنوا وعملوا الص وبش

وا منها من ثمرة تجري من تحتها األنهار كلما رزق

ـ زقا قالوا ه ذا الذي رزقنا من قبل وأتوا به متشابها ر

طهرة ولهم فيها وهم فيها خالدون أزواج م

يةاف

ثقالة

عيما

جتال الة

حاال

ن ذ 70: آل عمران للذين اتقوا عند ربهم لكم قل أؤنبئكم بخير م

وأزواج جنات تجري من تحتها األنهار خالدين فيها

طهرة ه بصير بالعباد م ه واللـ ن اللـ ورضوان م

الحات سندخلهم 01: النساء جنات والذين آمنوا وعملوا الص

تجري من تحتها األنهار خالدين فيها أبدا لهم فيها

طهرة وندخلهم ظال ظليال أزواج م

جناهم 01:الدخان بحور عين كذلك وزو

عين قاصرات الطرف وعندهم 1: الصافات

خيرات حسان فيهن 17:الرحمن

كأمثال اللؤلؤ المكنون وحور عين 8-88: الواقعة

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