生產工程Production Engineering

Well Servicing and Workover井維護與修井

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Well Servicing and Workover井維護與修井

Well Servicing 井維護 ( 定義 / 目的 )

－ the maintenance work（保養維護的工作） performed on an oil or gas well to improve or maintain （改善或維持） the production from a formation already producing .

The most common well-servicing operations are those related to

(a) artificial-lift installations 裝設人工提舉設備(b) tubing-string repair 修復生產管串(c) work on other downhole equipment that may be

malfunctioning 修復故障的井下設備

Workover （修井）

Workover 修井（目的） -- increase production （增加生產） of a producing well,

include more extensive repairs （大規模的修復） .

A workover includes any work performed (a) to change the producing zone in a well 變更生產層 (b) to clean out 清井或修井 (c) to reach an old producing interval 回復舊生產區間

Artificial lift

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Artificial lift 人工提舉法 When a well is first completed, the fluid is expected to flow to

the surface by natural reservoir energy for some period of time.

At some time during their economic life, however, most oil wells will require some form of artificial lift to help raise the fluid to the surface and obtain the maximum recovery of oil for maximum profit to the producer

The most common methods of artificial lift are: Gas lift 氣舉法 Sucker-rod pump 抽油機（抽油桿） Hydraulic pump 水力幫浦 Submersible pump 電動潛式幫浦

(1) Gas lift 氣舉法 If a supply of gas is economically available and the amount of

fluid will justify the expense （可平衡支出） , gas lift is commonly used (fig.5.10; p146)

In the gas-lift process, gas is injected into the fluid column of a well to lighten and raise the fluid by expansion of the gas.

Injected gas aerates ( 通氣 ) the fluid to make it exert less pressure than the formation does; consequently, the high formation pressure forces the fluid out of the wellbore.

Gas may be injected continuously or intermittently, depending on the producing characteristics of the well and the arrangement of the gas-lift equipment.

Principle of gas lift

(2) Sucker-rod pumps 抽油機 The artificial-lift method that involves sucker-rod pump is

commonly known as rod pumping, or beam pumping.

Surface equipment used in this method imparts an up-and-down motion to a sucker-rod string that is attached to a piston, or plunger （活塞） , pump submerged （被淹沒的） in the fluid of a well.

Most rod-pumping units have the same general operating principles. (fig 5.11; p147)

Rod-pumping components

(3) Hydraulic pumps 水力幫浦 Hydraulic pumps are so called because they are operated by a

hydraulic motor in the unit at the bottom of the well.

The fluid used to drive the motor is the oil from the well itself. The motor, in turn, drives a pump that pumps the oil to the surface.

One type of hydraulic pump is the free pump. This pump is installed in the bottom of the tubing and is

operated by oil taken from a tank at the surface and pumped downward through the tubing.

The power oil is returned to the surface through the small tubing, along with new oil taken from the formation.

(4) Submersible pumps 電動潛式幫浦

The motor and pumping units are lowered into the well on a string of tubing, and the pump.

常用於大量汲取流體（油、水）

ESP

Routine maintenance work例行維護工作

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Routine maintenance work例行維護工作

Routine maintenance work is needed throughout a well’s life if economical production is to be maintained.

The major works: (1) Part replacement 生產設備置換 (2) Cleanout 清井及修井 (3) Sand control 防砂

(1) Part replacement 生產設備置換 Well equipment such as downhole pumps, sucker rods, gas-lift valves, tubing,

parker, and so forth must be in good working condition.

Rod pumps ultimately wear out because of abrasive （磨蝕） or corrosive （腐蝕） conditions and their reciprocating （機器往復運動） characteristic.

Sucker rods are often highly stressed （承受壓力） and may ultimately fail because of repeated load reversals （逆轉） . Corrosion, scale （垢） , and paraffin deposits （石蠟沈積） may accelerate such failures.

(1) Part replacement

Tubing -and rods for that matter- will wear due to the reciprocating movement in the well as the string stretches and unstretches to adjust to the changing fluid loads while pumping.

Packers and other accessory devices （配件） sometimes fail because of the hydraulic and mechanical loads that are impressed on them.

(2) Cleanout 清井及修井 Major cleanout and workover （清井與修井） operations include Sand removal, 清砂 Liner removal, 搬移襯管 Casing repair, 修復套管 Drilling deeper, or 加深 Sidetracking 側鑽

These job usually require a string of pipe that can be rotated. Also, it is generally necessary to circulate the well-that is, pump fluid to the bottom and back to the surface.

Usually salt water or specially prepared circulating, or workover, fluid is used.

(2) Cleanout

Circulating the well (a) removes sand, cutting, or chips; (b) prevents blowout by maintaining adequate hydrostatic pressure to overcome formation pressure; (c) cools bits and cutters; (d) actuates ( 啟動 ) hydraulic tools, and (e) where open hole is involved, supports the wall of the hole until casing or liner can be set.

These functions require a suitable circulating system, a pump, hose and swivel, string of pipe to bottom, and a pit or tank to receive fluid returning from the well.

(3) Sand control 防砂 Production men have tried for a hundred years to devise a

method of keeping sand out of well. Men who work in hard-rock country may never have sand

trouble, but in California and the Gulf Coast Sand problems occur every day and are handled almost routinely.

Loose sand is controlled by Plastic squeeze 塑性料擠注 Gravel pack 礫石填充 A screen liner 篩管 A combination of these methods 綜合法

Sand control Plastic squeeze（塑性料擠注） involves placing a resinous

material （樹脂材料） into the sand formation and then allowing the plastic to harden.

In the gravel-packing process（礫石填充） , graded gravel is placed outside the casing or liner; this gravel holds back the sand but allows the well fluids to enter the wellbore.

One type of liner used to control sand is a slotted pipe（溝槽襯管） with the slots cut transversely（橫斷式） . The liner also acts to admit oil to the bottom of the well and exclude sand. When production shows sand, it usually indicates that the liner has failed and that remedial work is in order.

Well stimulation井激勵

Well stimulation 井激勵 The term well stimulation encompasses processes used to

enlarge old channel, or to create new ones in the producing formation.

Since oil usually occurs in the pores or cracks of sand or limestone formations --and seldom, if ever, in an underground pool like a tank-- enlarging or creating new channels means that the oil or gas will more readily to a well.

Three well-stimulation methods have been developed: explosives, 爆炸擴孔 acid treatment, and 酸處理 hydraulic fracturing. 液裂

(1) Explosives 爆炸擴孔 Using high explosives to improve a well’s production capacity

began in the late 1800s and continued until acid treatment and hydraulic fracturing were developed in the 1940s.

There has been, however, a revival of interest in explosive fracturing in recent years for the following reasons:

(a) certain kinds of tight formations do not respond readily to either acidizing or hydraulic fracturing , (b) experience has shown that many of the older wells that were shot are still producing commercially, while wells that were hydraulically fractured or acidized are not. (c) modern techniques and explosive materials have been developed to do a better and safer job than here-to-for possible.

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硝化甘油

(1) Explosives [2/2] There are now two basic ways of using explosives for

formation stimulation: (a) to concentrate detonation （引爆） only in the borehole. (b) to inject the explosive away from the wellbore for dispersed detonation with a fracture system.

Explosive fracturing supposedly enlarges the effective wellbore, eliminates nearby formation plugging, and at the instant of the explosion furnishes （提供） a source of high-pressure gas to force fluid into the formation at injection rates equivalent to 20 tons of water per second.

the formation of rubble （碎石） that is said to be produced by explosives should prevent fracture healing, making the use of proppants unnecessary. （地層不會閉合，不需使用支撐劑）

(2) Acid treatment 酸處理 Acid treatment away be applied to both new and old wells.

The primary purpose of this type of well stimulation is to dissolve rock, thus enlarging existing channels and opening new one to the wellbore.

oil-field acids must create reaction products that are soluble; otherwise, solid materials would be precipitated and plug the pore space in the rocks.

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(2) Acid treatment [2/4]

The acid must also be relatively safe to handle, and since large volumes are used, it must be fairly inexpensive.

Reservoir rocks most commonly acidized are limestone (calcium

carbonate) and dolomite, which is a mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates.

Most limestone and dolomite formations have low permeabilities. Acid injection into these low-permeability formations, even at

moderate rates, usually results in a fracture type of acid treatment, meaning that the pressure is high enough to cause the formation to crack.

This is most widely used treatment for well stimulation with acid.

(2) Acid treatment [3/4]

Another type of treatment -- interstitial （孔隙的） , or matrix （岩基） , acidizing -- also results in production increases.

Interstitial acidizing consists of treating at a rate and pressure low enough to avoid fracturing the formation.

This technique is usually used (a) when formation damage is present or (b) where a water zone or gas cap is nearby and fracturing might result in high water or excessive gas production.

(2) Acid treatment [4/4]

Additives （添加物） are used with oil-field acid for many reasons, but the most important is to prevent or delay corrosion -that is, to inhibit （禁止） the acid from attacking the tubing or casing in the well （腐蝕管串） .

A surfactant （表面活化劑） , or surface active agent, is another type of additive.

It is mixed in small amounts with an acid to make it easier to pump the mixture into the rock formation and to prevent spent acid and oil from forming emulsions.

Other types of additives are sequestering agents （隔離劑） and suspending agents （懸浮液） .

(3) Hydraulic fracturing 液裂 Since hydraulic fracturing does for sandstone reservoirs what

acid treatment does for limestone or dolomite reservoirs, thus type of stimulation may result in commercial in an area where it was not feasible before.

Essentially, this consists of applying hydraulic pressure against the formation by pumping fluid into the well. This pressure actually splits the rocks.

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(3) Hydraulic fracturing [2/5]

Hydraulic fracturing is used to accomplish four basic jobs:

(a) create penetrating reservoir fractures to improve the

productivity of a well. （製造裂縫，增進產能） (b) improve the ultimate recovery from a well by extending

the flow channels farther into the formations.

（延長流通孔道）

(c) aid in secondary-recovery operations （協助進行二級採收）

(d) increase the rate of injection of brine and industrial waste

material into disposal wells. （增進注水率）

(3) Hydraulic fracturing [3/5]

Most wells are fractured on initial completion, and refracturing to restore productivity of a well is a regular procedure.

Extension of the existing fractures will usually improve well productivity.

During early experimental work, it was discovered that a hydraulically formed fracture tends to heal （地層會閉合） , or lose its fluid-carrying capacity, after the parting pressure is released unless the fracture is propped open in some manner.

This is the function of propping agents or proppants （支撐劑） - to hold the fractures open.

(3) Hydraulic fracturing [4/5] Propping agent （支撐劑） include Sand （砂粒） , Nutshells （硬殼） , Beads of aluminum, glass, （鋁珠或玻璃珠） Plastic （塑料） .

Spacer materials （分離劑） are used between the particles of proppant to ensure its optimum distribution.

The fracturing fluid must not only break down the formation, but it must also extend and transport the propping agent into the fracture.

液裂流體不僅要破裂地層，還要將支撐劑送入地層深處

(3) Hydraulic fracturing [5/5]

The oil-base, water-base, or acid-base fracturing fluid and the additives used to modify its properties, along with the proppant and spacer, make up a very complex substance.

（液裂所使用的流體成分相當複雜）

Choice of the most suitable base depends on the chemical nature of rock, its physical characteristics, and the nature of the reservoir fluid.

（需依據地層條件作最佳選擇）

End of Chapter 7

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