项目管理工具与流程-project management tools & processes

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Project management tools & processes

Section 1 Project Management: Basics and Tools ................................................................................2

1.1 Project Management ...................................................................................................................21.2Project Structure and Frameworks ..............................................................................................5

1.3 Project Stakeholders ...................................................................................................................8

1.4 Project Management Tools .........................................................................................................9

1.4.1 Project initiation document ..................................................................................................9

1.4.2 Feasibility ............................................................................................................................9

1.4.3 SWOT analysis ..................................................................................................................10

1.4.4 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) ...................................................................................10

1.4.5 Costing and Budgeting ......................................................................................................10

1.4.6 Gantt Chart ........................................................................................................................10

1.4.7 Histogram ..........................................................................................................................10

1.4.8 Network analysis/critical path analysis .............................................................................111.4.9 PERT (project evaluation and review technique) ..............................................................11

1.4.10 Project Management Software .........................................................................................11

Section 2 Project Management: Methodologies and Managing the Team .........................................12

2.1 Project Management Methodologies and System ....................................................................12

2.2 The Key Stages of Project Management ..................................................................................14

2.3 The Project Initiation Stage ......................................................................................................15

2.4 Strategy and Scope for a Project ..............................................................................................15

2.5 Management of Configuration, Change & Risk .......................................................................16

2.6 The Project Planning Stage .......................................................................................................18

Section 3 Project Control ...................................................................................................................19

3.1 Project Control Systems ...........................................................................................................19

3.2 Control of Time, Cost and Quality ...........................................................................................20

3.3 Quality in the Project Environment ..........................................................................................21

3.4 Project Completion ...................................................................................................................22


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Section 1 Project Management: Basics and Tools

Project Management

Project Structures and Frameworks

Project Stakeholders

Project management tools

1.1 Project Management

A project is a temporary process, which has a clearly defined start and end time, a set of tasks and a

budget, that is developed to solve a well defined goal or objective.

Examples of projects include implementing a new business process, producing a new product,

organising a wedding, or decorating the dinning room.

Characteristics of a projector (Trevor Young, The Handbook of Project Management):

has specific purpose

is unique

customer focused

a series of activities

has time constraints

is complex

has cost constraints


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The project life cycle

Stage Description

The defining or initiation

phase

Identification of a need, opportunity or problem. Establish

requirements and achievability.

The planning phase Submission of proposals to the customer.

A feasibility study and cost benefit analysis is generally

used to help evaluate the best choice and the contract is

then agreed.

The implementing phase The actual performance, resulting in the accomplishment of

the project objective.

The controlling phase Monitoring and controlling the project, through budget

milestones

The completing phase Deliverables provided, appraised, accepted and paid for.


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Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project

activities in order to meet or exceed stakeholder needs and expectations from a project.

Objective of project management

Define the project

Produce manageable tasks

Obtain resources

Build a team or teams

Plan the work and allocate responsibilities

Monitor and control the work

Report progress to senior management and/or the project sponsor

Close down the project when completed

Review to ensure lessons are learnt

Process of Project Management

ProjectStages

Initiation Fact finding Design &

development

Review Completion

Formation Position analysis Implementation

Objective setting Options generation

Task planning Options evaluation

FeasibilityManag

erialStagesAnd

1. Initiation stage

a. Project initiation

document

b. Work breakdownstructure

c. Budget schedule

d. Task list

e. Network diagram

f. List of resources

g. Feasibility study-

cost/benefit analysis

2. Planning stage

a. SWOT analysis

b. Scenario building

c. NPVd. Working breakdown

structure

e. Gantt charts

f. Critical path analysis

g. PERT

h. Resource histogram

3. Implementing

stage

Budget report

Progress report

4.Controlling

stage

Cost analysis

5.Completing stage

Completion report

Post completion

audit


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1.2Project Structure and Frameworks

Mckinseys 2S model

The 2S model can be used in to identify:

Strengths and weakness

How a change made in any one of the S factors will have an impact on all of the others


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Appreciative Inquiry (AI)

A traditional Appreciative Inquiry is based on four steps (the AI 4-D Cycle)

Assumptions of AI include the following:

Something works

What we focus on becomes our reality

Asking questions of an organisation or group influences the group in some way.

People have more confidence and comfort to journey to the future ( the unknown) when theycarry forward the best parts of the past (the known).

It is important to value differences.

the language we use creates our reality.

Note: The AI framework can be applied a variety of interventions such as: strategic planning,

instructional system design, diversity, organisational redesign, mergers and evaluations.


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The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)

The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) is a collection of processes and

knowledge areas accepted as best practice within the project management discipline.

The PMBOK

The PMBOK describes nine Project Management Knowledge Areas:

1) Project Integration Management

2) Project Scope Management

3) Project Time management

4) Project Cost Management

5) Project Quality Management

6) Project Human Resource Management7) Project Communication Management

8) Project Risk Management

9) Project Procurement Management


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1.3 Project Stakeholders

Outcome and process stakeholders

Outcome stakeholders have an interest in seeing that the projects objectives are achieved.

Process stakeholders have an interest in the way in which the project is conducted.

Based on the principles of one person- one boss and a decision-making authority, the hierarchy

shown below is adapted from the one shown in Successful Project Management, Gido Jand

Clements J, 1999.

Note: Other stakeholders that we can include are the organisation, customers, steering committee,

vendors, specialists and users.

Project champions and agents of change

A project champion- someone who grasps the benefits of and is enthusiastic about the project can

be one of the most critical elements of any project team. Change agents are those people in the

business that have the expertise that the project team requires to successfully delver the project and

will ensure that all of the requirements of the business are met.


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1.4 Project Management Tools

1.4.1 Project initiation document

The project initiation document ( PID) is a formal document listing the goals, constraints and

success criteria for the project- the rules of the game.

Note: The PID is sometimes called a statement of work or project charter.

A PID should contain at least the following sections:

Purpose statement

Scope statement

Deliverables

Cost and time estimates Objectives

Stakeholders

Chain of command

1.4.2 Feasibility

The feasibility study should be undertaken during the early stages of project planning, once the

requirements and specifications of the project have been identified.

The purpose of project feasibility is to establish if the proposed project can achieve its objective in a

cost effective manner. It enables the organisation to filter out proposed projects that would either

cost too much disruption, make excessive demand on resources or have side effects that are

undesirable and outweigh the advantages.

Feasibility can be considered in a number of areas for example technical, social, environmental,

financial and business feasibility.

Technical feasibility will vary depending of the type of project being undertaken. The idea is

to assess the nature of the technology required to build and run the new system/venture.

Social feasibility is all about ensuring the project fits with the business and its social

environment. Environmental or ecological feasibility which could include complying with heath and

safety legislation and also making sure the system/venture is ecologically sound and not

harmful to the surrounding environment.

Financial feasibility is undertaken to explore whether the project provides benefits to the

organisation and is usually assessed through cost benefit analysis.

Business feasibility should be considered in terms of whether the project fits with the

business goals of the company.


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1.4.3 SWOT analysis

trengths Weaknesses

The things that are going well (or have gone well) in the

projects

The skills that are prized

Major successes

Parts of the project that are well received by the users or

were completed early

The things that are going badly (or have

gone badly) in the projects

The skills that area is lacking

Major failures

Parts of the project that are poorly

received by the users or were completed

late

pportunities Threats

Events or changes outside the project (elsewhere in the

organisation or its business environment) that can be

exploited to the advantage of the project

Things likely to go well in the future

Events or changes outside the project

(elsewhere in the organisation or its

business environment) that should be

defended against

Things likely to go badly in the future

1.4.4 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

This technique is a critical part of project planning involving an analysis of the work required to

complete the project. The activities in the project are broken down into manageable components,

referred to as work packages. The process defines the activities that must be carried out for each

work package. Each work package will have defined responsibilities and deliverables.

1.4.5 Costing and Budgeting

The WBS can be used to produce a cost breakdown structure.

Detailing labour, subcontractors, material, overheads, etc

1.4.6 Gantt Chart

This provides a visual way of illustrating the sequence of activities in a project. Complex project

activities are converted into constituent tasks and a graphical and understandable picture is

provided. Although it does not show dependencies internal relationship, it will show the time taken

for each activity, resources required and responsibilities.

1.4.7 Histogram

This technique shows the resource requirement usage and availability against a timescale. (stacked

bar chart)


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1.4.8 Network analysis/critical path analysis

Construction of a diagram showing the sequence and dependencies between activities or

deliverables on a project. Using a work breakdown structure, network analysis arranges each work

package/task into a logical sequence and estimates the time to complete each. The outputs from the

work breakdown structure analysis will help the identification of which tasks are dependent on

others. Dependencies are critical to project planning. Having identified dependencies it is thenpossible to calculate the critical path, which is the longest sequence of consecutive activities. It

identifies those activities which, if delayed beyond the allotted time, would delay the completion of

the project. How much certain activities could slip before there is an impact on the expected item

completion for project. This then enables the minimum possible time to be determined.

1.4.9 PERT (project evaluation and review technique)

Development on network analysis, the technique is designed to account for uncertainty in the

project life cycle. Each activity in the project PERT uses three times estimates:

1) the optimistic time based on the duration the Shopping Centre project would take if

conditions were ideal;

2) the most likely/probable duration if conditions were normal or as expected;

3) the pessimistic estimate which is the duration it would take if a number of things went

wrong.

These estimates are then converted into a mean time and standard deviation which means it is then

possible to establish the duration of the project using the expected times, but also to calculate a

contingency time allowance.

1.4.10 Project Management Software

Software can be used for:

planning- network diagrams and gannt charts can be produced automatically once data is

entered

monitoring- actual data can be used to facilitate monitoring, with regular updates to

diagrams

estimating- actual data from one project can be used to estimate the next project

reporting- they allow standard and tailored reports to be produced


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Section 2 Project Management: Methodologies and

Managing the Team

Project management, methodologies and systems

The key stages of project management

The project initiation stage

Strategy and scope for a project

Management of configuration, change and risk

The project planning stage

2.1 Project Management Methodologies and System

Prince is a project management system developed by the UK Central Computer and

Telecommunications Agency.

The acronym PRINCE stands for Projects IN Controlled Environments. The latest version of

PRINCE is PRINCE 2.

Prince Structure

The basic PRINCE prefect organisational structure

The PRINCE structure defines the roles of:

project committee


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project manager

team leader

project assurance

project support

PRICE 2

PRINCE2 (Projects IN Controlled Environments, version 2) is a process-based approach for

project management providing an easily tailored, and scaleable method for the management of all

types of projects.


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2.2 The Key Stages of Project Management

PRINCE2 Process

Directing a project the higher aspects of control and decision making

Starting up a project- a pre-project process, selecting the team and setting aims

Initiation- akin to a feasibility study, is it justified?

Planning- analysis into technical, quality and management. Establishment of targets of time,

cost and quality.

Controlling a stage- monitoring and control activities are carried out by the project manager

at each stage of the project.

Managing stage boundaries- the primary objective at this stage is to ensure that all planned

deliverables are completed as required. One stage is completed before next begins.

Managing product delivery- this includes effective allocation of Work packages and

ensuring that the work is carried out to the required quality standard. (specialist and

contractors) Project closure- bringing the project to a formal and controlled close approved by the

Project Board, it establishes the extend to which the objectives have been met.

The JISC infoNet method

The JISC infoNet method pares down PRINCE2 to the bare bones of a framework suitable for

managing any project.


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2.3 The Project Initiation Stage

Project initiation

The PID lists the goals, constraints and success criteria for the project.

Project definition

The main elements of a project definition include:

purpose

goals

beneficial gains

2.4 Strategy and Scope for a Project

To ensure the strategic fit of the project the organisation needs to be clear about the following:

description of the business need and its contribution to the organisations business strategyobjectives

why it is needed now

key benefits to be realised

critical success factors and how they will be measured.

Project strategy

Project scope- agreement between customer and supplier, series of tasks or activities to be

performed in reaching the project solution

Project objectives and basic plans for time, cost and quality

time constraint and budget

an expected quality level associated with each task

budget available for project completion, which the project manager should not exceed

without authorisation

Trade offs between key project objectives

Every project has constraints. The primary ones are the trade off between time, cost and scope

which also impact on quality.


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2.5 Management of Configuration, Change & Risk

Risk management

Five stages of risk management

1) Identify and record the risk in a risk register2) Access the risks and record the assessment

3) Plan and record risk strategies

4) Carry out risk strategies

5) Review and monitor the success of the risk management approach

Dealing with risk involves four basic approaches

Avoidance removes the factors bringing about the risk

Reduction- identify ways to reduce the risk

Transference pass the risk to someone else (insurer)

Absorption accept the risk and cope with the consequences

Common causes of problems

Poor project management

Conflicting requirements

Unrealistic deadline

User requirements not established correctly


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Management of change

Change management activities:

identify need for change

make recommendation

check feasibility to change

get steering committee approval get project sponsor approval

amend plan

make change

Elements of the change management plan:

initiating a change request

logging and tracking change requests

assigning change requests for analysis and recommendation

implementing change request resolution actions ( acceptance, delayed acceptance or

rejection of change request) how accepted changes will be integrated into the project control documents ( schedule and

task plan, risk management plan, acquisition plan, etc)

roles and responsibilities in the change management process

Change management

Causes of change to the project plan What to consider when changing the plan

Slippage

New technology

New legislation

Business environment changes

Poorly defined user requirements

Staff changes

What happens if the change is not

implemented?

Costs and benefits of the change

Impact on time, cot and quality

Change control procedure

Impact on stakeholders

Communication to all those affected


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2.6 The Project Planning Stage

Advantages:

communicate what has to be done, when and by whom

encourage forward thinking

provide the measures of success for the project

make clear the commitment of time, resources ( people and equipment), and money required

for the project

determine if targets are achievable

identify the activities the resources need to undertake

Three main types of planning are required within PRINCE projects:

Project planning

Stage planning

Exception planning

Detailed planning

Resources for a detailed plan:

The plan can be discussed with the project sponsor and users, to gain their agreement for the

project to proceed.

The plan will give a clear view to the project team of what is expected form them. This will

improve their motivation level.

The plan can be used as a basis for performance review.

Evaluation of plans for projects

Methods of evaluation include: examining existing records

structured observation

individual interviews

group interviews

expert opinion

Note: For more details about methodology please refer to the study text Section on project

methodologies and planning.


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Section 3 Project Control

Project control systems

Control of time, cost and quality

Quality in the project environment

Project completion

3.1 Project Control Systems

Project control

Project control is the continuous monitoring of the project for deviations from plan (time, cost and

quality) and the execution of corrective action.

Components of a basic control system:

A plan- a statement of what is to happen

Observations- measurements of what is happening

Comparisons- between expectations and actual

Corrections- actions designed to re-direct what is happening back to what should happen.

Updates- of forecasts and or plan as appropriate.

This involves scheduling, monitoring and controlling.

Project control system

The purpose of a project control system is to develop a plan of the work that is to be accomplished

and to develop a system that monitors that plan and the performance of the work.

The decision to introduce a formal control system and the selection of a specific system should be

based largely on two aspects of the project:

The risk involved

The cost of the control system and its expected benefits


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3.2 Control of Time, Cost and Quality

Time, cost and quality performance measurement

Time and money, budgets and schedules are the most basic resources within which every project

must operate.

Measurements can include:

Expenditure (cost) measures- start with the establishment of budgets

Schedule (time) performance measures- refer to the timely completion of project

deliverables.

Scope performance measures- are primarily concerned with product scope (the set of

functions and features that characterise the product or service).

Functional quality- refers to the quality or correctness

Technical quality performance refers to the technical infrastructure that provides the

foundation for product and service delivery. Client satisfaction measures- include client perceptions on various aspects.

Earned value analysis (EVA)

EVA involves calculation of three measurements:

Budgeted cost of work scheduled (BCWS)

Actual cost of work performance (ACWP)

Budgeted cost of work performed (BCWP)


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3.3 Quality in the Project Environment

Quality is:

Totality of features and characteristics of a product or service which bear on its ability to

satisfy stated and implied needs. (ISO)

Fitness for use (Juran)

Conformance to requirements (Crosby)

Dimensions of quality:

Conformance quality depends upon compliance with technical specifications.

Perceived quality relates to the customers expectations and experiences with the product.

Quality management

Quality management is a systematic way of ensuring that the activities necessary to design,

develop and deliver products and services which are more likely to be fit for their intended purpose,

take place a planned and are carried out efficiently and effectively.

Conformance management systems

Conformance management systems focus on:

inspection

quality control

quality assurance

Total Quality Management (TQM)

TQM is managing the entire organisation so that it excels on all dimensions of products and

services that are important to the customer.

TQM deals with:

quality standards and specifications

cost of quality

continuous improvement


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3.4 Project Completion

Closing a successfully completed project

Elements in project finalisation:

acceptance by client

review outputs against goals

disbanding the team

post-completion review

closure by steering committee

Closing an unsuccessful project

Signs of an unsuccessful project that may need to be closed before being completed include:

The project team is unable to meet major project milestones.

The activities do not match with the stated objectives of the project. It is clear the clients will not accept the outputs and/or outcomes of the project.

Key project team members leave the project.

Completion report

Contents:

The project objectives and the outcomes achieved

The extend to which the required quality has been achieved

System efficiency during live operation compared with the agreed levels of performance

The cost of the system in comparison with budgeted cot, and explanations for variances

Comparison of actual time taken to complete the project with the budgeted time anticipated The effectiveness of the management process

The significance of the problems encountered, and the effectiveness of the solutions

generated to overcome them.

Post-completion audit

Main purposes of post-completion audit:

checks whether benefits have been achieved

reduces the tendency towards over-optimism

Post-implementation review(PIR)

Post-implementation review (PIR) is a formal review of a programme or project. It is used toanswer the question: Did we achieve what we set out to do in business terms and if not, what

should be done?


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Elements of the PIR

Project history description- provides an executive overview of the solution selected to

satisfy the project objectives.

Cost history- provides a set of accounts for the actual costs of the development of the project

using the cost schedule formats as prepared for the project plan.

Project management and systems development methodology- describe the methodology

used to develop the system. Performance measures provide a list of the performance measures initially used to justify

the project.

Lessons learned- describe the lessons learned during this project

Impact of the system-briefly describe the general impact of the system on the mangers, users

and customers.

The PIR process

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