規管網上內容 regulation of online content

規管網上內容Regulation of online content

仇恨言論Hate speech

公民权利和政治权利国际公约

第二十条一、任何鼓吹战争的宣传，应以法律加以禁止。二、任何鼓吹民族、种族或宗教仇恨的主张，构成煽

动歧视、敌视或强暴者，应以法律加以禁止。

Article 20 of the ICCPR 1. Any propaganda for war shall be

prohibited by law. 2. Any advocacy of national, racial or

religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.

i.e. warmongering and hate speech are not allowing

即不容許 : 鼓吹戰爭 , 仇恨言論

仇恨言論 hate speech

hostile remarks aiming at persons of any racial or ethnic group, gender or

sexual orientation


仇恨言論

美國：　一般不算非法US – not outlawed in most cases

歐洲：大部份國家不容許Europe: many countries have outlawed hate speech

美國經典例子 3K 黨集會上的言論

A man spoke at a Ku Klux Klan meeting urging to send the blacks to Africa and the Jews to Israel

美國法院對極端言論較為容忍憲法第一修正案就連慫恿行動的言論也保護除非有關言論可能引發即時的無視法紀行為

The Supreme Court: The First Amendment protects speech that is

a call for action, as long as the speech is not likely to produce imminent lawless action

美國的情況美國多個州於八九十年代立法禁止仇恨言論 Many states

passed laws in the 1980s and 1990s forbidding hate speech

但最高法院於 1992 年裁決仇恨言論不能僅因為內容而被禁止

The Supreme Court ruled in 1992 hate speech cannot be banned on the basis of its

content

2009: 二次大戰納粹德軍屠殺猶太人紀念館槍擊案http://edition.cnn.com/2009/CRIME/06/10/museum.shooting/index.html


法國和德國發表否認大屠殺的言論，屬違法

passed law criminalising Holocaust denial

有人向聯合國投訴 , 指違反 IPPCR, 但被駁回 The ICCPR dismissed a complaint about the law

但歐洲人權法院的一個判決則是… But the ECHR ruled that the French

government acted disproportionately by punishing the advertiser

2006 年初


荷蘭起訴右翼國會議員 Geert Wilders


Geert Wilders 被控 inciting hatred against Muslims

他 2008 年製作的影片 urged Muslims to tear out "hate-filled" passages

from the Quran juxtaposes images of the September 11, 2001

attacks on the US with quotations from the text No TV company would broadcast the 17-minute

film Wilders posted it on the internet in March 2008


Geert Wilders 表示 : I also do not intend to hurt people's

feelings. I have nothing against Muslims. I have a problem with Islam and the

Islamisation of our country because Islam is diametrically opposed to freedom.

2006 初 : 漫畫風波

Banners waved during a demonstration in London featured slogans including "Europe, your 9/11 will come" and - in an apparent reference to the four July 7 suicide bombers - "Europe you will pay, fantastic 4 are on their way".

發表恐怖份子言論，容不容許？

網上仇恨言論 Online Hate Speech

兩種不同的意見 1) 互聯網言論應享有較大的自由

廣電內容的規管方式不適用 2) 互聯網出現的仇恨言論

問題更嚴重並有新的情況


1995: 美國出現極端白人主義的網站 Problematic websites in the US the first American white supremacist

website Stormfront, was established by a former

member of Ku Klux Klan in 1995; 2000 年左右 : 估計有三千個這種網站 estimated in the early 2000s some 3,000

problematic websites promoting racial violence, anti-Semitism,

homophobia, hate music and terrorism;


websites, e-mail and online discussion groups Become powerful recruiting, fundraising

and indoctrination tools for racist and hate groups

作用：動員、洗腦、籌經費 (from “Battling online hate”, BBC News,

30/8/2001)

針對墮胎醫生的網站

The pictures and details have already been removed from the websitehttp://lancasterlife.com/NurembergFiles/

http://www.christiangallery.com/atrocity/

針對墮胎醫生的網站

The case of Nuremberg Files anti-abortionists ( 反墮胎人士 ) : listing private details of more than 200

abortion clinic doctors and employees and called for the “baby butchers” to be brought to justice

Pro-choice groups ( 支持墮胎權利人士 ) : : went to the court 1999 ruling: the site has to be closed down

針對墮胎醫生的網站The case of Nuremberg Files

2001 appeal: the site protected by First Amendment unless

the site authorised, ratified, or directly threatened violence

May 2002 further appeal decision: a panel of 11 judges heard the case, very

divided, 6 to 5 votes decided: the ‘Wanted’ style posters branding individual

abortion doctors as ‘baby butchers’ were illegal threats not protected free speech

上訴法庭以六比五裁定網站內張貼的內容，屬非法的恐嚇，不受第一修正案保護


Ebay: 決定不拍賣一些種類的物品 agreed not to auction items promoting

hate groups also banned the sale of firearms,

tobacco and alcohol


2000 Yahoo! 因拍賣納粹紀念品，被法國政府控告 Yahoo!

Was sued in France for auctioning Nazi articles on the Net

French courts ordered Yahoo! 　 to take all reasonable measures to prevent web

users in France from gaining via Yahoo.com to the Nazi article auction service and to any other site or service that may be construed as constituting an apology for Nazism or a contesting of Nazi crimes

If failed to do so, subject to a US$13,000 fine a day 法國法院要求雅虎採取措施，不讓法國網民登入這些網站

The Yahoo! Case

Yahoo argued it is technically impossible to fully comply with the French court order

but the French court based on expert report stating that Yahoo can almost identify 90% of the French users (70% by IP address/20% by honour

system) 雅虎表示，技術上不可能，但專家報告則認為可以

The Yahoo! Case

2001: Yahoo! has adopted new policies and pre-screen and eliminate hateful and racist materials

Feb. 2003: a French court acquitted Yahoo and its former president

The Yahoo! Case (continued)

Yahoo went back to the US filed a lawsuit asking the US court to

declare the orders by French courts are unrecognizable and unenforceable

Nov. 2001: A US district court held that French orders are not enforceable in the US because such enforcement would violate the First Amendment

美國地方法院應雅虎要求，宣布法國法院的判決有違第一修正案，不能於美國執行，

The Yahoo! Case (continued)

Jan 2006: a US court of appeal dismissed Yahoo’s application

There was no reason for a US court to consider the internet company's appeal

‘First Amendment issues arising out of international Internet use are new, important and difficult. We should not rush to decide such issues based on an inadequate, incomplete or unclear record’

美國上訴法院駁回雅虎的要求，並表示雅虎已修改政策，而法國法院亦未執行判決，因此美國法院目前不審理法國法院判決有否違反第一修正案


The Council of Europe: Jan 2003: Additional Protocol to

the Convention on Cybercrime (entered into force in 2008) Criminalise acts of a racist ( 帶種族偏見 )

and xenophobic ( 仇外 ) nature committed through computer system

US not signing


Cyberbullying 網上暴力 / 網絡欺凌

Google and Italy 2010

Fact: A user of a Google video service

uploaded a video showing the bullying of a disabled youth

When Google received a formal complaint about the video from Italian police, it took the video down within hours.

Google and Italy 2010 Feb 2010 An Italian judge convicted three Google

executives for violating Italy's privacy code. The judge found that

under Italian law Google had a legal duty to prevent the posting of the video that invaded the victim's privacy and dignity

該視頻侵害了少年的隱私和尊嚴根據意大利法律 ,谷歌有責任採取行動阻止這事件發生

Google and Italy 2010 He imposed

a suspended jail sentence and fines on them and their company

Google said would appeal the six-month suspended jail terms the verdict "poses a crucial question for the

freedom on which the internet is built“ Since none of the three employees found guilty

had anything to do with the offending video 谷歌表示會上訴 , 指判決關係到網絡自由的根本

美國網上暴力 - Megan Meier 自殺


十三歲少女Megan Meier 自殺 Megan Meier患抑鬱症 2006 年中 : 另一名少女與母親 Lori Drew 合謀

創作了一個少年 Meier

與該少年在網上談戀愛幾周後 ,少年對 Meier 說 : “The world

would be a better place without you.” Meier 自殺


Drew 被控多項罪名美國第一宗聯邦網上暴力案件

2008 年 11月底宣判最嚴重的一項指控不成立 ( 可判二十年監禁 )

accessing a computer without authorisation to inflict emotional distress

另外三項較輕的罪名則成立 gaining access to a computer without

authorization Drew 上訴

美國網上暴力 - Megan Meier自殺

2009 年 8 月 Drew 上訴成功 , 改判無罪她雖違反 My Space 旳規定 ,沒有實名

登記但這只屬違反合約不構成刑事罪行

歐盟 : 新近的規管建議 2010 年 11月歐洲委員會建議，加強網上個人信息保護讓網民有能享有 “ right to be forgotten”

的法律權利可要求社交網站真正刪除

令人羞恥的圖片或尷尬的信息 EU to give internet users legal ‘right to be forgotten’

,The Daily Telegraph, Nov. 5, 2010

書目 Hate speech online

http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/speech/internet/topic.aspx?topic=internet_hate_speech

R. K. L. Collins (2009) A look at 'Cyberbullying & Public Schools' http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/analysis.aspx?id=21410

Judge Acquits Lori Drew in Cyberbullying Case, Overrules Jury http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2009/07/drew_court/

Free speech in Europe: mixed rules http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0208/p01s01-woeu.html

Dutch MP on trial for 'hate speech' http://english.aljazeera.net/news/europe/

2010/01/201012094532873241.html

規管網上內容 regulation of online content

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