-

: 1

-

: 2

((( AAArrrrrrhhheeennniiiuuusss BBBrrrnnnsssttteeeddd---LLLooowwwrrryyy)))

AAArrr rrrhhheeennn iii uuusss O (+) .

B (-) .

( ).

BBBrrrnnnsss ttteeeddd---LLLooowww rrr yyy , , (+) ( ). (1) (1) + +

, , (+) ( ) (2) + + (2)

( ) ( ). :

(1) + (2) (1) + (2)

( ) (). ( ) (). ( ) .

.

.

-

: 3

. ( + +)

, , , , , ( ), ( ). .

, .

, : (1) + (2) (1) + (2). .

11 22 11 22

CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO- + H3O+

H2SO4 + H2O HSO4- + H3O+

HSO4- + H2O SO4-2 + H3O+

H2O + CH3COO- OH- + CH3COOH

H2O + H2NCH2COO- OH- + H3+NCH2COO-

H2O + NH3 OH- + NH4+

H3O+ + OH- H2O + H2O

(C6H5)3CH + NH2- (C6H5) 3C- + NH3

-

: 4

111 --- ((()))

mol (ni) () mol

(n) =

i

n

n. ,

: =

i

n

n =

V

nV

n

i

= C

x =

C

x , x C ()

.

. 0 < 1 ( %

0< % 100)

= 1, ( )

< 1, ( )

:

) , . . .. HCl , HF .

) . , ( ) (

) .

. CH3COOH , CH3CO + H2 CH3COO- + 3

+ , ,

, CH3CO + 3 CH3COO- + 4

+

) . (>0). Le Chatelier

, .

) () . C ( -

) (. Ostwald ).

) . ,

Le Chatelier, ( )

-

: 5

()

( =1)

( )

()

: ( -

Bronsted-Lowry).

( & )

( ) NaCl, KBr, CaCO 3, Mg(NO3)2, RCOONa (CH3COONa, HCOONa, ), KCN, .. KF(s) 2H O K+(2)x + F-(2)y () , KF(s) K+(aq) + F-(aq)

MyAx yMx+(aq) + xAy-(aq

CM - - - (y C)M (x C) M

( & ) ()

()

(Arrhenius ) Na, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

()x Mx+(aq) + x-(aq) CM - -

- CM (xC)M

(Brnsted-Lowry) : 3(aq) + 2(l) 4+(aq) + - (aq) : R2(aq ) + 2(l) R3+(aq) + -(aq) : B(aq ) + 2(l) B+(aq) + - (aq)

(Brnsted-Lowry ) NH2

-, O2-, RO- (CH3O-, )

-

: 6

( )

( )

HCl, HBr, HJ, HNO3, HClO4, H2SO4 ( 1

SO4 -)

F, HCN, HNO2, HClO, HBrO, HJO, HClO2, H2S, H2SO3, H2CO3, H3PO3, H3PO4, RCOOH (CH3COO, HCOO, ), SO4

-, NH4+,

RNH3+,

(%=100%, =1)

2 (%

-

: 7

222 --- &&& bbb

()

. :

(aq) + 2 (l) 3 +(aq) + -(aq) , (>0) = [HA]

]].[AO[H -3 +

()

. :

(aq) + 2 (l) +(aq) + -(aq) , (>0) b = [B]

]].[OH[BH -+

bbb ,,, ... ...

( ). , , b ( 103-109). ( ).

b :

)

) . (>0). Le Chatelier , b .

) .

.

!!! (.. CH3COOH), (.. 3) b , .

-

: 8

OOOsss tttwww aaalll ddd ()

C M . :

(aq) + 2(l) 3+

(aq) + -(aq) C - -

./. -C C C I.. C(1-) C C

= [HA]

]].[AO[H -3 + =

)-C(1

C.C =

-1

2 .C (1)

, : 0,1 ( ),

(1-) 1. (1) : =2.C (2) = C

K (3)

(3) , (V) (C) . (V C 0) , . ( 1). .

()

C M . :

(aq) + 2(l) +

(aq) + -(aq) C - -

./. -C C C I.. C(1-) C C

b = [B]

]].[OH[BH -+ =

)-C(1

C.C b =

-1

2 .C (4)

, : 0,1 ( ),

(1-) 1. (3) : b =2.C (5) = C

Kb (6)

-

: 9

(6) , (V) (C) . (V C 0) , . ( 1). .

(1), (2), (4) (5) Ostwald , , C b .

x = (.C) M

()

(aq) + 2(l) 3+

(aq) + -(aq) C - -

./. -x x x I.. (C-x) x x

= [HA]

]].[AO[H -3 + =

x-C

x.x =

x-C

x2 . (7)

( : =C

K0,1

2

C

K

0,12

C

K 0,01 0,1

C

K 0,01).

C & K : C

K 0,01 (C - x) C =

C

x 2 (8) (& =

2. C)

()

(aq) + 2(l) +

(aq) + -(aq) C - -

./. -x x x I.. (C-x) x x

b = [B]

]].[OH[BH -+ =

x-C

x.x b =

x-C

x2 . (9)

-

: 10

( : =C

Kb0,1

2

b

C

K

0,12

C

Kb 0,01 0,1

C

Kb 0,01).

C & Kb, : C

Kb 0,01 (C - x) C b =

C

x 2 (10) (& b =

2.C)

( C) ( C) E.K.I.

& b

222 --- ppp HHH O (+)

3+ - . [3

+] = [+]

(+ + 2 3+), .

2(l) + 2(l) 3+(aq) + -(aq) w. = [3+].[-]

H w , ( ) .

25 C : [3+] = [-] = 10 -7 : [3+] . [-] = 10 -14

, , .

:

) [3 +] > [ -]

) [3 +] < [ -]

) [3 +] = [ -]

25 C :

) [3 +] > 10 - 7

) [3 +] < 10 - 7

) [3 +] = [ -] = 10 - 7

-

: 11

pH = - log [ 3+] pH .

pOH = - log [OH -] p .

[3+].[-] = 10-14, pH p : pH + pOH = 14 ( = 25 C)

25 C :

. pH < 7, [3+] > [-]

. pH > 7, [3+] < [-]

. pH = 7, [3+] = [-]

, : [3+] = [-],

w=[3+].[-]. , [3+] = w , , pH = - log K w.

p w .

p

, , 10-7 , (p > 7)*.

, p . ,

p ( [3+]

10-6 , p 5). p

7.

p

10 -7, (p < 7).

, p . ,

pH ( [- ]

10-6 mol/lit, p 9).

pH 7. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

H2O

-

: 12

1. ( = 25 C) 0 pH < 7 2. ( = 25 C) 7 < pH 14

[3O+]= C M pH=-logC

HCl(aq ) + H2O(l) 3O+

(aq ) + Cl-(aq ) C - -

- C C

Na Na+(aq) + -(aq)

C - - - C C

[-] = C M pOH = -logC , pH = 14-p pH=14 + logC

3. ( = 25 C) 0

-

: 13

5. ( = 25 C) 0 < pH< 7

6. (=25 C) 7

-

: 14

7. ( = 25 C) pH = 7

8. ( = 25 C)

,

,

pH

2, .

pH = 7

NaCl(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl -(aq)

C - - - C C

(aq) +(aq) + -(aq ) ,

( , )

(- , - ).

+(aq ) + 2(l) (aq ) + 3

+(aq)

-(aq ) + 2(l) (aq ) +

-(aq )

=

w

K

=

b

w

K

[-] = [3+]

pH = 7

>

w

K

<

b

w

K

[-] < [3+]

pH < 7

<

w

K

>

b

w

K

[-] > [3+]

pH > 7

-

: 15

,

Ostwald ( .

, . . ( , ).

, , . :

. ... , ,

. , .

...

3

+

-

- (. .)

+ (. .)

Cl, HBr, HJ, HNO3, HClO4, H2SO4

a, , Ca()2,

a()2

a aClO, aClO2, aNO2, aCN, aF, HCOOa,

CH3COOa

BHCl

4Cl, RNH3Cl

ClO, HClO2, HNO2, HCN, HF,

HCOOH, CH3COOH, NH4+

3, RNH2, ClO

-, ClO2-,

NO2-, CN-, F-, HCOO-,

CH3COO-

() ClO, HClO2, HNO2, HCN, HF, HCOOH, CH3COOH

()

NH3, RNH2

-

: 16

9. (.. HCl) ( = 25 C) 0 pH < 7

10. (.. 3 - a) ( = 25 C) 7 < pH 14

HCl(aq) + 2(l) 3+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

C C C

HA(aq) + 2(l) 3+

(aq) + -(aq) C o - -

./. -x x x I.. (C o - x) (C + x) x

: = x - C

x).x +(C

o

. & =

C

x

o

x = .Co

C

K 0,01 (C .+x)C. & (Co - x) Co, = x .

C

C

o

, = C

x

o

K = . C . & [3O+] = C.

pH = -log(C + x) = -logC

! !

C = a

K a -log C = -log

a

K a pH = -log

a

K a pH= pK +

loga

C = Ka. x

C o -log C = -log (Ka.

x

C o) pH = -log K - log

x

C o

pH = pKa + logoC

x

a a+(aq) + -(aq)

C C C

3(aq) + 2 4+

(aq) + -(aq) C - -

./ - x + x + x .. (C-x) x (C + x)

: b =x - C

x) +x.(C

. & =

C

x

x = .C

C

Kb 0,01 (C . + x)C . & (C - x) C, b = x .

C

C

, = C

x

Kb = .C & [-] = C.

pOH =- log(C . + x) = -logC pH = 14-pOH pH = 14 + logC

! !

C = a

K b -log C = -log

a

K b pOH = -log

a

K b pOH= pK b + loga

C = Kb. x

C -log C = -log (Ka.

x

C ) pOH = -log K - log

x

C

pOH = pKa + log C

x

-

: 17

11. ( ) .. ( = 25 C) 0 < pH 7

12. ( ) .. ( = 25 C) 7 pH < 14

+(aq) + -(aq)

CA CA CA

. .

HA(aq) + 2(l) H3+(aq) + -(aq) Co - CA

./ - x + x + x .. (Co - x) x (CA + x)

: = x - C

x).x +(C

o

A & =

C

x

o

x = .Co

o

C

K 0,01 (CA+x)CA & (Co-x)Co = x.

o

A

C

C

, = oC

x K = . CA & [3 +] = x M

pH = -logx pH = -log( .Co) pH = -log(K .A

o

C

C)

pH = pK + logO

A

C

C Henderson-Hasselbalch

1. , (CH3COO

- + H2O CH3COOH + OH-)

. 2. .. (. 21) [3

+] = x = .Co

4Cl H4+(aq) + Cl -(aq)

CA CA CA

. .

3(aq) + 2(l) 4+(aq) + -(aq) C CA -

./. - x + x + x .. (C - x) (CA + x) x

: b = x - C

x).x +(C

A & =

C

x x = .C

b

C

K 0,01 (CA + x) CA & (C - x) C b = x.

A

C

C

, = C

x Kb = . CA & [ -] = x M

pH = -logx pH = -log(.C) pH = -log(K A

B

C

C)

pH = pK + log

A

C

C Henderson-Hasselbalch

1. , (4

+ + H2O 3 + 3+)

. 2. .. (. 22) [-] = x = .C

-

: 18

13. ( = 25 C) 0 < pH < 7

14. ( = 25 C) 7 < pH < 14

HA (aq) + 2 (l) 3 +

(aq) + -(aq) C HA - -*

./. -x x x I.. (CHA - x) (x + y ) x

H(aq) + 2 (l) 3 +

(aq) + -(aq) C HB - -

./. -y y y I.. (C HB - y) (x + y ) y

: HA = x - C

y).x + (x

HA

& 1 = C

x

HA

x = 1.CHA

C

KHA 0,01 (CHA - x) CHA HA =

C

y).x + (x

HA

&

[3 +] = (x + y) M

: H = y - C

y).y + (x

HB

2 = C

y

HB

y = 2.CHB

C

KHB 0,01 (CHB - y) CHB, HB =

C

y).y + (x

HB

&

[3 +] = (x + y) M pH = - log(x+y)

(, 4Cl CH3NH3Cl 4

+ - RNH3+

, . )

3 (aq) + 2 (l) 4 +(aq) + -(aq) C1 - -*

./. -x x x I.. (C1 - x) x (x + y )

RNH2(aq) + 2 (l) RNH3 +

(aq) + OH -(aq) C2 - - ./

. -y y y

I.. (C2 - y) y (x + y )

: 1 = x - C

y).x + (x

1

& 1 = C

x

1

x = 1.C1

C

K1

1 0,01 (C1 - x) C1 1 =

C

y).x + (x

1

&

[H -] = (x + y) M

: 2 = y - C

y).y + (x

2

2 = C

y

2

y = 1.C2

C

K2

2 0,01 (C2 - y) C2, 2 =

C

y).y + (x

2

&

[H -] = (x + y) M pOH = - log(x+y) pH = 14 + log(x+y)

(, CH3COONa HCOONa CH3COO

- HCOO-, . )

-

: 19

15. (.. H2S, H2CO3,) ( = 25 C) 0 < pH < 7

16. 2S4 ( = 25 C) 0 < pH < 7

1

H2A (aq) + 2 (l) 3 +(aq) + -(aq) C - -

./. -x x x I.. (C - x) (x + y ) (x - y)

2

H-(aq) + 2 (l) 3 +

(aq) + 2-(aq) x - -

./. -y y y I.. (x - y) (x + y ) y

(1) = x-C

y)-y).(x(x + & 1 =

C

x x = 1.C

(2) = y-x

y).yx +( & 2 =

x

y y = 2.x

: x> (2) y

-

: 20

17. (.. S2-, CO32-,) ( = 25 C) 7 < pH < 14

18. S42- ( = 25 C) 7 < pH < 14

a2 2a +(aq) + 2-(aq) C A 2C A C A

1

2-(aq) + 2(l) -(aq) + -(aq) C A - -

. / . - x + x + x .. (CA - x) (x-y) (x + y)

2

H -(aq) + 2(l) H2A(aq) + -(aq) x - x

. / . - y + y + y .. (x - y) x (x + y)

b(1)=(2)

w

K

=

][A

]-].[OH-[HA-2 1=

ACxx=1

.CA & (2)=][HA

]O].[H-[A-

23+

b(2)=(1)

w

K

=

][HA

]A].[OH[H -2

2=xy y=(2)

.x & (1)=A][H

]O].[H[HA2

3+

K(1) >>> K(2) b(1) >> b(2) & (1) >> (2) x >>>> y (x+ y) x & (x - y) x

, , [OH-] ( pH) .

b(1) = (2)

w

K

=

x-C

y)y).(x(x

+ =

C

x.x x=[OH -]= Ab(1).CK

pOH = -log Ab(1).CK , pH =14pOH pH = 14 +log Ab(1).CK

( SO42- ) ,

a2SO4 2a + (aq) + SO4 2-(aq) C A 2C A C A

SO42-(aq) + 2(l) HSO4-(aq) + -(aq) C A - x

. / . - x + x + x .. (C A - x) x x

( HSO4

-) 10-2 ((2) = 1,3.10-2),

(b =(2)

w

K

=

2-

-14

1,3.1010

10-12),

(.. 2SO4) .

b = (2)

w

K

10 -12 10 -12 =

x - C

x

A

2

10 -12 = C

x

A

2

x = [OH -] = A-12.C10 pOH = -log A-12.C10 pOH = 6 log AC pH = 14 pOH = 14 (6 - log AC ) pH = 8 + log AC

-

: 21

19. O (.. NaHS, KHCO3,) ( = 25 C)

20. O (.. NaHS4,) ( = 25 C) 0 < pH < 7

aH a +(aq) + H -(aq)

C A C A C A

- ( HSO4-).

(1) ( 2) (1) -

H -(aq) + 2(l) 2-(aq) + 3 +(aq) C A - -

. / . - x + x + x .. (CA - x) x x

(2) = x - C

x

A

2

, 1=AC

x x = [3

+] =1 .CA

(2) (2) -

H -(aq) + 2(l) H2A(aq) + -(aq) CA - -

. / . - y + y + y .. (CA - y) y y

b(2) = (1)

w

K

=

y - C

y

A

2

, 2 = AC

y y = [-] = 2

.CA

(2) > b, - ,

(1) , pH (

) pH = -log A(2).CK (2) < b,

- , (2) , pH ( )

pOH=-log Ab(2).CK , pH =14pOH pH = 14 +log Ab(2).CK

aHSO4 a +(aq) + HSO4-(aq)

CA CA CA

To HSO4- (2 2SO4) (2SO4) 1

, HSO4

- ( HSO4

-

HSO4- + H2O H2SO4 + OH- ).

2 2SO4.

2 2SO4

HSO4-(aq) + 2(l) 3+(aq) + SO42-(aq) CA - -

./. -x x x I.. (CA - x) x x

(2)=1,3.10-2

( )

(2) = x - C

x

A

2

& = AC

x x = [H3O+] = 2.C

(2) = x - C

x

A

2

x2 + x .K(2) K(2).CA = 0 x =

x :

[3+] = x pH = -logx

-

: 22

p , '

, , , , , , . : . .. CH3COOH - CH3COONa.

.) .. 3 - 4Cl.

Brnsted - Lowry , , , . , (CH3COOH- CH3COO

- & 3 - 4+),

.. 2S - NaHS (2S - HS-), , H2CO3 - NaHCO3 (H2CO3 - HCO3

-), .. a2PO4 - Na2HPO4 (2PO4

- - HPO42-)

. , , .

. .. CH3COO + HCl CH3COOa + NaCl ( CH3COOH, CH3COOH - CH3COONa)

NH3 + HCl 4Cl ( 3, 3 - 4Cl)

. , , .

.. CH3COONa + HCl CH3COOH + NaCl ( CH3COONa, CH3COOH - CH3COONa)

4Cl + NaOH NH3 + H2O + NaCl ( 4Cl, 3 - 4Cl)

[3+] = x =

A

o

C

C (. ) , p

. p

, , ( , : C = V

n,

[3+ ] = x =

A

o

C

C=

V

nV

n

A

o

[3+ ] = A

o

n

n

-

: 23

21. (. 11) ( = 25 C) 0 < pH 7

22. (. 12) ( = 25 C) 7 pH < 14

+(aq) + -(aq) C A C A CA

. .

HA(aq) + 2(l) H3+(aq) + -(aq) Co - CA

./ - x + x + x .. (Co - x) x (CA + x)

: = x - C

x).x +(C

o

A & =

C

x

o

x = .Co

o

C

K 0,01 (CA+x)CA & (Co-x)Co = x.

o

A

C

C

, = oC

x K = . CA & [3 +] = x M

pH = -logx pH = -log( .Co) pH = -log(K .A

o

C

C)

pH = pK + logO

A

C

C ( Henderson-Hasselbalch)

1. , (CH3COO- + H2O CH3COOH + OH-) .

2. [3+] = x = .Co .

4Cl H4+(aq) + Cl -(aq) CA CA CA

. .

3(aq) + 2(l) 4+(aq) + -(aq)

C CA - ./. - x + x + x

I.. (C - x) (CA + x) x

: b = x - C

x).x +(C

A & =

C

x x = .C

b

C

K 0,01 (CA + x) CA & (C - x) C b = x.

A

C

C

, = C

x Kb = . CA & [ -] = x M

pH = -logx pH = -log(.C) pH = -log(K A

B

C

C)

pH = pK + log

A

C

C ( Henderson-Hasselbalch)

1. , (4+ + H2O 3 + 3+) .

2. [-] = x = .C .

-

: 24

pH . ( ) , ( - -) . - , :

+ 2 3+ + - : () =

] [H

]].[O[H3 +

( 1) ( 2) (.. 3+)

1 .

(.. - 3+) 2 - .

][

][-

pH .

, ,

, ][

][-

10 ][

][-

0,1.

: ][

][- 10,

][

][-

10

1, -

pH

pK() - 1 pK() pK() + 1 - -

() . pH . pH pK()-1 .. pK = 9,5

-

: 25

( ), .

( pH) . pH . .

( pH) , . .

. .

, .

, .

:

3+

(aq) + OH-(aq) 2H2O(l)

pH .

-

: 26

T % (w/w): g 100 g .

% ..(w/v) : g 100 mL .

M ' (Molarity) mol 1 lit (1000 ml) . H M '

(Molarity) C. : C = Vn

: n mol

V lit !!!!!

, ( ) & C1 C2 (mol/lit) V 1 V2 = +

= n/ =

: V2 = V1 + VH2O & C1.V1= C2.V2 V lit !!!!!

( ) C1 C2 (mol/lit) V 1 V2 = -

= n/ =

: V2 = V1 - VH2O & C1.V1= C2.V2 V lit !!!!!

C1, C2, ... C (mol/lit), V 1, V2, V = .

= n1 + n2 + = nT

: V1 + V2 + ... = V & C1.V1+ C2.V2 + = C.V V lit !!!!!

-

: 27

, mol . , , . 1. mol . . & : i) - . ii) . iii) iv) . 2. : . + + () . + + ( ) . + + ( ) ( , , ), , ( , , ), , , mol ( !!! ) . . -. : i) - . ii) . iii) iv) .

-

: 28

1. (=25 C) + PH + .. HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O , : . : pH1 (pH.) = 7 . . : 7 < pH2 14 . . : 0 pH3 < 7

0 7=pH.. 14 ||| (0 pH3 < pH1 = 7 < pH2 14) (.) (.) (.)

+ + .. Cl + 3 4Cl : 3

+ + + + 2 . : + 0 < pH1 (pH.E.) < 7 . . : / -H+ 7 pH2 < 14 . . : + + .. (3+) 0 pH3 < 7

pH/ > pH.. (.)

pH/ < pH.. (.)

pH/ 7 (.)

pH/ < 7

0 pH. 7 14 |||| (0pH3

-

: 29

+ PH + .. CH3COOH + aOH CH3COONa + H2O : + NaOH a+ 2 . : - 7 < pH1 (pH.E.) < 14 . . : / HA - NaA 0 < pH2 7 . . : - + .. (OH - ) 7 < pH3 14

pH/ < pH.. (.)

pH/ > pH.. (.)

pH/ 7 (.)

pH/ > 7

0 7 pH.. 14 |||| (0 < pH2 7< pH1

-

: 30

2. (=25 C)

+ ( ) +

.. HCl + CH3COONa CH3COOH + NaCl ( 2)

Cl + HA + MCl

. : 0 < pH1 (pH..) < 7 . : / HA MA 0 < pH2 7 . . : + .. (3 +) 0 pH3 < 7

pH/ > pH.. (.)

pH/ < pH.. . (.)

pH/ = 7 (.)

pH/ < 7

0 pH.. 7 14 |||| (0 pH3 < pH1 pH.. . (.)

pH/ = 7 (.)

pH/ > 7

0 7 pH.. 14 |||| (7 pH2 < pH1

-

: 31

3. (=25 C)

M + + 2

Cu, Hg .H2SO4 () Ag,Au,Pt . .HNO3 K, Ba, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au

ME ( a, , a, Ca) + + 2

+ xHCl MClx + x2

H2

. pH =7 . 0 pH < 7

a, K, Ca. Ba .

pH . .. a + 2 NaOH + 122

E ( a, , a, Ca) + + 2

+ xHA MAx + x2

H2

. - 2 pH >7 .

a, K, Ca, Ba . pH ... - (aOH, KOH, ...) -.

.. a + 2 NaOH + 122

a a+ + -

- + 2 + -