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ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................2

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................3

LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................9

LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................11

FOREWORD AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...............................................................................12

ABBREVIATIONS...............................................................................................................................14

1 ENVIRONMENT, ENVIRONMENTALISM AND INFORMATION ..................................16

1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION ...........................................16

1.2 QUESTIONING ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION........................................................22

1.3 THE ARGUMENT OF THIS THESIS .....................................................................................25

1.4 THE MAIN FLOW OF THIS STUDY .....................................................................................26

1.5 SOME NOTES ON THE STUCTURE AND CONTENT OF THIS THESIS..........................28

1.5.1 Defintions and the Lack of Them ......................................................................................28

1.5.2 Information and Communication Technology as a Major Delivery Medium ...................29

1.5.3 Modularity and Structure..................................................................................................29

2 INFORMATION, ENVIRONMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

AND THE PUBLIC .....................................................................................................................30

2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION AS THE OBJECT OF INVESTIGATION................30

2.1.1 Defining Environmental Information................................................................................30

2.1.2 Capta, Data, Information and Knowledge........................................................................32

2.1.3 A Fuzzy Definition ............................................................................................................34

2.1.4 The Core Of Environmental Information: Pressure-State-Response Model.....................35

2.1.5 The Spatial Element ..........................................................................................................36

2.1.6 The Temporal Dimension..................................................................................................37

2.1.7 Interconnected and Holistic..............................................................................................38

2.1.8 Science-Based Data Capture and Analysis.......................................................................38

2.1.9 Uncertainty and Accuracy ................................................................................................39

2.1.10 Size and Quantity Matters.................................................................................................39

2.1.11 Summary ...........................................................................................................................39

2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS.................................................................40

2.2.1 Formal and Semi-Formal Definitions for Environmental Information Systems ...............40

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2.2.2 What is an Environmental Information System ?..............................................................41

2.2.2.1 Environmental Information Systems and UNEP/Earthwatch ..................................................... 42

2.2.2.2 Environmental Information Systems and the World Bank.......................................................... 44

2.2.2.3 National Environmental Information Systems............................................................................ 45

2.2.2.4 Sub-national Environmental Information Systems ..................................................................... 45

2.2.2.5 Management Tool for Regional Projects .................................................................................... 46

2.2.2.6 Municipal/Metropolitan Environmental Information Systems ................................................... 47

2.2.2.7 An Answer to ISO 14000 ........................................................................................................... 47

2.2.2.8 Environmental Information Systems and Industry...................................................................... 49

2.2.3 Typology of Environmental Information Systems .............................................................49

2.2.4 Operational and Organisational Aspects of Environmental Information.........................51

2.2.4.1 Public Sector Environment ......................................................................................................... 51

2.2.4.2 Lack of Money - the Cost of Environmental Information Systems ............................................ 51

2.2.4.3 Lack of Expertise........................................................................................................................ 52

2.2.4.4 Scale, Jurisdiction and Environmental Information.................................................................... 52

2.2.4.5 Information Sharing.................................................................................................................... 53

2.2.4.6 Managing information ................................................................................................................ 53

2.2.4.7 GIS Related Issues...................................................................................................................... 54

2.2.4.8 Information and Information Technology “Fetishism”............................................................... 55

2.3 PUBLIC ACCESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION ..............................................56

2.4 ZOOMING IN ON PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS ..................59

2.5 DELIVERING ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION TO THE PUBLIC.............................61

2.5.1 Public Environmental Information Systems and the Digital Divide .................................62

2.5.2 Environmentalism in the Information Age ........................................................................65

2.5.3 Modes of Communication and Information and Communication Technology .................66

2.6 SUMMARY ..............................................................................................................................68

3 UNDERSTANDING REQUIREMENTS AND NEEDS FROM PUBLIC

ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS .................................................................70

3.1 HOW TO INVESTIGATE PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS? ....70

3.1.1 Software Engineering and Information Systems Studies ..................................................72

3.1.2 System Design Modi Operandi and Geographical and Environmental Information

Systems..............................................................................................................................76

3.1.3 The Adequacy of System Analysis Modi Operandi ForTthis Thesis .................................76

3.1.4 Alternative Modi Operandi to Public Environmental Information Systems Investigation

....................................................................................................................................... 78

3.2 TAKING A STEP BACK: TECHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY ....................................................82

3.2.1 Technology and Society ....................................................................................................83

3.2.2 Implications to Information System Design ......................................................................85

3.2.3 Choosing a Framework for Public Environmental Information Systems Design .............86

3.3 SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY EXPLAINED ...............................................................88

3.3.1 Soft Systems Methodology Process - Mode 1 and 2..........................................................88

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3.3.2 Soft Systems Methodology Techniques and Methods........................................................93

3.3.2.1 Rich Picture ........................................................................................................................... 93

3.3.2.2 Root Definitions..................................................................................................................... 94

3.3.2.3 Conceptual Models ................................................................................................................ 95

3.3.2.4 Comparison............................................................................................................................ 95

3.3.3 The Essence of Soft Systems Methodology........................................................................96

3.4 THE STRUCTURE OF THE SOFT SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY STUDY OF PUBLIC

ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS DESIGN .................................................96

3.5 LONDON ENVIRONMENT ONLINE (LEO) SURVEY ........................................................98

3.5.1 Introduction and Background ...........................................................................................98

3.5.2 User Requirement Studies and Web based Surveys ..........................................................99

3.5.3 LEO Website and the Questionnaire.............................................................................. 100

3.6 UCL BROWNFIELD RESEARCH NETWORK ...................................................................102

3.6.1 Introduction and Background .........................................................................................102

3.6.2 Data Collection...............................................................................................................104

3.6.2.1 Textual Data Collection and Multimedia.................................................................................. 105

3.6.3 Recruitment: Composition of the Group.........................................................................106

3.6.4 Recruitment Methodology...............................................................................................106

3.6.5 The Workshop: Organisation and Running ...................................................................107

3.6.6 Context: Public Participation GIS..................................................................................108

3.7 COMPARATIVE STUDY......................................................................................................111

3.8 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................113

4 THE SCOPE OF PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS.................114

4.1 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................114

4.2 LONDON ENVIRONMENT ONLINE SURVEY .................................................................115

4.2.1 Overview.........................................................................................................................115

4.2.2 Web-Server Analysis .......................................................................................................115

4.2.3 Survey Results .................................................................................................................116

4.2.3.1 Demography – Who Answered the Questionnaire? ............................................................. 116

4.2.3.1.1 Gender and Age .............................................................................................................. 116

4.2.3.1.2 Occupation ...................................................................................................................... 117

4.2.3.1.3 Geographical Distribution............................................................................................... 118

4.2.3.2 Environmental Issues ........................................................................................................... 118

4.2.3.3 Types of Interactions ........................................................................................................... 122

4.2.3.4 Sources of Environmental Information ................................................................................ 123

4.2.3.5 Access to the Internet and Patterns of Access...................................................................... 124

4.2.3.6 Text Answers ....................................................................................................................... 126

4.2.3.6.1 Reasons for Interest in Environmental Issues ................................................................. 126

4.2.3.6.2 Uses of Environmental Information ................................................................................ 128

4.2.3.6.3 Perceptions of Internet-Based Environmental Information System ................................ 129

4.2.4 Discussion.......................................................................................................................130

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4.2.4.1 The Survey Population......................................................................................................... 131

4.2.4.1.1 Access to the Internet and Literacy in Using it. .............................................................. 131

4.2.4.1.2 Interest and Awareness of Environmental Issues ............................................................ 131

4.2.4.2 What are the Information Needs? ........................................................................................ 132

4.2.4.3 What are the Current Sources of Environmental Information? ............................................ 133

4.2.4.4 Why is Environmental Information Needed?....................................................................... 134

4.2.4.5 Using the Internet as a Delivery Medium ............................................................................ 135

4.2.5 Summary .........................................................................................................................135

4.3 UCL BROWNFIELD RESEARCH NETWORK WORKSHOP ............................................136

4.3.1 Overview.........................................................................................................................136

4.3.2 “Experiencing” GIS .......................................................................................................137

4.3.2.1 Local Knowledge as interpretive filter................................................................................. 140

4.3.2.2 Information that Participants Would Like to See ................................................................. 142

4.3.2.3 Difficulties with Software - Complexity.............................................................................. 143

4.3.2.4 Skills Needed to Operate the Computer and the GIS ........................................................... 145

4.3.2.5 Internet Access - Cost, Boundary, Skills.............................................................................. 147

4.3.2.6 Ownership and Cost of the Information and the System...................................................... 148

4.3.2.7 Accuracy and Currency........................................................................................................ 150

4.3.2.8 Interaction with GIS............................................................................................................. 150

4.3.2.9 Information Integration........................................................................................................ 152

4.3.2.10 Understanding and Interpreting Information........................................................................ 153

4.3.2.11 Future Developments ........................................................................................................... 155

4.3.3 Discussion.......................................................................................................................156

4.3.3.1 Local Knowledge................................................................................................................. 156

4.3.3.2 Information - Accurate and Accessible................................................................................ 158

4.3.3.3 Interactive Mapping and Exloratory GIS ............................................................................. 160

4.3.3.4 Skills .................................................................................................................................... 162

4.3.3.5 Exclusion ............................................................................................................................. 163

4.3.4 Summary .........................................................................................................................163

4.4 COMBINING THE EMPIRICAL STUDIES..........................................................................164

5 CONCEPTUAL MODELS OF PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION

SYSTEM .....................................................................................................................................166

5.1 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................166

5.2 UNDERSTANDING PEIS......................................................................................................166

5.2.1 The Context of Environmental Information (Picture 1) ..................................................168

5.2.2 Environmental Information Systems (Picture 2).............................................................170

5.2.3 Public Access to Environmental Information (Picture 3) ...............................................172

5.2.4 Web-based PEIS (Picture 4) ...........................................................................................174

5.3 DEVELOPING CONCEPTUAL MODELS ...........................................................................175

5.3.1 The Aarhus Model...........................................................................................................176

5.3.2 Special Interest Groups (NGOs) Model..........................................................................178

5.3.3 Media Model...................................................................................................................180

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5.3.4 Professional / Environmental Authority Model ..............................................................182

5.3.5 Interested Citizen (NIMBY) Model .................................................................................183

5.3.6 Interested Citizen (Active) Model ...................................................................................184

5.3.7 Interested Citizen (General Interest) Model ...................................................................186

5.3.8 Other Possible Models....................................................................................................187

5.4 IS THERE A UNIVERSAL CONCEPTUAL MODEL? ........................................................188

5.5 DEVELOPING CRITERIA FOR COMAPRISON.................................................................189

5.6 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................190

6 EVALUATING THE STATE OF THE ART IN PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL

INFORMATION SYSTEMS ....................................................................................................191

6.1 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................192

6.2 THE UK AIR QUALITY INFORMATION ARCHIVE.........................................................203

6.2.1 Comparison With the Models..........................................................................................195

6.2.2 Criteria Evaluation .........................................................................................................196

6.3 FRIENDS OF THE EARTH FACTORY WATCH ................................................................197



6.4 THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY “WHAT’S IN YOUR BACKYARD?“ ...........................202



6.5 CATALYTIC DATA “HOMECHECK.CO.UK”...................................................................209



6.6 IDENTIFYING THE GAP......................................................................................................214

6.7 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................217

7 IMPROVING PUBLIC ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS -

A PROPOSAL............................................................................................................................218

7.1 OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................218

7.2 PEIS WISH LIST ....................................................................................................................218

7.3 DEVELOPING A THEORETICAL GROUNDING FOR PEIS.............................................221

7.3.1 The Need for a Theoretical Grounding...........................................................................221

7.3.2 Is a Democratic Information System Possible? ..............................................................222

7.3.3 Systems That Are Built To Be Hacked ............................................................................223

7.4 THE THINGS WE CANNOT CHANGE … ..........................................................................226

7.5 … AND THOSE WE CAN.....................................................................................................227

7.5.1 Systems’ Functionality ....................................................................................................228

7.5.2 Presentation Of Environmental Information ..................................................................230

7.5.3 Content............................................................................................................................231

7.5.4 Content / Presentation ....................................................................................................232

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7.5.5 Other IssuesIn PEIS Design............................................................................................235

7.6 THE ROLE OF PEIS IN DELIBERATION ...........................................................................236

7.7 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................237

7.7.1 Aims Of Ideal PEIS .........................................................................................................237

7.7.2 Technical Aspects In PEIS Design..................................................................................238

7.7.3 Required Functionality ...................................................................................................238

7.7.4 Presentation, Content and Content/Presentation ...........................................................238

7.7.5 Organisational Aspects of Implementation.....................................................................239

8 CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................................................240

8.1 SUMMARY OF THE RESEARCH AND ITS FINDINGS....................................................240

8.2 THESIS CONTEXT................................................................................................................242

8.3 METHODOLOGICAL CONCLUSIONS...............................................................................245

8.4 CONCEPTUAL CONCLUSIONS..........................................................................................246

8.5 FUTURE RESEARCH............................................................................................................247

8.6 THIS THESIS IN A WIDER CONTEXT (AND FINALLY …)............................................248

BIBLIOGRAPHY...............................................................................................................................250

ANNEX I: LEO SURVEY .................................................................................................................262

ANNEX II: COLOUR PLATES .......................................................................................................267

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L i s t o f F i g u r e s 1

FIGURE 1.1 - RELATIONSHIPS AMONG ASSERTIONS .................................................................................23

FIGURE 2.1 - INFORMATION TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................33

FIGURE 2.2 - OECD PRESSURE-STATE-RESPONSE FRAMEWORK .............................................................35

FIGURE 2.3 - TIME LINE OF UNEP EIS....................................................................................................42

FIGURE 2.4 - GREAT LAKES EIS AREA ....................................................................................................46

FIGURE 2.5 - BERLIN UIS: MAIN COMPONENTS .......................................................................................48

FIGURE 2.6 - CONTINUUM OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS PRODUCTS...........................................................50

FIGURE 2.7 - INTERNET USER GROWTH 1995-2005 .................................................................................64

FIGURE 3.1 - MULTIVIEW METHODOLOGY ..............................................................................................79

FIGURE 3.2 - TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY: MAIN THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS .....................................84

FIGURE 3.3 - THE SSM MODE 1 PROCESS ...............................................................................................89

FIGURE 3.4 - SSM ‘MODE 2’: INQUIRING/LEARNING CYCLE ...................................................................91

FIGURE 3.5 - THE PROCESS OF SSM .......................................................................................................92

FIGURE 3.6 – RICH PICTURE ....................................................................................................................94

FIGURE 3.7 - SSM AND THE STRUCTURE OF THIS STUDY.........................................................................98

FIGURE 3.8 - SAMPLE LEO PAGES.........................................................................................................101

FIGURE 3.9 - PPGIS AS PART OF GENERAL PARTICIPATIVE PROCESS.....................................................110

FIGURE 4.1 - AGE GROUPS AND GENDER AMONG LEO SURVEY RESPONDENTS.....................................117

FIGURE 4.2 - GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS.............................................................118

FIGURE 4.3 - PREFERRED UPDATE RATES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES................................................121

FIGURE 4.4 - A SNAPSHOT OF A MAP, AS WAS DISPLAYED DURING THE WORKSHOP ..............................140

FIGURE 4.5 - WANDSWORTH PLANNING WEBSITE .................................................................................144

FIGURE 5.1 - THE FOUR RICH PICTURES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS......................................................167

FIGURE 5.2 - PICTURE 1 : THE CONTEXT OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION (*)..................................168

FIGURE 5.3 - PICTURE 2 : ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (*)................................................169

FIGURE 5.4 - PICTURE 3 : PUBLIC ACCESS TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION (*) ...............................172

FIGURE 5.5 - PICTURE 4 : WEB-BASED PEIS (*) ...................................................................................174

FIGURE 5.6 - AARHUS CONCEPTUAL MODEL..........................................................................................178

FIGURE 5.7 - NGOS CONCEPTUAL MODEL.............................................................................................180

FIGURE 5.8 - MEDIA CONCEPTUAL MODEL ............................................................................................181

FIGURE 5.9 - ENVIRONMENTAL AUTHORITY CONCEPTUAL MODEL........................................................183

FIGURE 5.10 - NIMBY CONCEPTUAL MODEL........................................................................................184

FIGURE 5.11 - ACTIVE CITIZEN CONCEPTUAL MODEL............................................................................185

FIGURE 5.12 - GENERAL INTEREST CONCEPTUAL MODEL .....................................................................187

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FIGURE 5.13 - GENERAL PEIS CONCEPTUAL MODEL (*) ......................................................................189

FIGURE 6.1 - THE UK NATIONAL AIR QUALITY INFORMATION ARCHIVE HOME PAGE..........................192

FIGURE 6.2 - AIR POLLUTION FORECAST CHART, THE TWO IMAGES SHOW THE SCROLLED PAGE (*)......193

FIGURE 6.3 - LONDON BRIDGE PLACE INFORMATION PAGE...................................................................194

FIGURE 6.4 - OZONE INFORMATION FOR LONDON BRIDGE PLACE FOR 1999.........................................194

FIGURE 6.5 - FRIENDS OF THE EARTH UK HOME PAGE..........................................................................197

FIGURE 6.6 - FOE FACTORY WATCH HOME PAGE...................................................................................198

FIGURE 6.7 - INTERACTIVE MAPPING IN FOE FACTORY WATCH (*) ......................................................199

FIGURE 6.8 - THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY HOME PAGE ........................................................................202

FIGURE 6.9 - WHAT IN YOUR BACKYARD PAGE ON THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY WEBSITE ...................203

FIGURE 6.10 - ENVIRONMENT AGENCY INTERACTIVE MAPPING SITE (*)...............................................204

FIGURE 6.11 - HOMECHECK.CO.UK HOME PAGE ....................................................................................209

FIGURE 6.12 - HOMECHECK REPORT (*). ...............................................................................................210

FIGURE 6.13 - E-MAIL SENT FROM HOMECHECK TO USERS PROPERTY EXPERT ......................................210

FIGURE 7.1 - CONCEPTUAL DIVISION OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS ELEMENTS ........................................220

FIGURE 7.2 - LINK BETWEEN THE GEOGRAPHICAL, STRATEGIC AND ARGUMENTATIVE

REPRESENTATIONS .......................................................................................................................228

FIGURE 7.3 - THE EPA HOME PAGE: (A) THE PREVIOUS DESIGN (B) THE DESIGN SINCE MAY 2000......233

FIGURE 7.4 - EPA WEBSITE POINT OF ENTRY FOR AUDIENCE GROUPS ...................................................234

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L i s t o f T a b l e s

TABLE 2.1 - ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND EXAMPLES FOR MODES OF COMMUNICATION ...........68

TABLE 3.1 - DATA USED IN THE BROWNFIELD GIS ...............................................................................104

TABLE 4.1 - AGE GROUPS AND GENDER ................................................................................................117

TABLE 4.2 - INTEREST IN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ...............................................................................119

TABLE 4.3 - UPDATE RATES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES....................................................................120

TABLE 4.4 - ISSUES THAT ARE MISSING FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................121

TABLE 4.5 - OPINIONS ABOUT THE CONTENT OF LEO ...........................................................................123

TABLE 4.6 - OPINIONS ABOUT THE LEO’S INTERFACE ..........................................................................123

TABLE 4.7 - SOURCES OF INFORMATION................................................................................................124

TABLE 4.8 - POPULAR COMBINATIONS OF INFORMATION SOURCES .......................................................124

TABLE 4.9 - FREQUENCY OF INTERNET ACCESS.....................................................................................125

TABLE 4.10 - PLACE OF ACCESS TO THE INTERNET................................................................................125

TABLE 4.11 - FIVE MOST POPULAR COMBINATIONS OF INTERNET ACCESS PLACE..................................125

TABLE 4.12 - “HANDS ON” SESSION GROUPS.........................................................................................137

TABLE 5.1 - CATWOE FOR AARHUS MODEL........................................................................................177

TABLE 5.2 - CATWOE FOR INTEREST GROUP MODEL...........................................................................179

TABLE 5.3 - CATWOE FOR MEDIA MODEL...........................................................................................181

TABLE 5.4 - CATWOE FOR PROFESSIONAL / RESEARCHER MODEL ......................................................182

TABLE 5.5 - CATWOE FOR NIMBY MODEL........................................................................................183

TABLE 5.6 - CATWOE FOR ACTIVE CITIZEN MODEL ............................................................................184

TABLE 5.7 - CATWOE FOR GENERAL INTEREST MODEL.......................................................................186

TABLE 5.8 - CATWOE FOR GENERAL PEIS MODEL .............................................................................188

TABLE 6.1 - COMPARISON OF THE AIR QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK SITE WITH CONCEPTUAL

MODELS ........................................................................................................................................195

TABLE 6.2 - COMPARISON OF THE AIR QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK SITE WITH CRITERIA ............196

TABLE 6.3 - COMPARISON OF THE FOE FACTORY WATCH SITE WITH CONCEPTUAL MODELS................199

TABLE 6.4 - COMPARISON OF THE FOE FACTORY WATCH WEBSITE WITH CRITERIA.............................201

TABLE 6.5 - COMPARISON OF THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY “WHAT’S IN YOUR BACKYARD?” SITE WITH

CONCEPTUAL MODELS ..................................................................................................................206

TABLE 6.6 - COMPARISON OF THE ENVIRONMENT AGENCY “WHAT’S IN YOUR BACKYARD?” SITE WITH

CRITERIA.......................................................................................................................................208

TABLE 6.7 - COMPARISON OF THE “HOMECHECK.CO.UK” SITE WITH CONCEPTUAL MODELS.................211

TABLE 6.8 - COMPARISON OF THE “HOMECHECK” SITE WITH CRITERIA................................................212

TABLE 6.9 – SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE CASE STUDIES .........................................................................214

TABLE 8.1 - KNOWLEDGE AREAS AND THESIS CHAPTERS ......................................................................243

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