1 2 glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (g6pd) ( 葡萄糖 -6- 磷酸脫氫酶 ) is an enzyme produced...

2

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) (葡萄糖 -6-磷酸脫氫酶 ) is an enzyme produced in immature red blood cells.

3

It protects the red blood cells from being oxidized and destroyed.

4

About 5% of the HK population have G6PD deficiency (葡萄糖 -6-磷酸脫氫酶缺乏症／蠶豆症 ).

5

If they are exposed to substances with oxidizing properties, their red blood cells will break down rapidly.

6

How does a mutation in the gene forG6PD cause the enzyme deficiency

7

The chemical Basis of Inheritance

8

Chromatin / Chromosomes

9

Organism estimated size estimated gene number average gene density chromosome # Homo sapiens (human) 2900 million bases ~30,000 1 gene per 100,000 bases 46

Rattus norvegicus (rat) 2,750 million bases ~30,000 1 gene per 100,000 bases 42

Mus musculus (mouse) 2500 million bases ~30,000 1 gene per 100,000 bases 40

Drosophila melanogaster 180 million bases 13,600 1 gene per 9,000 bases 8 (fruit fly)

Arabidopsis thaliana 125 million bases 25,500 1 gene per 4000 bases 5(plant)

Zea mays (corn) 5000 million bases ~25,000 1 gene per 200,000 bases 10

Oryza sativa (rice) 565 ~25,000 1 gene per 23000 bases 12

Caenorhabditis elegans 97 million bases 19,100 1 gene per 5000 bases 6(roundworm)

Saccharomyces cerevisiae 12 million bases 6300 1 gene per 2000 bases 16(yeast)

Escherichia coli 4.7 million bases 3200 1 gene per 1400 bases 1(bacteria)

H. influenzae (bacteria) 1.8 million bases 1700 1 gene per 1000 bases 1

10

Chromosome = Protein + DNA

11

Indirect Evidence of DNA as genetic material

12

Bacteria transforming factor- Griffiths 1928

13

27.2 Genes and heredity

What are genes?

14

gene (基因 )

• a segment of the DNA molecule of a chromosome

chromosome

Genes

DNA


protein

15

gene (基因 )

• basic unit of heredity

chromosome

DNA


protein

Genes

16

• position of a gene on a chromosome

chromosome

gene locus (基因位點 )


Genes

17

• different forms of a genealleles (等位基

因 )

• located at the same gene locus


homologous chromosomes

Genes

18

• the DNA of a gene carries genetic information for making a polypeptide

gene

polypeptide

protein


Genes

19

structural proteins

enzymes

hormones

carrier proteins or

channel proteins


examples:Genes

gene

polypeptide

protein

20

• each characteristic is controlled by one or more genes


genes determine the body characteristics or traits of an organism

Genes

21

What are nucleic acids?


22

chromosome

a kind of nucleic acids

Nucleic acids27.2 Genes and heredity

DNA

23

• consist of nucleotides (核苷酸 )

phosphate group

5-carbon sugar nitrogenous base

(含氮鹼基 )

Chemical structure


Nucleic acids

24

• many nucleotides are joined to form polynucleotide

bonding between sugar and phosphate

group


Chemical structureNucleic acids

25


Chemical structure• many nucleotides are joined to form

polynucleotide

Nucleic acids

26

sugar-phosphate backbone


Chemical structure• many nucleotides are joined to form

polynucleotide

Nucleic acids

27

DNA (脫氧核糖核酸 )

RNA (核糖核酸 )

• two common types:


Chemical structureNucleic acids

28

DNA – A Nucleotide unit

29

DNA – Sugar / pentose

30

double-stranded

single-stranded

DNA RNA


31

DNA RNA


sugar:deoxy-

ribose (脫氧核糖 )

sugar:ribose (核糖 )

32

DNA RNA


base:base:adeninethyminecytosineguanine

adenineuracil

cytosineguanine

33

DNA RNA


base:base:A

thyminecytosineguanine

Auracil

cytosineguanine

34

DNA RNA


base:base:AT

cytosineguanine

AU

cytosineguanine

35

DNA RNA


base:base:ATC

guanine

AUC

guanine

36

DNA RNA


base:base:ATCG

AUCG

37

DNA vs

RNA

38

DNA vs RNA

39

What is the structure of DNA?


40

Watson-Crick model of DNA• proposed by James Watson

and Francis Crick in 1953


41

• two chains twist around each other to form a double

helix (雙螺旋 )

Watson-Crick model of DNA• two polynucleotide chains

run in opposite directions


43

DNA – Base pairing

45

Complementary base pairing

47

Watson-Crick model of DNA• complementary base

pairing (互補鹼基配對 )

A pairs with TC pairs with G

hydrogen bond


48

Watson-Crick model of DNA27.2 Genes and heredity

2 nm

3.4 nm

a complete turn contains 10 base pairs

49

DNA – Sugar phosphate backbone

50

DNA – 2 antiparallel chains

51

DNA - The molecule of life

Each cell:

•46 chromosomes

•2 meters of DNA

•3 billion DNA bases

•Approximately 30,000 genes

52

Why is DNA well suited to its function as a genetic material?


53

Genetic code

base sequence

amino acid sequence


…

…

…

…

…

…

…

determinesgenetic code

54


…

…

…

…

…

…

… four types of bases+

millions of bases in a chain

large amount of genetic information

Amount of genetic information

55


Stability

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

hydrogen bond• maintains the helical

structure

56

Replication


hydrogen bonds break

57

two strands separated


Replication

58template template

free nucleotides


Replication

59template template


Replication

under the action of DNA

polymerase…

60template template


Replication

new strands formed

61


Replication

identical

62

• pairing of specific bases allows accurate replication of DNA


Replication

63


Replication


64

same genetic information can be passed to offspring


Replication


65

DNA replication – overall process

66

DNA replication

67

28.1 From DNA to proteins

68


• the way in which the base sequence in a DNA strand determines the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide

The genetic code

69


4 bases

Glu

Gln

His

Gly

Ile

Lys

Leu

Phe

Met

Pro

Thr

Ser

Tyr

Trp

Val

Arg

Ala

Asp

Asn

Cys

20 amino acids

The genetic code

70


• three bases code for one amino acid triplet code (三聯體密

碼 )DNA strand

amino acids

The genetic code

71


• 43 = 64 triplet codes

More than enough!

The genetic code

72

The triplet code I

73


• degenerate code (簡併密碼 )

Cys Cys

The genetic code

74

The triplet code IV- degenerate

75


• some are start signals and stop signals• no gaps, read in a non-overlapping

manner

The genetic code

76

The triplet code II- start

77

The triplet code III- termination

78

The triplet code IV- Non-overlapping

79

Breaking the code

80

Breaking the code

81


• universal

Cys

The genetic code

82

• two stages:

transcription (轉錄 )

translation (轉譯 )

Protein synthesis28.1 From DNA to proteins

• DNA RNA

• RNA polypeptide

nucleus

cytoplasm

1

2

Animation

83

Central Dogma

84

1 Transcription28.1 From DNA to proteins

a The two DNA strands are held together by weak hydrogen bonds.

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

85


b The hydrogen bonds break and the two DNA strands separate.

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

…

1 Transcription

…

86


c Under the action of RNA polymerase, free nucleotides are added against a template.

1 Transcription

…

…

……

…

……

…

……

template strand

free nucleotides

87


1 Transcription

…

…

……

…

……

…

……

template strand

mRNA

c A messenger RNA is synthesized.

triplet code

codon (密碼子 )

88


1 Transcription

…

…

……

…

……

…

……

template strand

mRNA

d The messenger RNA leaves the nucleus.

to cytoplasm

89

Transcription

90

Transcription- animated

91

Transcription- coding strand

92

2 Translation28.1 From DNA to proteins

• occurs at ribosomes (核糖體 )

made up of ribosomal RNA

(rRNA) and proteins

93



94



attached to endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

free-floating

95



What happens during translation?

96


a The mRNA attached to a ribosome.

mRNA

ribosome

codon 1 2 3 n(start) (stop)

97


b A specific amino acid is carried to the ribosome by a transfer RNA.

tRNA

98

t-RNA

99

t-RNA binding sites

100

Aminoacyl-tRNA complex

101

Ribosome- P and A sites

102


103

Translation

104

Translation- animated

105


b A specific amino acid is carried to the ribosome by a transfer RNA.

amino acid

RNA strand

anticodon (反密碼子 )

106


c The anticodon on the tRNA molecule binds to the first codon on the mRNA.

… … …

107


… … … … … …

c The anticodon on the tRNA molecule binds to the first codon on the mRNA.

Complementary!

108


d Another tRNA molecule carrying an amino acid binds to the next codon.

… … … … … …

109


d The two amino acids link up by a peptide bond to form a dipeptide.

… … … … … …

110


111

… … … … … …


e The ribosome moves along the mRNA until a stop codon is met.

direction of translation

stop codon

one amino acid added at a time

112

Translation- animated

113


f The polypeptide is then released.

114


f It coils and folds to form a protein. Some proteins are formed by two or more polypeptides binding together.

115


• proteins made at ribosomes on rough ER will be transported inside the ER

What happens to the proteins synthesized?

secreted by the cell

embedded in cell membrane

116


• proteins made at free-floating ribosomes will remain in the cytoplasm used by the cell

What happens to the proteins synthesized?

117

Replication - transcription -translation

118

GTCA song

•http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ID6KY1QBR5s

119

Genetic code expressed in terms of mRNA codons:


120

1 Features:


a Each genetic codeis a that is made up of three bases.

triplet code

121

1 Features:


b The genetic codeis known as

as some amino acids have more than one code.

degenerate code

122

1 Features:


c The genetic codehas no gaps and isnon-overlapping .

123

1 Features:


d The genetic codeis asthe same triplet code codes for the same amino acid in all organisms.

universal

124

2 The process by which genetic information contained in a gene is decoded to make a protein is called .


gene expression

125

3 Protein synthesis:


DNA template strand

mRNA

transcription

translation

polypeptide

coiling and folding

protein

126

4a Some of the proteins synthesized will be transported inside the


rough endoplasmic reticulum before being secreted out by the cell or embedded in the

.cell membrane

127

4b Some of the proteins synthesized will be used by the itself.


cell

128

28.2 Mutations• sudden and permanent change of DNA• two types:

gene mutations (基因突變 )

chromosome mutations (染色體突變 )

129

Mutation

130

Mutation_altered genetic info

131

Mutation leads to changes in genotype

and phenotype

132

Types of mutation

133

Somatic vs Germinal mutation

134

Early vs Late somatic mutation

135

deletion (缺失 )

• different forms:

insertion (插入 ) substitution (取代 ) inversion (倒位 )

28.2 Mutations

• a change in the base sequence of the DNA in a gene

1 Gene mutationsAnimation

136

Base sequence in coding strand

Amino acid sequence

Normal

Deletion

ATG CAT GTA TTG

ATG ATG TAT TG

Met–His–Val–Leu

Met–Met–Tyr

28.2 Mutations

1 Gene mutations

137


Amino acid sequence

Normal

ATG GCA TGT ATT G


Met–Ala–Cys–Ile

28.2 Mutations

ATG CAT GTA TTG

Insertion

1 Gene mutations

138


Amino acid sequence

Normal

ATG TAT GTA TTG


Met–Tyr–Val–Leu

28.2 Mutations

ATG CAT GTA TTG

Substitution

1 Gene mutations

139


Amino acid sequence

Normal

ATG ACT GTA TTG


Met–Thr–Val–Leu

28.2 Mutations

ATG CAT GTA TTG

Inversion

1 Gene mutations

140

28.2 Mutations

• deleting or inserting a number of bases that is not a multiple of three will shift the reading frame (讀框 )

Normal

Insertion ATG GCA TGT ATT G



ATG CAT GTA TTG

Altered!

1 Gene mutations

Frame-shift mutation

141

28.2 Mutations

• deleting or inserting a number of bases that is not a multiple of three will shift the reading frame (讀框 )

Normal

Insertion ATG GCA TGT ATT G



ATG CAT GTA TTG

Resulting protein is usually non-functional.

1 Gene mutations

142

28.2 Mutations

• a substitution or an inversion of base(s) may result in a different amino acid

Normal

Inversion ATG ACT GTA TTG


Met–Thr–Val–Leu

ATG CAT GTA TTG

It may affect the protein’s structure or function.

1 Gene mutations

143

28.2 Mutations

• sickle-cell anaemia (鐮狀細胞性貧血 ) is caused by the substitution of a base

1 Gene mutations

144

28.2 Mutations

normal DNA template

mRNA

polypeptide

transcription

translation

Glu Val

sickle-cell anaemia

1 Gene mutations

145

28.2 Mutations

red blood cells

normal

sickle-shaped

can block blood vessels

1 Gene mutations

146

Gene-mutation:Sickled-cell

anaemiaThe amino acid sequences for the normal and abnormal P chains differ in the substitution of valine for glutamic acid at one point in the abnormal polypeptide chains of haemoglobin S

147

sickle cell anemia distribution in relation to malaria

148

28.2 Mutations

• a change in the structure or total number of chromosomes

2 Chromosome mutations

149

deletion

• different forms:

duplication (複製 ) inversion

translocation (易位 )

28.2 Mutations

i) Changes in chromosome structure2 Chromosome mutations

150

deletion

28.2 Mutations

i) Changes in chromosome structuregenes

loss of genes


151

duplication

28.2 Mutations

i) Changes in chromosome structure

gain of genes


152

inversion

28.2 Mutations

i) Changes in chromosome structure

order of genes reversed


153

translocation

28.2 Mutations

i) Changes in chromosome structure2 Chromosome mutations

154

28.2 Mutations

i) Changes in chromosome structure translocation


155

28.2 Mutations



156

28.2 Mutations


exchange of genes


157

• homologous chromosomes or chromatids fail to separate during gamete formation

28.2 Mutations

ii) Changes in chromosome number2 Chromosome mutations

158

Karyotype – detect chromosome mutation

159

To obtain a karyotype

160

28.2 Mutations


161

28.2 Mutations

ii) Changes in chromosome number

Downsyndrome


162

28.2 Mutations


mother’s age (years)appr

oxim

ate

risk

of

havi

ng c

hild

ren

with

D

own

synd

rom

e

0

1/35

20 25 30 35 40 45


163

28.2 Mutations

abnormal ovum

n + 1


two chromosome 21


164

28.2 Mutations

abnormal ovum

n + 1


n

normal sperm

2n + 1

three chromosome 21

Downsyndrome


165

Kleinfelter syndrome

166

28.2 Mutations

parent cell (2n)

1st meiotic division

2nd meiotic division

chromatids fail to separate

n n n - 1 n + 1


167

Chromosome Mutation-non disjunction I

168

Chromosome Mutation-non disjunction II

169

polyploidy_of uneven chromosome no. --- seedless fruit

170

How to make seedless fruits?

Triploid plants have three sets of chromosomes, and three sets cannot be divided evenly when they go into two daughter cells during meiosis. Since the triploid hybrid is female sterile, the fruit are seedless. Because the triploid is also male sterile, it is necessary to plant a diploid cultivar in the production field to provide the pollen that stimulates fruit to form.

171

Hybrid_sterililty

172

Unpaired chromosomes—results in abnormal gametes

173

• occur naturally and randomlySpontaneous mutations (自發突

變 )• occur at a very low rate

Causes of mutations28.2 Mutations

174

• induced by exposure to certain chemicals and radiation

Induced mutations (誘發突變 )Causes of mutations

28.2 Mutations

increase the rate of mutation

175



28.2 Mutations

mutagens (誘變劑 )

176



28.2 Mutations

change the chemical structure of DNA

177



28.2 Mutations

ionize water to form free radicals (自由基 )

highly reactive and can damage DNA

178

Mutagen Source

Chemical

Nitrous acid(亞硝酸 )

Tar

Food preservatives

Cigarette smoke

28.2 Mutations

Causes of mutations

179

Mutagen Source

Chemical

Asbestos(石棉 )

Mustard gas (芥子氣 )

Construction materials

Chemical warfare

28.2 Mutations

Causes of mutations

180

Mutagen Source

Radiation

Ultraviolet light (紫外光 )X-ray

Sunlight

Medical examination

28.2 Mutations

Causes of mutations

Gamma ray (伽瑪射線 )

Radiotherapy, nuclear bombs

181

• usually harmful

Significance of mutations28.2 Mutations

diseases or death

182

Results of mutation

Extra compound eyes Variations in pigments

Both Wings on same side Sickled cell anaemia

183

Significance of mutation

184

• sometimes beneficial

28.2 Mutations

• mutations occurring in gametes or gamete-producing cells are inheritable source of variations essential for natural selection

(自然選擇 ) to bring about evolution

Significance of mutations

185

1 A gene mutation is a change in the of the DNA in a gene.base sequence

28.2 Mutations

186

2 A chromosome mutation is a change in the or

of chromosomes.structure

total number

28.2 Mutations

187

3a mutations occur naturally and randomly.Spontaneous

28.2 Mutations

188

3b mutations are induced by exposure to mutagens.Induced

28.2 Mutations

189

4

Chemical

Radiation

Mutagen Examples

Nitrous acid, tar,asbestos, mustard gas

Ultraviolet light, X-ray, gamma ray

28.2 Mutations

190

How can G6PD be produced only inred blood cells?1

Although each cell has a copy of all the genes in an organism, some genes are expressed in certain types of cells only.

191

How can G6PD be produced only inred blood cells?1

In this case, the G6PD gene is ‘switched on’ in immature red blood cells, but ‘switched off’ in all other cells.

192

How is G6PD made in the cells?2In the synthesis of G6PD, information in the genes is first copied to mRNA in transcription. Then translation takes place to produce a polypeptide. The polypeptide coils, folds and binds with other polypeptides to form G6PD.

193

How does a mutation in the gene forG6PD cause the enzyme deficiency?3In G6PD deficiency, the mutation in the G6PD gene results in a change of the triplet codes.

194

How does a mutation in the gene forG6PD cause the enzyme deficiency?3That in turns results in a polypeptide with a wrong sequence of amino acids and normal G6PD cannot be produced.

195

involves two stages

Protein synthesis

transcription

nucleus

translation

takes place in

mRNA

produces

196

involves the following organelles

cytoplasm

translation

ribosomes

produces

polypeptide

located incoils and folds to form

protein

197

affected by

mutation

spontaneous mutation

induced mutation

mutagens

may be

induced by

Protein synthesis

198

occurs in

genes chromosomes

mutation

1 2 glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (g6pd) ( 葡萄糖 -6- 磷酸脫氫酶 ) is an enzyme produced...

Documents