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Chapter 6 MEMORY

《普通心理学》专业课

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永远的战士 49岁的健康、英俊的中年人谈吐用现在时而非过去时认为自己 19岁，处于 1945年

顺向性遗忘症（ anterograde amnesia）– 对大脑受损之后的事件失去记忆

倒退性遗忘症（ retrograde amnesia）

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Memory

记忆是人脑对过去经验的保持和提取

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Outlines

Memory and its Biological Basis Memory and Information Processing Memory as a Constructive and Reconstructive

Process Retrieval and Forgetting How to Improving Memory? Challenges to the Information-Processing Mod

el

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1 The Nature of Memory

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1.1 Biological Basis

定位说非定位说 (脑均势说）突触生长说记忆分子说（ DNA/RNA）记忆的电生理基础（反响回路）脑内代谢物与记忆

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1.2 Memory and Information Processing

Sensory registers 不到 1秒

Short-term memory(STM)/Working memory

20－ 30秒 Long-term memory(LTM)

可毕生不忘

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记忆的信息加工模型

感觉登记 STM LTM刺激 注意

精细复述

提取

遗忘 ?

维持复述

遗忘 遗忘

行为反应

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Working Memory

STM,is also called working memory, it functions like a mental sketch pad on which people make mental notes, solve problems, and hold relevant information in consciousness for a brief period.

Working memory can also exist in LTM.

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1.3 Three changes of memory models

Modules, a set of memory systems. Remembering without involving retrieval

into consciousness. Not all information follows the path of the

model, further, the model is not unidirectional.

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2 Sensory Registration2 Sensory Registration

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2.1 The Evidence2.1 The Evidence

George Sperlling(1960)

– Tachistoscope: flashing for 15-500ms. Whole report/Partial report

– Less than 4 of the 12 letters(33%)<==>roughly 3 out of the 4 items(75%)

– Partial report design: focusing attention on one part of the image while it was still in iconic storage .

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Partial Report

视觉呈现 音调指示 反应

M Q T Z 高音

R F G A 中音

N S L C 低音 N, S, L, C

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2.2 Representation

Mental representation 心理表征– a mental model of a stimulus or category of sti

muli. Sensory Representation Verbal Representations

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表象

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Sensory Representation

Iconic storage For a brief period after an image disappears from vision, peo

ple retain a mental image of what they have seen (Foley & Mulhern,1991; Neisser, 1967, 1976)

The duration of icons varies from approximately half a second to two seconds, depending on the individual, the content of the image, and the circumstances.

Presenting another image or even a flash of light directly after the first image disappears erases the original icon.

Echoic storage Two types of echoic memory systems: speech/nonspeech sou

nds

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Sensory Representation

Mental manipulation(Kosslyn, 1983; Tye, 1991).

Cooper & Shepard(1973): rotating of a capital R

PET scan study Eidetic imagery/photographic memory

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Verbal Representation

Multiple sensory and verbal representations==>parallel processing of information by modules in the brain

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3 Short-Term Memory3 Short-Term Memory

Characteristics of STM Controlling Information in STM

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3.1 Characteristics of STM3.1 Characteristics of STM Active

– workspace (Peterson & Peterson, 1959) Rapidly accessed Preserved in the sequence presented Limited in capacity

– Miller(1956): 5-9 items

– Hermann Ebbinghaus(1885): Seven-item limit nonsense syllables (pir, vup)

AVL, acoustic/verbal/linguistic Conrad(1964): V---B, U

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3.2 Controlling Information in STM

Rehearsal– Maintenance Rehearsal: repeating the informa

tion again and again to prevent it from fading.– Elaborative rehearsal: Thinking about, or elab

orating, the information meaning while rehearsing. ==>transferring to LTM.

Chunking

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Miller(1956)：神奇的 7+-2

DJIBMNYSEWSJSEC

因人、因事而异

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Chunking

DJIBMNYSEWSJSEC

DJ IBM NYSE WSJ SEC

dj: Dow-jones

ibm: International Business Machines

nyse: New York Stock Exchange

wsj: Wall Street Journal

sec: Securities and Exchange Commission//Samsung Electronic Co.

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4 Long-Term Memory

The Serial Position Effect Long-Term Memory Systems Encoding and LTM How Information Is Stored in LTM Hierarchical Organization of LTM

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4.1 The Serial Position Effect4.1 The Serial Position Effect Free recall tasks

recalling as many as possible

Serial position effect Ss were more likely to remember the earlier and late

r items on the list than the words in the middle (Atkinson & Schiffrin,1968).

Primacy effect/Recency effect– Primacy---rehearsal: STM-->LTM– Recency---STM

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4.2 LTM system4.2 LTM system

Explicit Memory

Implicit Memory

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Explicit Memory

Also called declarative memory, refers to knowledge that can be consciously brought to mind and declared.– Semantic memory– Episodic memory(Tulving, 1972, 1983)

Personal Event/ Public Event (Weaver, 1994)

Flashbulb memory

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Implicit Memory

Cannot be brought to mind consciously but is expressed in behavior (Roediger, 1990)– Procedural memory– Priming effects– Results of Conditioning

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LTM System

LTM

Explicit Memory Implicit Memory

Episodic Memory

SemanticMemory

Procedural Memory

PrimingEffects

Results ofConditioning

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Priming Effects

Definition– 先前接触的相同或类似的信息，促进了新信息的加工

• Bowers & Schacter(1990)： 24词的词表– BEASON CHECK PENNY– READY CHEESE PENGUIN

词干补词任务（ 12个老词干， 63个新词干）词表用词量：控制组 12％，实验组 30％。

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4.3 Encoding and LTM4.3 Encoding and LTM

Rehearsal and Levels of Processing Multiple Representations and

Representational Modes Mnemonic Devices

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Rehearsal and Levels of Processing

Craik & Lockhart (1972)

Craik & Tulving(1975)

Structural Level (physical characteristics of the sti

mulus)

Phonemic Level (simple characteristics of the lang

uage )

Semantic Level (meaning of the stimulus)

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Representational Modes

Paivio(1975) :Dual-code hypothesis– 斑马－台灯，图片和文字，反应时

大多记忆内容以意义编码为主 Bower(1972)

– 对偶学习– 视觉表征与否（建立意义）– 记忆效果相差 1.5倍

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表象

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4.4 How Information Is Stored In LTM

Networks of Association Node Hierarchical Network Model

– Quillian(1968); Collins & Quillian(1969) Spreading Activation

– Collins & Loftus (1975) Starting of Activation: perception & thought

– Nisbett & Wilson (1977) Ocean-Moon Tide

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5 Memory as a Constructive & Reconstructive Process

Flashbulb memories Schemas and the Construction of Memory Schemas in Eyewitness Testimony

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Schemas and the Construction of Memory

Schema– 特定情境或方面的有关知识。它组织信息并且指导获得新的信息。

Schemas affect the way people remember– Influencing coding

不同人的视角不同– Influencing reconstruct data in memory

Schemas and Retrieval– Default values//Slots– Frederic Bartlett(1932)

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Memory and Eyewitness Memory and Eyewitness TestimonyTestimony

Loftus, Elizabeth F(1975, 1979) Leading questions and eyewitness report Presupposition

– How fast(stop sign)? Did you see a stop sign?

“11月 7日你在干什么？”

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6 Retrieval and Forgetting Recall/Recognition

– Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

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Encoding Specificity Principle

Tulving & Thompson(1973)– 编码和随后提取的方式匹配，影响记忆提取

Retrieval cues– Contexts– Godden & Baddeley(1975): Divers

State-dependent memory– Physical or emotional state can also provide retrie

val cues

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Forgetting

Ebbinghaus(1885)– forgetting curve

Why do people forget?– Decay Theory– Interference Theory

proactive/retroactive interference

– Motivated forgetting(repression) Childhood Amnesia

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7 How to Improving memory? Attention Elaboration and Encoding Chunking and Memory Span Imagery and Encoding

– method of loci– peg methods (mental pegs such as numbers)

Context and Retrieval Preacting SQ3R

– survey, question, read, recite, and review

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Challenges to the Information-Processing Model

Computers do not feel, wish, or desire. The role of consciousness The external validity of experimental study The role of cultural context of memory