1'111': 'i'l ii;l{?viai, l\,ll,, \\('1: 01” 1'1[1: \ l:\(”s...

54

Upload: leliem

Post on 08-Jan-2017

215 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

( ’ [ { l S 1) \\l) 11 l o \ ”

.11(1111(1 llil\(> lil(ll; lll\’l, ((llillll)lllllll l)llj,lllll(>\\ Il$llll)(,l<illlll I l l ,11 .’{ll l\.Ill I(lll; (ili;ll)l(, CI}(l(, (,lll(>lll \\j{l) \,ll\l( , IIlf(rll(ht Ilolll ,l\,lll,ll, !l l[)[l;ll (,(1

(11 ),(,1 \;l [ lol l ’ , [/\/( /lozj I 983]. ‘1 11(, 111!’,11 1111( ’l(l\\’il\’( I)lly, tlllll. 111111](1

illlll (,.> lll(’f(, fol(> sliltllll;ilt,(l il $TI)IIII({ (I(,l)ill( cll)ollt 111($11 I) II!), III. ;Ill[l

Itl(,ll I[]ll)li(aliolls (01 111(, \“(,lllls 111([111;11 l); llilll(’(.Ill\”(,St ip,iilioll S o f III(, (11(,7 [11;11 I); llilll(’(, o f [11(} (1(,(1) illlllll[)llfl( of

\’(Lll115 \t’(hl(} ii Ill~l,jo I f’()(ll\ o f t)()(ll 111! [;S illllj Sovi(,l >]);11’( l)lo~~lillll S

(111[ ir)~, 111(’ first Iu’() (1(,( ’;t(l (’> of t II(, si)a( ’(, ag,(, /7t-s//7/ l[l(,!l.lll ([11(,111sa((lllil(d l)y tll(’ \“c7~r?(I J 14 aII(l I’107Lw7 I’(’7L71,$ (f’l’) (’llll\ I)lot)(’s(()[)fillll()(] llIa( Lt](, alt]losl)t)(>[]c [(11111[ Iat LII(% lll(’l(’a S(i flolll ‘. 1)2. -) 1( ill

t 11(’ (“1011(1 101)s (N 63 kiII) 10 wil(Ifs rI(aI 730 1{, al t 1)( SIII 1<1((’ (1 ip,\17(1 )[,$~jjl 1983]. ‘1’11(’S(’ (Jl)s(t i’iili(]tls ;ilw) ~)lo\i(j(xi iltlljtoy(,(l ((, [)sltaillts011 ttl(’ Colll])osiliorl at)(l ()[)1 i(al ]) Iol)(, I Ii(+ of t II(I Il):issi\r(, (!J(I l); iI ), 1)1(,-(Iolrlit)al(’ly (’().? at II Ios])l IcI(,. ‘1’tlis illt_otl]\;ili(lll }Ias I)(K, II I I I( 01 l)olat(~(l

into I)rop,f”(%sil’()!y II IOI(! Sol)llistical(>(l AII(I r(’li; i[)lo II UIII(’I i( ii] I ii(ll~(i\’C

t rallsf(>l IrI()(l(~ls fol sludi(, s of t II(> tlI(I IIIal l)al; II Ic(. ‘J’l I(w II I()(i Ils ill(li-(’dl(’ IIla( ltl(~ tli~,ll Slllfal’(i l(,IIII)(I*I(II(,S al(, II);iilltaitl(d l) J- iill (, fli(, i(,[l(,sol; tl-dtiv(~l), tit tllosl)]l(,lic p,r(,cllllous(, lil(,(lla71i~[ll [1’ollo(k’, (/ (//, 1{)8(1],1)(1[ ttl(,t (: at.(, sc\xLIal d(,tails of t 11(, (lt(Ll);I IIr I{)sl)l IcIc t II(,I II I;il l)alal I((,tlIat arc still 11001 ly url(lc]stoo(l,” III ~)aI Li(ul;ll , ol)s(:I \wtiotls aII(l 111(’-or(htica] modds avaihib]e dulil(g t II( iatc 197(1’s aIId (’:iI ]y 1 9 S 0 ’ s it)(]i-catcd tlIal t]Ic t}icrtud c)~m(:ity I)lovi(i( d by krlov,’11 irlfl’alc(]:\((iv(, gas(}s((;02, 1120, S02, 111’, 11(:1) and IIzSoq aciw)ls ~l]ifjlt Ilot IN a(lcquateto IIlailltaitl t(’tr)~)cl’at. ur(!s as IIigll as t]l[)sc obs(,t vcd at tll(’ SIII fa(’c aII(l IILLIlc Iowm at lnosl)l]ctc of VcrJl]s, ‘lb i)ltducc Lll(, rcqui[cd tlltt IIIHl ol)a(-

ity, lar~,c Illltl)[)cm of tit)y, i]lvi:;il)l( Al(J(fc (/ lIa I (iclcs \veI(I a(l(l(xl (() tlIe

clouds, allIlost dotll)li[lp, Lllcit total t[)hw. ‘1’l]c IClativcly st:IIIl( t(till)(’r-atut”(> ]al)s(: rat(,s observed t]]tou~,llou( 111(, do(l) at II1osl)}I(, I(, (}:i:,(lt(, 2)aw ;ilso ~)()()rly utl(lcrstoo(l tvi{llill tll(, (otlt(, xt (If tll(w p,l(x$IIIIIIIlsc III(Nl-(’IS, \vtlictl wquirc II(!al’. rl(:utlal St,;lt)ilily (2.(;. ;Idial):kt,i( laj)sf Idt(, s) al,t 11(’s(’ ICw(:ts. Nlorc I’(K(!I)1 ol)sct\utiorl:;, ” lal)ol:lto]j” ill\wsti{,;ll ions, aII(l

Itlo(lclirlg Sttl(li(x tla\,c ~)lovi(lcd i(l)~))()\,(,(l collstl;iillt:; 0 1 1 tl)(, tlI(LI IIIal

ol);~(it~ Of t]l(’ (IP(lI) r3t IlloSl))l(!1(, a n d (’l)Ilt 1 il)lltl’d ~(l(]itiofl~l Slll)[JOI~ fo[t tte g]cmlllo~]sc llylmtflcsi$. llOwc\Y, I, it coll]l)l(,tc, s(:lf-coll sist(,lll 111(1 (1(,1of t 11(’ VcIIus dwl) at ltios~)llcw tli(’t III;II st I UC(IIIC tlas l)ot j(t I)(K, II (1( ’-

t(’lol)(d. ‘1’tlc lll(’rt Iial lIalaIIc(’ o f tllf, (1(,(,1) af II Iosj)lImc i s l(,ii(lve(l if]f: I(a((’7 (i(’t ail ill S(ctioll IV.

l<;l’(’l) tlloU~,}l sl)aCWl aft and f~loll)l(l-l )iiS(,l ol)scrvatiolii 11;11( 1)1(Jvi(l(,(l ll(~}v il)siF, t)t ill(() tllc ttl(~lul;il I)illilil(’( of (11(’ (l(’C]) at lllo\l)ll(’1(’. t 11( ’J’

Ilill’(’ also 1( ’\ ’( ’:11( ’(1 a f(,w’ a(l(litic,ltal slltl)iis(s I’(,tllal)s tll(’ 1110s( slliliillp,(, Xilllll)l(, is tll(, (lis(ov(~ly of It)(, 1(, v(,l>, (,cl. (,(111,1101 101)01(’” l(trll)(,l, ll(ll(~f~l;l(li(rlts atl(l III(, \Yall II I)otal (Iii)olr S(I (1( ’1(11(, at [Il(w)sjlt)(ll(’ 1(, \’(,ls[ ‘/iIf//(JT (/ (II. 1!)7!); 1{)80] (1’i{:(lt( 3 ) ,\l ;11111 (1(1(+ I)(,tv,’(l, [1 ‘;() !Il)kfll.tll(, l’(l(lt~lol 10 1)01(, t(>lll[)oltltlll’( j,,lil[ll(,lll. l(>\{$l S(>. S11(11 tlll( I)ol,ll 1(>{,,l(]llsijl(, (1[) (() ’20K \\i17111(,l Itl(lll (111, ( (111~ 11(11 ‘/il,l/lo!” (/ (i/ 1!);’!1. 1!1so,

‘I’l Il;l{Lll \[,ll. \l, \\(’l 01 1111 \ ! \l ~ \l\]OL1’lll lil (

l]! I:(I. 9) 11)1]s1 \,; Lll Isll ((1 \,lll..l\ ;,,l(ll’<ll !l!! 1-’ ((ill Hllllll\ [11’ \ll)l J;lil \’-,11(,1:1}:(,(1 ll(~t col]!,(vlil,(, 111, <11 liII\{,., ,111 II I, : /1,1 I II 11)( 1(1111,11 i(,l(~(ill(~s<11)(1 1(}1111 )(,lal, lll(, Villl; lli(}ll~ ,11(, ( [)]1{1,1 [(’(1 I / , ,10[ ,)[1 111. {01(1 ;Ill\llll<s). ‘I’1l (’s{’ flux(,s ll;l\ ’(’ I Il(l(lol( 1,((11 1[11 1(1(1, !1 (1!1 1111 11!:111 11:111(1

>i(l(, of I’kl, 1 0 , S11(11 IIlill (11( f’,l’)l Jll\ ,l\(l,l’, ((1 11( ’rllll)j’, 11[( ,1( (}:illl1( , ( ’ ( ,1 (I(!I)C!II(IS 011 ttl( i(l [i(’ii] (ll\l,l~,,( Ill (, (If [ Ill [111 I;l(li;lllif. (’(Jll Y(,(’-liir(’, cllmnical, altd la((, [)t Il(,ill II IJX(I,

‘1’0 solve fol ttt(, ~,lol):illy;)l(l:tl,,,tl ((ll[illl,t ill]ll l([Iil)(’tatil[(’ s{lllC-

1111(’ of a l)lanctary ai]llosl)ll(,]t,. 1- 1) 1:(’1 IILOII(,I> (x[J](M 1(1 10 as allinitial value l)rol)l(qr) ill Iillil(, ,:lIflf,I{~IIHt, 1( II III

Ii’1](’r(’ tti(’curlcnt, tilllcst(~l) isd(ll(]l((l \villl Illt, ili(l(, x. i, aIJ(l (}1(, 1[10(1(’1I(:velsar(’ it)dicat,cd wit]] tti( ii](l(x, j. ‘1’}]l~((lll;[tl{)l) t((luil(s I)(jtll illi-tiill coll(litimls a]ld a I)()(lll(lary (.oll(llti(lll 011 111(, (111X(% al 1111’ slllfa(’(’01 at t,}lc tol) of Lllf.? at,l(l(hl)ll(,r(. ‘J 11( illillill l(,l[llj(,ratlll(, (Iis(ril]ut. ion(:111 1)~ clloSC~] at ]an(lo]tl ()! (Ictiv(, (l Irolt] ~l~<illiit)l( ol)s(, tvatiorls. ‘J’lie~)()~ltl(lary conditi()ll(atl tak(, (}1( fUIIII ofa (il[l(-(l[,l)(ll(iel}t I(latiollsl)il)(I(,smibing the surface (:ll(,rp,y I1:II;LII((> (2.(, Itl(’ lit!l(,valyi]lf; sutfacc}Icat f l u x ) , o r bc spmifi((] as a (’C)llS[iillt ;il (11(, 101!(S( 01 lli~,llest at-tnos[)llcric l e v e l ( i . e . tlIc so]at fiux at tll(, tol) of tllc atfIIosl)lI(JIc, OI acolistallt ul)ward IIcat flllx at tllc toI~ (If tll(, tl(ll)()])ii llS(>). ‘1’11(, la(liativc-(ollvc:ctive quiliL]iulll t(,llll)(qatllt(, s[nl(. tur(, (all tll(,l] t)(, (l(,livcd I)y(xl)li(:itly rnardli?lg t h i s (,(jllillioll f(lli{,at(l ill Iirll(, [c.j. CJ’?(7(J,$ch ‘n7td6’oody19G8. Clisp, 1989]ot lI\ (llll)lojirigall IIlll)li(il i(claliollscll(?lllc,like Ncwrto~l-ILa~)llsoll [c,j. }’oI1(Ic1: (17L(I ()/Lt/7Lg, ]<)-/~; ]{(, Y,, (,7, {, L}L{,7L,

197 G]. Ill citl]m c:isc, tile IIC( flux(+, tllus( lx (ia]liat(, (l t}ltt)llp,}lout ttleat,lllosl)ll(m at each itcra(iofl. \\rll(ll tll(> iit Illo Sl)li(>l(, l(,ii(’Il(S tli(:rlrtal

(q(lilit)liull), t}lc llCL f l u x (li)(,r~,,(ll((, \(]flisll(,s ill ill] I(JV(,lS ari(l l}lis itcl-iltiV(! ploccdurc CO1lVC!lg(’s.

‘J’11() v a r i o u s Coll)})olietlts of ttl(’ 11(’t fl(]x l)(!llii\( (Ii flc](]]tly as tllc

1(’l[llw.laturc distlibutioll (LvOIJ,(LS t o I,l(iiiltiv(, ((luilit)lill[ll. I’(II \TClIUS,Ilcitllcr Iatcllt o r clic][li(:al tl(’; il [Il]x(:; a)c tll(j(lp,llt (0 b(! irllj)ol(atlt htllc llImIrIal Imlarlcc a t altitl)(l(~ I)(lotu III(} II I(,soj)aus(, (,. look] !)).”‘1’11(:s(’ quantities will tll(,l(,for{, 110! I)(, (lisclls-,(~(1 fllrltl(v. C~oll\’(’ctivcI)(at flllx(,s;il(,ass~ll[~[,(l to t)(,si~:l)lii((i)lt OIIl~;I( 1(, \(Ils Iv(,[(lli(t(,llll)(,[-

ilt 111(’ l<il)S(, [’at (’S (! XC. C’(’(1 ttl(” 1()(’dl il(liilllat i( lii[)S(~ 1 ~t(’. ‘1’11(’S(, fill X(’S (’i Il l

(11( ’1( ’fol(” VilI~ Sul)stallt iall} ii!- III(’ I!,lllj)($l ;l(lll(T Stlll(’1 (11(, (\ ’ol\[S illl(l

ra(liatil’c fo[cill~, l)rodo(wi ({]llf(,(li~ (l,illll~t; ll)l(~ t({~iolls. ‘1’1)(, ~,lol):ill\.-il\”($ltlf; (’(l Solal ffUXf’S :111(1 ll(,;ltitl)~ ljll( 5 1(, l[lillll :llf Ilo S[ (oll\l,llll il’1 (11(,

[(` flll)('lill \ll'('St lllCt(ll{'(,V(l l\r(>,l)!, (ill lLllll(, l()l II M]I;II illsol;ltl(,ll(ll:lllj,(>,i(,li 11111(, 011 \~(!ll\l S, all(l (11( ;Illllo<, ]]ll(,ll{ (1[)1 I(iil [)101 )([[1{} ,1[( \\[, i[k

Illll(tiotls of L(’ll)lwratur( ‘1’11(’ tll(llllll 11111(’. ,111(1 {()() 1111[1 Iilt(. (Ililll},,(>

..-. n

-.

z—-—==- --— —-—==

,.

-x

—//—

,!

10 ( ’ l{ [\l’ \\l) 11 lo\

1111.! 111; :11 ‘Iltlll 1(1(${11 lli>loll>llolll(l” [)10 (111((,,1 111)111 l}ll}’,lll(, [1(,(1 (11.1, I Ill.(“(lll\ll(lllll (’(1111(1 11(11 1)(, ((>1[, (1 (111 (’(’1/’! flolll 111{, }’,lO1lll (1, ll[l’!i(, 1(, l. 1)1(<1115(1111(, llll(lo \\il\(’ lll\ll(llll(lll\ il\illlrll)l(,, ll [11, [1 11111 ((11(1 [1,11 l)l(l\l(l(,

III(I s[); II I;II I(WIIIIII[)II 11((’(I(YI 1) I(IhIIl\(L III(, \(IIII) (li\l. 1 11 .\/ ff///l(’/

2 ftjl)\ ( I I ” \“(,l Ill\ il) I)((I,IIIIJ(II IIf 1!)62 [11011(1(,(1 III(, Iil>l ol)l)(IIIIIIIll\ 1( I

[(,S1 II)ih Il}”j)otll(,sl>. 11s Illi:tl s!,:III;II 1(,.+ollllioll” Illi(lo \l;]\(,ol) .(, rl; il loll>Silo M’(~(1 (11:11 111(, \“(,llll S (li~k I{;IS lil]jll (1:111<(,11(~(] tit \\;)\(>l(,ll~,,lll> 11(,:111.0(”111. ‘l’ll(’S(> 1( ’S111(5 1/11[:(1} [11(, (’111(11(1 (11(, i(l]losl~ll(,]i( 0111},111 fol” 111(,Ilip,ll l)li~:l)ltt(ss t(IIIIl)(I: ilIII( I>.

110111 ol)S(’I’\’iitl oIlh” all(l Itl((, I(li(; il [[10( 1(,1S ()[ (Ill’ \’l,llll\ ;11[110$[)11(1((’\’olv(’(i Slll)s(allljajl,y l))’ l!)(; ;, ‘Wil(,ll [’/,llCl{/ ~ (}1 1((, I(Y] [11[’

.

/-

1111 li\l\l l{\l\\(”l 01 11{1 \“l’Yt”’i ;\ ’1 ’\lo~l’ 111 Iii .’ I

l/(!’,ll (111 ~~ 1 111(11 (1111111 [III Ili(l](lio],a I : ’ , l ”a( l l l ’ i l l \ Ill I)(’I 11!(1111,11

I l l I \ ( ’ . 11111’ 111[1 1111111 lll(!-;\l 1 { (11{1 Ill{ (Jl,\(’l\,ltiolls t);l\(, (111(111 11111111(’;l [1011> 1111 Ill{ 111(1111,11 l)<ll!lll(( ,111~1 (Ill:ltlii(h of III( (II’(I) ;It II Iohl)l I(I(

[//(,(/(,//,,// , / (,/ 1!)s”) 1{(( ,111.( 111(, 11(1 S(]lal [111X(% ;1[( ( , x \ ) (JI’l ( ( l

10 (1( ’( ’1( ’<1>1 \!”l Ill Iiililll(l(’. 111(, ol)\($l\’(, (l 11(’( (Il(llllill (1(1 X ill(i(iiw \\llll

lii(llll(l~’ -11’,,:’,(’~1~ (lli\l (Ii(’ (Ii(l) ;illllol)ll(,](, i~ Ilol il} 10(;11 l;\lll\ll\l(’oil \’(’(”ll \t’1, (1111111)1111111 I ,;i I f,,( \(:)l[, (l~I(al]li(al I)ro((’ss(,s II IIISl t II(I ([(11(t lilll S])(Jl I {l >[:~[llfi(al]l ;Illlolllll 0111 (’; I1 1)(’LW(’CII low ~]ld Iiip,ll I:itill](l(’h ill

llI(Is(I lI\(l\ .1 ((Jil\(]lli(lr]:!l. (,( II I; 11(11 -1() i)olc ]Iadl(:y c(’11 tllif~lit l)lo\i(l(”tlI(’ Ili(’ll(li(jll;ii II(;II II:IIIsIIOI I II IYXI(YI I(I l)alaIIc( t,tloolm,liwl” I;ttiatio[)sitl 111(’ II(’1 lil(llilll\’[’ ((joli]l{~ [(f’l(lo$(/1, 1 97:,; Sc)tvkrl, 1 983; //0?/ {17/(/(J(mltj l!)S-J] ‘1’llis ((III \v(IIIl(l I)IIJ(I(I(( Iisitlg ]I)otio]l at lo\$ l;ltilll(i(,h.~xJk’\vaI(l no\\ II(;iI tlic 101) of” 1 II( (li,t~ail) (cloud tq)s’!) (I[wml(lillp,

Il]otioll a[ 111{:11 l:llllll(l(’Sj ;iII(l (,( II I(tt(II\I,aId f low at ci(:ljtl]. II(,(auw tll(’t(’1ll[)(’I’ill ~ll(’ I; II)S(’ lill{’S ill(> lllo(lf’lill,(’l\” St~i)lC! llllo~l~,liollt, ” 11111(’il of ttl(’

low(’1 atrII(Isl)i I(It(I. 1}1(, I isillp, 11101 1(111 :11 iow Iati[u(ics will I)( asso(iatwiwiltl a(llai);~li( (’xl]:ll]siotlal c(Iol II III, Si]nilar]y, ;Idiai)ati(’ (()]ll~)](ssi()]];liIl(atitlp, \vill OC(III ill [II( (i(Is((II(lIIIu,. i,ip,ll-latituci( t)lall(il o f Illis ((’il.‘1’11(’ II(’I (I)”llillill(’ili 1](’atitlf~ III(J(I1]((,(I I)y t,llis ((’ii C(jui(l tllClc’f(lI(’ (’()] 11-INmsat( f(~i 1!](s I]or i7,01]tal \’AI ialio]ls ill ]I(:t ra(liati\w tlcati]l~,.

C )VI<;C+A Ilallo{) ii))(l l,~J]{l( kl(:ii<~lro]ll~l]ts

011 J\i II( 1 iit](l 1 ‘ 198~J, t )( S(ni(t l/h’GA rnissic)~l ci(j)loyC[l SIII -Zj:i

fac(’ lall(l(’rs : II(i 111( ’I(!OI() I{\I(:il,lJ:iil(joIIs ill ttlc Ve]]lls at!liosl~ii(u. ‘1’11(1two VL’CA 1 alloolls” (’llt(t((l,,j~((’ ;iIIII(mi)lI(m ]Icar local rlii(irlip,tlt aII(I(’oll(’(’t (’(i (iiltil I al)ollt 4~4;i)LllS (’:ICI] i:S Ltl(’y !i’(’]’c (ralls~)ol [(’(i 1)( ’J’(111(1Lil(’ l]l(~rliilip, 1(’I ll~il~atoi-~)y tiI(’ 1,1( ’\ilili]lp, ea$t-;~’c%t wirl(is. I:j\’(’ll tll(lllp,lltil(’j IV(I( IIIWI t(’(1 at, silll]ia] iat itu(i(,s (’P 11’ N aIId 6“ 28’ lcs~l~(tiv(ij),ttl(’ tlvo llililoollS” siiltil)lwi ail rIIassl:s S(’{)aratd t)y about 13:)” of lofl~\i-tII(l(’. lk(iI lmii(mII a((I(li I((i zr/ s?fo ]Jl(.ts(]l(,]ll(,]lts of I)r(w+III(. t(’t IIlwIat(lt (’. \’(11 t i(al \viil(l v(’l(]cit~, (iol I(l (1(, t,sit,y, alllijietlt illuliiitlal iol], aII(lttlc fIWIII(, IIIy (If iit,, ilt tlitl{~ f’01 at)ol]( 48 }IOUH :is it fioatc(l al al(it 1]([(’5t)(,l~\’(’(’]1 ill)()(lt J() :i]l(l b4 klit, \vit ilirt 1 11(’ ]I]id(ll(: CloUd [,$a,q(/C( :/l (/ ()/.1 !)8(;]

‘III(’ i’/j6’A /J(/llo07/ fII(IaSI]J (!lll(’llts revcalcul scv(!til Sul l)] isitl~, f(’:l -lIII(IS of (}](, I Il(,t[tlai st t u(:tlil( aII(l (I)fll;ltlli(s of tllc ]rlid(il(’ cl(ILId IajxtF’iwl. (11(111 1 lIOIIF,iI (tl(, otml Iwi t(,l!ll)(,l at III( ialm~ Iatcs \v(I(, II(aI a(li -al)at i( (.slal} il it,\- rat]p, i]ig ftortl () to ‘2 K/kl II), a.s was (>xl~(’cl(’(1 floll] (’a IIi(t’ I’I’ aII(l tiltmfi olmtvatiol]s, tt]( ,Iit II IaS\(K saIIIIIl(d i)) tlI( l\vol);liioollS” Ilil(i t(, [lll)(}l’:i[(ll(, [)lofii(S tll; l” \\y,] ( offset I)y 6.3 K [.9r/J/ ( /(il. i!l~i] “1’111 :illll)iitll(l(’ of tlis 1( ’I II} I(Ial III( (Iifl(’1(’rl(( \\d\ slltl)tiiil]f,, I)(,(;ll]i(, II IS c(IIIIl)<IIal Jl(I I(I III(, l)(,i(~ to.(,(lllator” p,ladi(,l]l ;il llI(h(,alli(l](i(h iII ,111(1111011. 1 ) 1 ) 1 1 1 t);tllot)li~ (I I(OIIII1(I(Y1 \(’ltic;ll wi[l(i~ IrItl Ialll[)lllll(l (’~ .(11 [11’ (1111 (’s (’xc(wll[ly ’ .}llll/. (’ollll);llisotls” of OINI \.(’(l [(III

I I ll[)\\(l I(l [ oll\(K’(l\’( II(at (I(lx[,s l)[,(\\(Kll])([;l({ 11(. ,1[1(1 \\ 111(1s l(\(;l ((

(’[i l<l’ \\ll 11 l o \

(’n; ll)lll<ll). \ ,IIIil 1 { .S Li)i(li,(,[i \l II I(P31JIII I i( I’l(lf Ii( 1(111 1)(11

(11{4 Ill \(lll([l, lll(l.; . )(10 ])1) 1!)7(1

(’lall[”\. 1{ [ <11111 l). () illll(l(,lllilll l,oll~,-ttlll) [ 1{)”(!) 1’1!)(1) ( I1;IIIJ,,I’>ill !111 Illllllli)l, (l Vl]ilt)]i[’ill, ;l [(1 (.orl)l)[) sitiotl; il” >1111( 1111(’ (I[ 1}11,

\ (1111~ lIi(~(I>l~ll(I](, as irtl([[({l flolli rtii(t(JiY;II(,\l~(( 1 [,+1 1111(, (Jt]\(,l\;illo I\., ()[“(’(). ‘;(;() arl(: ( “~(). /r(/7u$\ s!) 120 I 1(;. 1!)!)1

(’1011 [:11, s . , \ l’. x. I<ll(,lz,ys. l:. I ) Sll(, {(l(’, all[l (; 1’. ,\ 11(1(1 Will :\llll(l5J)II(, I 1( t;l(lia]l(~, illl(l Il:illsllll;sio[l: }’:1s(;01)2. ,$’? f//l (.’(J7L/(/-

(//(1 (Ill ,1////().$/)11(1 /[ 1{(1(1{(1//011. [)1). 141 1’11$ \\ ’illlllll\l)lll}:.\“\. .\lll(l \ll’l(, (,lol. Sol’., 1) ]s1011, l!186.

(’01111(’s, 1’., .1. (’01,1,( ’s. \ \ ’ . S . 11( ’t](di(l , aII(l [,. l). lial)lari. ‘J’I;i((,\ (If 11(~1aII(l Ill’ ill III(, a(III(MplI(,I(~ of \“(, Ii(Is flp. .]., 14-( :12:i[) 1237,1967.

(~tisl), l). Ila(liativc fol(illp, of ltlc \“( rlus IIICLOS)JIICIC. 1. Sr)la I IIIIX(’SaIi(l l)(~alii]~, )atcs. JC07VIS, 6“1’:484 ,514, 1986.

(; I isl). 1 ) Ita(lia( iw for(illf, o f tlI(I VCIILIS IiI(xxJsIjli(vtI. 11. ‘J’tlm fllalfl(lxcs. (()()lillp, rat(v;, al](l tii~iiativ(~ C(}uilil)riulll t(’ltl]l(’ltitlll(’.s./c(17’f/s. 77:391 113, 1 w.

(~lisl), 1). S . Il. l)(ls, al)d h4. 1). %}lv,al~,kol)f, Aj)l)~(mirll;lt( IIl(tllo(lsof fill(litlp, (;OI 1 L 11111 lIa II(l I ral)slllissioll in lJl;iII(,t ;IIJ at III()

()]{ 1)]] ):11851 llN3Ci, l! JS(i.SI)II(’](S. ,1. (;c(,)II)JIs, I{cs, .

(~lisl), I)., \\’. l’1. Sifl(oll,l <.ll(,(~ti})l,, 11. l{:i~,,(])l, I’.(J(’IL,:]llll,.l (~()(t)(,l,Ii. 1’[01)s(, 1). .AIl(’]], a!i(l 1{. l’icl ((:. I’tl(’ llat(ll(’ of !11(’ 11(’af

il)flaml f(,a(lll(,< ofl (Ilc \r(,II~)S lli{~l]l si(l(, S’[?(71 ((, 216:.-)06:)09. 19s!).

(’[is]), I).,,\. l’. lIIP,(IsOII,(. 1:.llil(l(,l~iarlcl,:ili(l 1{. A. I’I(s(OII. \“lt(J4llilll()()ll 111('1('1)1 (}l()p,i(`;ll Ill('ilS(ll Cl1l('Il(S. Adl’. SIKl(’Clt(.$., lo:(~)) lo!l”(:))124. I!){) ().

(Yrisl), l ) . , 1) . .A. :\ll(’11. 1) . I I . (Jlil):;lmorl, illl(l ,1. 1 { . f’olla(k ‘1’fl((1:111< si(l(, of 1“(’1111s: AT(’a-i Ilflill(:(l ir)]aj,,(~s ;111(} Sl)(,(lla flolll ttl~z\llglo-; \\l:llilli; lll oll S(’l\’alO1f’” s(’/(’Jl((, 2:)3:1 ?6:{ l?(ic, IW)]a,

( ’11s[) , l ) . , s. \l(’\llll(llo(’fl$ s, K. St(’])tlcll<. \\’ l]. Silll(Jtl, 11. l{il[~(, ill,K. \\’. II()(lal)l), 1{ (;. 1’10[)s1, 1,. [/ 1)()}” 1(. 1). A ,\ll(ll. all(fJ. I’:llas (; I(IIIII(I-I)?LS((l II(a-lrlflal((l Illl;lf,lll{( ol)s(l\(ill, )115 o f\“(’ll(ls (Illlllly, 1}1(, (;alil(() (LII((II)II1(I. ,S’(/(//((, 2U)~{lI;S I . - I I I .]f)!)lt,

(1(’ 11( ’lp,ll, (’.. II li(”/Cll(l ‘1’ ()!V(,II, I) (’ti.)l,. .l l’. \Ialll;llff ,,1111 il. 1.1/111/ l)llllo 111111(, r,\ ’([,ll$; , olJ>(’ll ilti JllSllolll” l’illlll . S ( / ( / / ( ” ( ’ .

[lllli\l\l l!\l \\( 1.()[ llll\’l:\”[ ’{. \l\lo>l’l Illil !,

,,

.) -, I II”, , l!). 10!)1

(I(,lh,l!:ll ( 1~ 11(/,1 [(1 1) (’tlil,. ,1 1 ’ . \laill,it (l. ‘1 ()(f(,ll .1 1), )11<, (1,{111(1 I) (Jlilll[l(l(lll \’\”; lI(l 111 [11( (1((1) :11111 {)[)11(1!$ ill \“(llll.

11(1111 lti;,,l I t(,.(Illllli)II .,I)((II;I of 111(, lli~,llt >1(11 1(//’ ,s/1(/1 f

Ii( , I.-I ( l); ’() ( l)t~~. I!)(J j.

l)il)(t 1). .1. .1 :\ \\ ’( ’sll)t]al, ;311(1 1’, l ’ . S(’lllo(l’t). Ill fliil(h(l Illlii[,,ili}: ()[

\“(, IIIi~ S I I llli(l(]Ill(t(ts, fcu T7M, 2’/:191 19.-). I\)j(i

[)ollilllll(. “1 l] illl(l l{. l{. 110(1 $’,{’S, . II. I’a$t all(] I)l(w,lll \\;lt(,l I)ll(l:,){qo f \“(,llli\ J. (;(,() /)/1//,$. /1’, $., !t7’(I~4):(i[)83 6091. 1!)!)2.

Ijolliltlll(’, 1 11 , .1. 1 1 . II()[lllliill l{. 1{ llo(l~,(’~, , .11 , allfl :1 .1. \\ ’:llw)ll.\’(,1111~ \Vil S \\(t: ;\ 111(:1>111 (111(, rit, of 111(, l:~li(j (If’ (I((lt(,lilllll 10Il}(lll)y)(vl ,$(/(71(( ?l(j:(i{() (i.{3, 1982

I)l;l!il, 1’ 1) 1()-(111 ot]s(,ti:ili(,rl~ o f \ (,]LIIs lI(,;i I sill)(li(,t ((,ll,j(lll(lioll,

Nf/////(, Iw):m. i, I!)(iY.

I)l(lssalt. 1’., Il. 11(’val(l, ‘1 II 1’;11(’1(11;17,, 1;. lj(ik)u(’ll, \I. 1{(10s. f“. \\”.‘1’a}lot, A. 1), (k)llat (], S. 11. (;alcu(t, J, 11. I’oll;i(k, l), 11, (;till-sl)()()ti, l{, \tr. (;;iI ISOII, K. 1]. ]iairl(,s, arid I,. J!’. l{alil]), Sr;it (tlf(]t slmlial I’;II i:itiol]s o f tll(: 1120 ablltldatl(c itl Ltl(, l(NI(SI a-II IO SI)lI(IIC o f \)C]II]S fuoll) Nlh4S-Calil(w. ]’/(lll Ct. L~]J(IH ,~(’1. ,i 1 (7):.195 50.1, 1!)93.

l;sl)osit(~, l.. \ \ ’ . Slllflll di(~xidc: r[]is(,dic inje( tiott slIotvs (\,i(i(,ilcc fo]:i((il(, lf(’tl US Vol(’iilli Sill. $1’CI( J/(x, 223:1072 1071, 1!)S1,

lklx)sil(j, 1,. \l’., .1 . 1{. \\ ’illi(k, A . 1. 1’. St(wa!t. S(tlful dioxi(lc iti t}l(,\J(’illls Nt,l[]os])ll(,]t: l)is[libul ion alicl impli(alio]ls, (;c(,f~lf~s./{c.$. //(:( L., 6:601 6[) 1, 1!1’/9.

Ikl)osi((), l,. \l’., hf. C()])lcj,, Ii. l;ckrlt,, 1 , . (;;itcs, ..\.l ,1’. St(NaI(, aIIdI I . \4’01’(leri. Sltlfilt (iioxi(l( at, ilIc lrf2tIllS Clc)lld (01)s, 1978 l{)ti(j.,[, (;(!0]1/1!/,7, [{(’s,, !):{, !jp(iy [);ji’G, ] 98<,

1’(’1s. S . 11. .11] ?ij)l)~(milllat( ;illa\,li(,al til(, (tio(l for cal(ill:ititl~, li(l(vi it!ttl(’ atlllosptl(’l(! of V(’llus J. AtTILos. .$ct.. zi3:2i’57, 19.S(;.

l;(’ls. S. 11., :iII(l 1{. S. 1,i]l(17(,tl. “1’})( ilitcrac( ion (If 111(,1 III;ilIj (,x(it((i

{~lai’ity }V:ilws Ivit II II IC:iII (Ioli s. Gco;)){!ys. /’/7/1(/ I)VII 6 1.19Ioy, ]97’~

I’tls, S. Il.. ,1 . ’1’ . S(ll(, ficl(l, atIIl I ) (’lisl), Ol)[,l\,llioIls :111(1 Ili(, ol) o f111(’ solar 5(,][[i(l](tl[lal li(l(, il) 111(, \J(JIIIiS III(w)s])lI([(,, J\’(///I)(,:Iwl:; l -1:11, 1!)s1

(;i(’l; lwll. l ’ . aII(l 1{ (;(I()(l) . \ Sill Il\ o f ttl( IIl(,l[llill iill(l (l\ll,lllll(’<11

>! 111( 1111(’ of 111(, .\[; llll; lll lo\v(,l ;itlllos]lll(,l (,. /’/(1//(/ ,s/J( /(( .s(/

1(;. 6, 61(j. I!)(;S

--/“ - -

:\&. ;

,’

7C

Go

50

4 0

Exw“

30

?0

10

0

//K.

3 )1

5

1 . J I-2 -1 0 1 2 4

{IT l ’ , Whrr,<12

16

1- J8 10

F16.2.

. ,’

10

9

8

7

6

Cj.

4

.\

2

1

( .. . .

1 OS

_— — ‘-~., / .,--’ -

1/5-” “-”’

---.—-– — ——

- — -170-‘)

.//---~..---,/ ------- /-/----

. - . - - 1 7 5 - - - - - - -.-... -----”----;:~

~-----/-

- 1 8 0 - - - - - ” - — ” - - ” - ” - ” - - ”,:/

. . . - - - - - - - -/-/~/ “ -

. – — - - 1 8 5------

‘–--”” ““::;?>:+- - - - 1 90——— —.-...-,’-’-

_——.. -—.— 1 95–--”--”--””-’-_,.- —.—- ~~o-. -.------:://=_ , - _ . - - - – 7 0 5 - - ” - - - ’ ”-

- ~~~ 210--”---”- - - — . — ’ — - “- /++=

..-. _-.--2l 5“-””_,.-—

. - 2 ? 0— - — - - - - - “ ‘“-- -. — — --—

-...._ - -2?5_,. —.— ..- . -.-.-.-’. ,---- ~rc.—_..-—.—--–-– ---------- 230---

_..- —. ——. —. . ._ __” ?35. . .-..-—._ —----- .- . . . . . . .._ .,_-~_--.,

~>i

--~_..-

----- _____ ---- ----s-”-—-———————––;;::::::-,:;<~~%%;- >

_ . . — . _ 260------ . . . . . . . . .._ . . . . . . . __

- - - - — 2 7 0 - - - - – - - - - - - - - - - - - - .-_.._>~n~--- —.=

___-–---29O— -–- ------ ~~ - - - - - - - - —-.— -__-_.-__:::~--~

.-.:11 0—-—--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ’ -—- —-- —..–-..--.. . ‘--~

— 3 3 0—.———- . . . . . . . . . - - - - — - - - - - - - - - - - - - :1~____ _ -. ——. ——.. ..— . .-—______ . -—-L.-.—— 1. ::.

—1 ..- . .L.. _ ..- i . .-.__.-_. 1 -. . . ..–—~J.–

0 10 ?0 30 40 5 0 6 0 70 80 90N

L.ATll UD[. (V[ N(JS Sol AR-I 1X1 D COOl{DINA- Es)

.P“

]111111 Till 11111 TIIIII-III~I IIT

-.

I

II

1 !

1!II

I I

—-——

.)/9)

.

.“/

I. LLLLLI1 u&duubll..J

nlll ~11111 I I fillllll I ‘~lNTl T“-~lllIT-

(

. -— . ‘ “s

-/---t/

<’<● . -.,.

—-.—.~-

—..

I

II

I i

I i

I I

I i

. . .-

I I I I I Ic) c) (. ) c) ‘c ) ‘c), . . , .

!I

(

+,●

(nQ)

-4

c?L1 ;c. . .

-c)

(:

I, .,-~ .,. T.., ,. ,.- . . . ..- .-,.-. .r–, .T ,..,

1 ’, .---T---~, ------

:

Lf).

h

,.. .

.1

. . ...&.... . . . . . . . . . . :X.--—.*.. .-,,:::::+-~_-.~ . - ,

I - I _.LLJJ-L..(1

.1..- . ...1. .J_..l__l -L.d ..-

,. r--.—-..A—_

.1. _L__L._L.&J-l -

c1

CY

clCi

(S J[)[; ) d

● v!!”

100

95

9 0

[AI 8 0

6 5

6 0

5 5

[

/ ----”

. . . - - 1 8 0 - - - -

------- ///’

f-----’::,o:~

1 ‘-- \\>y\\i’‘ — ” - 2 4 0 - - . . > ‘“---=— 25() _=. “----

L \ \ \ \ \ \\

[..

---260~‘\\\\~\\_

--270 -------- —-----.\:>.Z::>—--—-.._ --- _..--- ..__ —-—- . . . . . . .._ ._, -—. ——. ——--–—--__-_q------. — .----— . .---- 280 —-—.–_. . . . . . . . . ,______ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~~

–-—-~L..__._~— ___ –J i ._J . . . .- J . . ...4. . .. ___ L.... . . _J

o 10 20 3 0 4 0 5 0 60 70 80LA’(l-l UDE (D E: GF{E:[.. S)

f’lc. ?

10(

9 c

8C

K)

60

DI URN Al__[__Y--AVE RAGE[) I-i E: A-l I NG RATES—-..-,—~ ______ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,_.. , .-m__, , , ,r ~....

—..._._ *() . . . . . . . .—..—.——-”

—.-.. -—. — . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,_.—. — -.-.. —.. — .. -—-

y

_.-.-—.—-- –--’’-~”o. _ _::: --:: _’===-””=---———.-. .-—- ———-— --’ “- /’/. . ----- “--””_ . .._ —-— -—-—- ‘

//

_- .,../------

— ~()__---.” . .-.-. -----”

—---25 -- -—-----”’” “-._-.--J” ./--”-”------- ““/

t -... --~ ---------”’.) //,----- ---- I o--. . --------__.. _—-—— —— -—” -- ...//8

4::::::.. ___ .

4

-._.—-—-.—... —

- ~-,, . . . . . . . -------- ‘j.-/-,/. .-

“<.:-<x

‘i-.— —---- _

--6---\__— ---- A/’ /4.— -----__.___ .———— .-/- ----- -——. —. —-—---- . . ..-. . ..-.’-- -- ~-.~””” -

. . . . . . . . -. ..— .. —-. -,—_ _._—.~ “— -“-””” -.

.— —___-J ---- -... _..1. . .1.. . . . . ._l .__.. --- -1 _._ . . ..L___

01

— L — _ _ _ _ _ _

30 60 9 0

I .A”l 1-”[ LJm:

100

---

..-

..-I-j

?

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

-----‘ - - - -

‘ - - -

‘->B-.. 6 . . >]

.4

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80LA-I I-I’UIIE (DEGREES)

20

?Ic. q

-x

E.<L/

Ldc1- . .

)-.--.,t“---. . . . . .

t--””’

. ..- J<

I (.)(.

9 c

8C

“m

(xl

,.- ---- . . ..T–_ ____ ..-. ~... ..— - ~ .--‘1 ‘T---—

—T—.— .

.

.

. .

.

.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .._. &A— _-J.._-—l.._.L_-_-._.l.. . . . . . . . . . . 1.-.. ._.._l __--L_. . ..__l_.~

o 30 60 90

I.. m-I ‘r u [)E