1961 indian annexation of goa

ContentsArticles

1961 Indian annexation of Goa 1Indian annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli 21Operation Polo 25History of Sikkim 32Indian integration of Junagadh 37

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 41Image Sources Licenses and Contributors 42

Article LicensesLicense 43

1961 Indian annexation of Goa 1

1961 Indian annexation of Goa

Invasion of Goa Daman and Diu

Date 18ndash19 December 1961

Location Portuguese India and surrounding sea and airspace

Result Decisive Indian victory and incorporation of territories into the Republic of India

Belligerents Portugal

bull Portuguese India India

Commanders and leaders Ameacuterico Tomaacutes Antoacutenio de Oliveira Salazar Governor-General of Portuguese India Manuel Antoacutenio Vassalo e Silva

Rajendra Prasad Jawaharlal Nehru Major General K P

Candeth Air Vice Marshal Elric

Pinto V K Krishna Menon

Strength3995 Army200 Naval personnel1 frigate3 patrol boats

45000 infantry1 Light Aircraft Carrier2 Cruisers1 destroyer8 frigates4 Minesweepers20 Canberras6 Vampires6 Toofanis6 Hunters4 Mysteres

Casualties and losses

30 killed[]

57 wounded[]

4668 captured[]

1 Frigate disabled[][]

22 killed[]

54 wounded[]

The 1961 Indian annexation of Goa (also referred to as the Invasion of Goa[1] the Liberation of Goa[2] the Fallof Portuguese India [3] and the Portuguese-Indian War[citation needed]) was an action by Indias armed forces thatended the colonial rule of Portugal in its exclaves in India in 1961 The armed action codenamed Operation Vijayby the Indian government involved air sea and land strikes for over 36 hours and was a decisive victory for Indiaending 451 years of Portuguese colonial rule in Goa Twenty two Indians and thirty Portuguese were killed in thefighting[] The brief conflict drew a mixture of worldwide praise and condemnation In India the action was seen asa liberation of historically Indian territory while Portugal viewed it as an aggression against national soil


BackgroundAt the time of Union of Indias independence from the British Empire in 1947 Portugal held a handful of exclaveson the Indian subcontinent - the districts of Goa Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli - collectively knownas the Estado da Iacutendia Goa Daman and Diu covered an area of around 1540 square miles (4000 km2) and held apopulation of 637591[4] The Goan diaspora was estimated at 175000 (about 100000 within the Indian Union)[5]

Religious distribution was 61 Hindu 367 Christian (mostly Catholic) 22 Muslim[5] Economy was primarilybased on agriculture although the 1940s and 1950s saw a boom in mining - principally iron ore and somemanganese[5]

Local resistance to Portuguese ruleResistance to Portuguese rule in Goa in the 20th century was pioneered by Tristatildeo de Braganccedila Cunha aFrench-educated Goan engineer who founded the Goa Congress Committee in Portuguese India in 1928 Da Cunhareleased a booklet called Four hundred years of Foreign Rule and a pamphlet Denationalisation of Goa intendedto sensitise Goans to the oppression of Portuguese rule Messages of solidarity were received by the Goa CongressCommittee from leading figures in the Indian independence movement like Dr Rajendra Prasad Jawaharlal NehruSubhas Chandra Bose and several others On 12 October 1938 Da Cunha with other members of the Goa CongressCommittee met Subhas Chandra Bose the President of the Indian National Congress and on his advice opened aBranch Office of the Goa Congress Committee at 21 Dalal Street Bombay The Goa Congress was also madeaffiliate to the Indian National Congress and Da Cunha was selected its first President[6]

In June 1946 Dr Ram Manohar Lohia an Indian Socialist leader entered Goa on a visit to his friend Dr JuliatildeoMenezes a nationalist leader who had founded in Bombay the Gomantak Praja Mandal and edited the weeklynewspaper Gomantak Da Cunha and other leaders were also with him[6] Ram Manohar Lohia advocated the use ofnon-violent Gandhian techniques to oppose the government[7] On 18 June 1946 the Portuguese governmentdisrupted a protest in Panaji (then spelled as Panjim) against the suspension of civil liberties organised by Lohia DaCunha along with others like Purushottam Kakodkar and Laxmikant Bhembre in defiance of a ban on publicgatherings and arrested them[8][9] There were intermittent mass demonstrations from June to NovemberIn addition to non-violent protests armed groups such as the Azad Gomantak Dal (The Free Goa Party) and theUnited Front of Goans conducted violent attacks aimed at weakening Portuguese rule in Goa[10] The Indiangovernment supported the establishment of armed groups like the Azad Gomantak Dal giving them full financiallogistic and armament support The armed groups acted from bases situated in Indian territory and under cover ofIndian police forces The Indian government - through these armed groups - attempted to destroy economic targetstelegraph and telephone lines road water and rail transport in order to impede economic activity and createconditions for a general uprising of the population[11]

Commenting on the armed resistance Portuguese army officer Capt Carlos Azaredo (now retired General) stationedwith the army in Goa stated in the Portuguese newspaper O Expresso To the contrary to what is being said themost evolved guerilla warfare which our Armed Forces encountered was in Goa I know what Irsquom talking aboutbecause I also fought in Angola and in Guineacute In 1961 alone until December around 80 policemen died The majorpart of the terrorists of Azad Gomantak Dal were not Goans Many had fought in the British Army under GeneralMontgomery against the Germans[]


Diplomatic efforts to resolve Goa dispute

Goa Western India

On 27 February 1950 the Government of India asked the Portuguesegovernment to open negotiations about the future of Portuguesecolonies in India[12] Portugal asserted that its territory on the Indiansubcontinent was not a colony but part of metropolitan Portugal andhence its transfer was non-negotiable and that India had no rights tothis territory since the Republic of India did not exist at the time whenGoa came under Portuguese rule[13] When the Portuguese Governmentrefused to respond to subsequent aide-meacutemoires in this regard theIndian government on 11 June 1953 withdrew its diplomatic missionfrom Lisbon[14]

By 1954 the Republic of India instituted visa restrictions on travelfrom Goa to India which paralysed transportation between Goa andother exclaves like Daman Diu Dadra and Nagar Haveli[12]

Meanwhile the Indian Union of Dockers had in 1954 instituted aboycott on shipping to Portuguese India[15] Between 22 July and 2August 1954 armed activists attacked and forced the surrender ofPortuguese forces stationed in Dadra and Nagar Haveli[16]

On 15 August 1955 3000-5000 unarmed Indian activists[17] attempted to enter Goa at six locations and wereviolently repulsed by Portuguese police officers resulting in the deaths of between 21[18] and 30[19] people[20] Thenews of the massacre built public opinion in India against the presence of the Portuguese in Goa[21] On 1 September1955 India shut its consul office in Goa[22]

In 1956 Portuguese ambassador to France Marcello Mathias along with Portuguese Prime Minister Antoacutenio deOliveira Salazar argued in favour of a referendum in Goa to determine its future This proposal was howeverrejected by the Ministers for Defence and Foreign Affairs The demand for a referendum was again made byPresidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in 1957[12]

Portugalrsquos Prime Minister Antonio de Oliveira Salazar alarmed by Indiarsquos hinted threats at armed action against itspresence in Goa first asked the United Kingdom to mediate then protested through Brazil and eventually asked theUN Security Council to intervene[23] Mexico offered the Indian government its influence in Latin America to bringpressure on the Portuguese to relieve tensions[24] Meanwhile Krishna Menon Indiarsquos defence minister and head ofIndiarsquos UN delegation stated in no uncertain terms that India had not ldquoabjured the use of forcerdquo in Goa[23] The USambassador to India John Kenneth Galbraith requested the Indian government on several occasions to resolve theissue peacefully through mediation and consensus rather than armed conflict[25][26]

Eventually on 10 December nine days prior to the invasion Nehru stated to the press that Continuance of Goaunder Portuguese rule is an impossibility[23] The American response was to warn India that if and when Indiarsquosarmed action in Goa was brought to the UN security council it could expect no support from the US delegation[27]

On 24 November 1961 the Sabarmati a passenger boat passing between the Portuguese-held island of Anjidiv andthe Indian port of Kochi was fired upon by Portuguese ground troops resulting in injuries to the chief engineer ofthe boat as well as the death of a passenger The action was precipitated by Portuguese fears that the boat carried amilitary landing party intent on storming the island[28]WikipediaCiting sources The incidents lent themselves tofoster widespread public support in India for military action in Goa


The occupation of Dadra and Nagar HaveliThe hostilities between India and Portugal started seven years before the invasion of Goa when Dadra and NagarHaveli were invaded and occupied by pro-Indian Union forces with the support of the Indian authoritiesDadra and Nagar Haveli were two Portuguese landlocked exclaves of the Daman district totally surrounded byterritory of the Indian Union The connection between the exclaves and the costal territory of Daman had to be madeby crossing about 20 km of Indian Union territory Dadra and Nagar Haveli did not have any Portuguese militarygarrison but only police forcesThe Indian Government started to develop isolation actions against Dadra and Nagar Aveli already in 1952including the creation of impediments to the transit of persons and goods between the two landlocked enclaves andDamanIn July 1954 pro-Indian Union forces including members of organisations like the United Front of Goans (UFG)the National Movement Liberation Organisation (NMLO) the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and the AzadGomantak Dal with the support of Indian Police forces started to launch assaults against Dadra and Nagar HaveliOn the night of 22 July UFG forces stormed the small Dadra police station killing police sergeant Aniceto doRosaacuterio and constable Antoacutenio Fernandes while resisting to the attack On 28 July RSS forces took Naroli policestationMeanwhile the Portuguese authorities asked the Indian Government for permission to cross their territory withreinforcements to Dadra and Nagar Haveli which was deniedSurrounded and prevented from receiving reinforcements by the Indian Authorities the Portuguese Administratorand police forces in Nagar Haveli eventually surrendered to the Indian police forces on 11 August 1954Portugal appealed to the International Court of Justice which in the decision of 12 April 1960 Case ConcerningRight of Passage Over Indian Territory [29] was favourable to the Portuguese cause stating its sovereign rights overthe territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli However no military actions were taken by the Portuguese authorities toreoccupy the exclavesThe Indian Government went forward with the official integration of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in its territory onlyafter the invasion of Goa in 1961 Until then it enjoyed a de facto independence although not internationallyrecognised

Events preceding the hostilities

Indian military build-upOn receiving the go-ahead for military action and the mandate of the capture of all occupied territories for the Indiangovernment Lieutenant-General Chaudhari of Indias Southern Army fielded the 17th Infantry Division and the 50thParachute Brigade commanded by Major-General KP Candeth The assault on the enclave of Daman was assignedto the 1st Maratha Light Infantry while the operations in Diu were assigned to the 20th Rajput and 4th Madrasbattalions[30]

Meanwhile the Commander-in-Chief of Indias Western Air Command Air Vice Marshal Erlic Pinto was appointedas the commander of all air resources assigned to the operations in Goa Air resources for the assault on Goa wereconcentrated in the bases at Pune and Sambra[31] The mandate handed to Air Vice Marshal Erlic Pinto by the IndianAir Command was listed out as follows1 The destruction of Goarsquos lone airfield in Dabolim without causing damage to the terminal building and other

airport facilities2 Destruction of the wireless station at Bambolim Goa33 Denial of airfields at Daman and Diu which were however not to be attacked without prior permission44 Support to advancing ground troops


The Indian Navy deployed two warshipsmdashthe INS Rajput an R Class destroyer and the INS Kirpan a Blackwoodclass frigate anti-submarine frigatemdashoff the coast of Goa The actual attack on Goa was delegated to four taskgroups a Surface Action Group comprising five ships Mysore Trishul Betwa Beas and Cauvery a Carrier Groupof five ships Delhi Kuthar Kirpan Khukri and Rajput centred around the light aircraft carrier Vikrant a MineSweeping Group consisting of mine sweepers including Karwar Kakinada Cannonore and Bimilipatan and aSupport Group which consisted of the Dharini[32]

The Portuguese MandateIn March 1960 Portuguese Defence Minister General Botelho Moniz told Prime Minister Salazar that a sustainedPortuguese campaign against decolonisation would create for the army a suicide mission in which we could notsucceed His opinion was shared by Army Minister Colonel Almeida Fernandes by the Army under secretary ofState Lieutenant-Colonel Costa Gomes and by other top officers[33]

Ignoring this advice Salazar sent the following message to Governor General Vassalo e Silva in Goa on 14December in which he ordered the Portuguese forces in Goa to fight till the last man[34]

Radio 816 Lisbon 14-Dec1961 You understand the bitterness with which I send you this message Itis horrible to think that this may mean total sacrifice but I believe that sacrifice is the only way for us tokeep up to the highest traditions and provide service to the future of the Nation Do not expect thepossibility of truce or of Portuguese prisoners as there will be no surrender rendered because I feel thatour soldiers and sailors can be either victorious or dead These words could by their seriousness bedirected only to a soldier of higher duties fully prepared to fulfill them God will not allow you to be thelast Governor of the State of India

Salazar then asked Vassalo e Silva to hold out for at least eight days within which time he hoped to gatherinternational support against the Indian invasion[34]

Portuguese Military PreparationsPortuguese military preparations began in earnest in 1954 following the Indian economic blockade when three armybattalions were transported to Goa raising the Portuguese military presence there to 12000 men However by late1960 the Army under-secretary of State Costa Gomes conducted a survey visit to Goa and proposed a reduction inthe military grouping reducing the strength from 12000 men to around 3500[]

In accordance with Prime Minister Salazarrsquos instructions to resist the Indian invasion the Portuguese administrationin Goa prepared for warOne Portuguese Navy sloop the NRP Afonso de Albuquerque[35] was present in Goa at the time of invasion Thevessel was armed with four 120 mm guns capable of two shots per minute and four automatic rapid firing guns Inaddition to the sloop the Portuguese Navy had three light patrol boats (lanchas de fiscalizaccedilatildeo) each armed with a20mm Oerlikon gun one based in each Goa Daman and Diu There were also five merchant marine ships in Goa[36]

Portuguese ground defences consisted of a total of 3995 men including 810 native (Indo-Portugueses -Indo-Portuguese) soldiers many of whom had little military training and were utilised primarily for security andanti-extremist operations In addition there were about 1040 police officers and 400 border guards These forceswere divided amongst the three Portuguese enclaves in IndiaThe strategy employed to defend Goa against an Indian invasion was based in the Plano Sentinela (Sentinel Plan)which divided the territory into four defence sectors (North Center South and Mormugatildeo) The Portuguese Armyforces in Goa were composed of four motorised reconnaissance squadrons eight rifle companies (caccediladores) twoartillery bateries and an engineer detachment divided by four battlegroups (agrupamentos) with a battlegroupassigned to each sector and tasked with slowing the progression of an invading force These plans were howeverunviable because of the desperate shortage of mines and ammunition and of communication equipment[37]


Commenting on the Plano Sentinela Capt Carlos Azaredo who was stationed in Goa at the time of hostilities statesin Portuguese newspaper Expresso on 8 December 2001 It was a totally unrealistic and unachievable plan whichwas quite incomplete It was based on exchange of ground with time But for this purpose portable communicationequipment was necessary[]

Regarding the defence of Daman and Diu although formally under the command of the governor-general andcommander-in-chief in Goa given the isolation and enormous distances of those districts from Goa the local smallPortuguese garrisons would have to be left to themselves ensuring alone the defense against the Indian invasionwithout any possibility of cooperation with the rest of the Portuguese forcesOn 16 December the Portuguese Air Force was placed on alert to transport ten tons of anti-tank grenades in twoDC-6 aircraft from Montijo Air Base in Portugal to Goa assist in its defence However the aircraft were deniedstop-over facilities at the US Wheelus Air Base in Libya When the Portuguese Air Force was unable to obtain suchfacilities at any other air base along the way - most nations including Pakistan denying passage of Portuguesemilitary aircraft - the mission was passed on to the civilian airline TAP which offered a Lockheed Constellation(registration CS-TLA) on charter for the job However when permission to transport weapons through Karachi wasdenied by the Pakistani Government the Lockheed Constellation landed in Goa at 1800 hours on 17 December witha consignment of half a dozen bags of sausages as food supplies instead of the intended grenades[38] However theaircraft also arrived with a contingent of female paratroopers to assist in the evacuation of Portuguese civiliansThe Portuguese air presence in Goa was thus limited to the presence of two transport aircraft one belonging to thePortuguese international airline (TAP) and the other to the Goan airline Portuguese India Airlines (TAIP) aLockheed Constellation and a Douglas DC-4 Skymaster aircraft The Indians claimed that the Portuguese had asquadron of F-86 Sabres stationed at Dabolim Airportmdashwhich later turned out to be false intelligence Air defencewas limited to a few obsolete anti-aircraft guns manned by two artillery units who had been smuggled into Goadisguised as soccer teams[28]

Meanwhile back on 14 December the Portuguese administration in Goa received orders from the Ministry of theOverseas in Lisbon to transfer the relics of St Francis Xavier patron saint of Goa to Lisbon Orders were alsoreceived ordering the Portuguese forces in Goa to destroy any buildings of non-military Portuguese heritage in GoaAccordingly barrels filled with petrol were transported to the Idalcao Palace in Panaji which served as theadministrative headquarters but were removed on orders from Governor Vassalo e Silva who stated I cannotdestroy the evidence of our greatness in the Orient[]

Portuguese civilian evacuationThe military buildup created panic amongst Europeans in Goa who were desperate to evacuate their families beforethe commencement of hostilities On 9 December the vessel India arrived at Goas Mormugatildeo port en route toLisbon from Timor Despite orders from the Portuguese government in Lisbon not to allow anyone to embark on thisvessel the Governor General of Goa Manuel Vassalo e Silva allowed 700 Portuguese civilians of European originto board the ship and flee Goa The ship had had capacity for only 380 passengers and was filled to its limits withevacuees occupying even the ships toilets[28] On arranging this evacuation of women and children Vassalo e Silvaremarked to the press If necessary we will die here Evacuation of European civilians continued by air even afterthe commencement of Indian air strikes[39]


Indian reconnaissance operationsIndian reconnaissance operations had commenced on 1 December when two Indian Leopard class frigates the INSBetwa and the INS Beas undertook linear patrolling of the Goan coast at a distance of 8 miles (13 km) By 8December the Indian Air Force had commenced baiting missions and fly-bys to lure out Portuguese air defences andfightersOn 17 December a tactical reconnaissance flight conducted by Sqn Ldr I S Loughran in a Vampire NF54 NightFighter over Dabolim Airport in Goa was met with 5 rounds fired from a ground anti aircraft gun The aircraft tookevasive action by drastically dropping altitude and escaping out to sea The anti aircraft gun was later recovered nearthe ATC building with a round jammed in its breech[40]

The Indian light aircraft carrier INS Vikrant was deployed 75 miles (121 km) off the coast of Goa to head a possibleamphibious operation on Goa as well as to deter any foreign military intervention

Commencement of Hostilities

The military actions in Goa

The ground attack on Goa North and North East sectors

On 11 December 1961 17 Infantry Division and attached troops of the Indian Army were ordered to advance intoGoa to capture Panaji and Mormugatildeo The main thrust on Panaji was to be made by the 50 Para Brigade Group - oneof the Indian armyrsquos most elite airborne units - led by Brigadier Sagat Singh from the north Another thrust was to becarried by 63 Infantry Brigade from the east A deceptive thrust in company strength was to be made from the southalong the Majali-Canacona-Margao axis[41]

Although the Indian 50 Para Brigade (also called the Pegasus Brigade) was charged with merely assisting the mainthrust conducted by the 17th Infantry its units moved rapidly across minefields roadblocks and four riverineobstacles to be the first to reach Panaji[42]

Hostilities at Goa began at 945 on 17 December 1961 when a unit of Indian troops attacked and occupied the townof Maulingueacutem in north east Goa killing two Portuguese soldiers in the process The Portuguese 2nd EREC(esquadratildeo de reconhecimento - reconnaissance squadron) - stationed near Maulingueacutem - asked for permission toengage the Indians but permission was refused at about 1345[43] During the afternoon of the 17th the Portuguesecommand issued instructions that all orders to defending troops would be issued directly by headquarters bypassingthe local command outposts This led to confusion in the chain of command[43] At 0200 on 18 December the 2ndEREC was sent to the town of Doromagogo to support the withdrawal of police forces present in the area and wereattacked by Indian Army units on their return journey[43]

At 0400 the Indian assault commenced with artillery bombardment on Portuguese positions south of the town ofMaulingueacutem which was launched on the basis of the false intelligence that the Portuguese had stationed heavy battletanks in the area By 0430 Bicholim was under fire At 0440 the Portuguese forces destroyed the bridge atBicholim and followed this with the destruction of the bridges at Chapora in Colvale and at Assonora at 0500[43]

On the morning of 18 December the 50 Para Brigade of the Indian Army moved into Goa in three columns1 The eastern column comprised the 2nd Para Maratha advanced towards the town Ponda in central Goa via Usgatildeo2 The central column consisting of the 1st Para Punjab advanced towards Panaji via the village of Banastari3 The western column - the main thrust of the attack - comprised the 2nd Sikh Light Infantry as well as an armored

division which crossed the border at 630 am in the morning and advanced along Tivim[41]

At 0530 Portuguese troops left their barracks at Ponda in central Goa and marched towards the town of Usgatildeo inthe direction of the advancing eastern column of the Indian 2nd Para Maratha At 0900 these Portuguese troopsmarching towards Usgatildeo reported that Indian troops had already reached halfway to the town of Ponda[43]


By 1000 Portuguese forces of the 1st EREC faced with the advancing 2nd Sikh Light Infantry began asouth-bound withdrawal to the town of Mapuca where by 1200 they came under the risk of being surrounded byIndian forces At 1230 the 1st EREC began a retreat from the town of Mapuca making way through the Indianforces with its armoured cars firing ahead to cover the withdrawal of the personnel carrier vehicles This unitrelocated by ferry further south to Panaji[43]

At 1330 the bridge at Banastarim was destroyed by the Portuguese just after the retreat of the 2nd EREC thuscutting off all road links to the capital city of PanajiBy 1745 the forces of the 1st EREC and the 9th Caccediladores Company of the Portuguese Battlegroup North hadcompleted its ferry crossing of the Mandovi River to Panaji just minutes ahead of the arrival of the Indian armouredforces[43] The Indian tanks had reached Betim just across the Mandovi River from the capital town of Panajiwithout encountering any opposition The 2 Sikh LI joined it by 2100 crossing over mines and demolished bridgesen route In the absence of orders the unit stayed at Betim for the night The same night Major Sidhu of the 7thCavalry was killed when Portuguese guards fired on an unsuspecting Indian unit at Aguada Fort[41]

At 2000 hours a Goan by the name of Gregoacuterio Magno Antatildeo crossed the Mandovi River from Panaji and delivereda ceasefire offer letter from Major Acaacutecio Tenreiro of the Portuguese Army to Major Shivdev Singh Sidhu thecommanding officer of the Indian units camped there The letter stated The Military Commander of the City of Goastates that he wishes to parley with the commander of the army of the Indian Union with respect to the surrenderUnder these conditions the Portuguese troops must immediately cease fire and the Indian troops do likewise in orderto prevent the slaughter of the population and the destruction of the city [44]

The order to cross the Mandovi River was received on the morning of 19 December upon which two rifle companiesof the 2nd Sikh Light Infantry advanced on Panaji at 0730 and secured the town without facing any resistance Onorders from Brigadier Sagat Singh the troops entering Panaji removed their steel helmets and donned the ParachuteRegimentrsquos maroon berets Fort Aguada was also captured on that day when the Indian 7th Cavalry attacked the fortwith assistance from the armoured division stationed at Betim and freed its political prisoners

The advance from the East

Meanwhile in the east the 63rd Indian Infantry Brigade advanced in two columns The right column comprising the2nd Bihar and the left column consisting of the 3rd Sikh linked up at the border town of Mollem and then advancedupon the town of Ponda taking separate routes By night fall the 2nd Bihar had reached the town of Candeapurwhile the 3rd Sikh had reached Darbondara Although neither column had encountered any resistance their furtherprogress was hampered because all bridges spanning the river had been destroyedThe rear battalion comprised the 4th Sikh Infantry which reached Candeapar in the early hours of 19 December andnot to be bogged down by the absence of the Borim bridge(already blown up) went across the Zuari river in theirmilitary tankers and then waded across a small creek in chest high water to reach a small dock known asEmbarcadouro de Tembim in Raia presently under survey No445 of Raia Village from where there exists aconnecting road to Margao (Old Portuguese Planta 4489 amp 4493) At Tembim the 4th Sikh Infantry rear battaliontook some rest in a cattle shed on the small dock and sprawled on the ground and in the balcony of a house adjacentto the dock drank some water retrieved their tankers and then proceeded to Margao Margao - the administrativecentre of Southern Goa - by 1200 From here the column advanced towards the harbour of Mormugatildeo En route tothis target the column encountered fierce resistance from a 500-strong Portuguese unit at the village of Verna wherethe Indian column was joined by the 2nd Bihar The Portuguese unit surrendered at 1530 after fierce fighting andthe 4th Sikh then proceeded to Mormugatildeo and Dabolim Airport where the main body of the Portuguese armyawaited the IndiansA decoy attack was staged south of Margao by the 4th Rajput company to mislead the Portuguese This columnovercame minefields roadblocks and demolished bridges and eventually went on to help secure the town ofMargao


By the evening of 19 December most of Goa had been overrun by advancing Indian forces and a large party ofmore than two thousand Portuguese soldiers had taken position at the military base at Alparqueiros at the entrance tothe port town of Vasco da Gama Per the Portuguese strategy code named Plano Sentinela the defending forces wereto make their last stand at the harbour holding out against the Indians until Portuguese naval reinforcements couldarrive Orders delivered from the Portuguese President called for a scorched earth policy - that Goa was to bedestroyed before it was given up to the Indians[45]

The air raids over Goa

A Canberra PR9 taking off The Indian Air Forceused the small and lightweight Canberra

bombers

The first Indian raid was conducted on 18 December on the DabolimAirport and was in the form of 12 English Electric Canberra aircraftled by Wing Commander NB Menon The raid resulted in thedropping of 63000 pounds of explosives within minutes completelydestroying the runway In line with the mandate given by the AirCommand structures and facilities at the airfield were leftundamaged[46]

The second Indian raid was conducted on the same target by eightCanberras led by Wing Commander Surinder Singh which again leftthe airportrsquos terminal and other buildings untouched Two transportaircraftmdasha Lockheed Constellation belonging to the Portuguese airline TAP and a Douglas DC-4 belonging to theGoan airline TAIPmdashwere parked on the apron On the night of 18 December the Portuguese used both aircraft toevacuate the families of some government and military officials in spite of the heavily damaged runway During thefirst hours of the evening airport workers hastily recovered part of the runway The first aircraft to leave was theTAP Constellation commanded by Manuel Correia Reis which took off using only 700 metres the debris from therunway damaged the fuselage with 25 holes and a flat tire In order to take off in the short distance the TAP pilotshad jettisoned all the extra seats and other unwanted equipment so that they could do a short take-off[47] Thesecond to leave was the TAIP DC-4 piloted by TAIP Director Major Solano de Almeida Both aircraft used thecover of night and very low altitudes to break through Indian aerial patrols and escape to Karachi Pakistan[]

A third Indian raid was carried out by six Hawker Hunters and was targeted at the wireless station at Bambolimwhich was successfully attacked with rockets and gun cannonsThe mandate to support ground troops was served by the de Havilland Vampires of No 45 squadron which patrolledthe sector but did not receive any requests into action In an incident of friendly fire two Vampires fired rockets intothe positions of the 2nd Sikh Light Infantry injuring two soldiers while elsewhere Indian ground troops mistakenlyopened fire on an IAF T-6 Texan causing minimal damageIn later years commentators have maintained that Indias intense air strikes against the airfields were uncalled-forsince none of the targeted airports had any military capabilities and did not cater to any military aircraft[citation

needed] As such the airfields were defenceless civilian targets[] To this day the Indian navy continues to control theDabolim Airport although this is now used as a civilian airport as well

The storming of Anjidiv Island

The Indian Naval Command assigned the task of securing the island of Anjidiv to the INS Trishul and the INSMysore Under covering fire from the ships Indian marines under the command of Lt Arun Auditto stormed theisland at 1425 on 18 December and engaged the Portuguese defenders The Portuguese ceased fire and raised awhite flag thus luring the Indian marines out of their cover before opening fire again killing 7 marines andwounding 19 Among the casualties were two officers The Portuguese defences were eventually overrun after fierceshelling from the Indian ships offshore The island was secured by the Indians at 1400 on the next day


Naval battle at Mormugatildeo harbour

The NRP Afonso de Albuquerque

On the morning of 18 December the Portuguese sloop Afonso deAlbuquerque was anchored off Mormugatildeo Harbour Three Portuguesepatrol boats were also present at Goa and Daman and Diu Besidesengaging Indian naval units the Afonso de Albuquerque was alsotasked with providing a coastal artillery battery for the defence of theharbour and adjoining beaches as well as providing vital radiocommunications with Lisbon after on-shore radio facilities had beendestroyed in Indian airstrikes

At 0900 three Indian frigates led by the INS Betwa took up positionoff the Harbour awaiting orders to attack the NRP Afonso and secure sea access to the port At 1100 Indian planesbombed Mormugatildeo harbor[48] At 1200 upon receiving clearance from HQ the INS Betwa accompanied by theINS Beas entered the harbour and opened fire on the NRP Afonso with their 45-inch guns while transmittingrequests to surrender in morse code between shots In response the NRP Afonso lifted anchor headed out towardsthe enemy and returned fire with its 120 mm guns

Besides being outnumbered by the Indians the Afonso was also at a severe disadvantage since it was in a confinedposition that restricted its maneuverability and also because its four 120 mm guns were capable of only two rounds aminute as compared to the 60 rounds per minute cadence of the guns aboard the Indian frigates A few minutes intothe exchange of fire at 1215 the Afonso took a direct hit in its control tower injuring its weapons officer At 1225an anti-personnel shrapnel bomb fired from an Indian vessel exploded directly over the ship killing its radio officerand severely injuring its commander Captain Antoacutenio da Cunha Aragatildeo after which the First Officer Pinto da Cruztook command of the vessel The ships propulsion system was also badly damaged in this attackAt 1235 the NRP Afonso swerved 180 degrees and was run aground against Bambolim beach At that time againstthe commanders orders a white flag was hoisted under instructions from the sergeant in charge of signals But theflag coiled itself around the mast and as a result was not spotted by the Indians who continued their barrage Theflag was immediately loweredEventually at 1250 after having fired nearly 400 rounds at the Indians hitting two of the Indian vessels and havingtaken severe damage the order was given to initiate the abandonment of the ship Under heavy fire directed both atthe ship as well as at the coast non-essential crew including weapons staff left the ship and made their way to theshore They were followed at 1310 by the rest of the crew who along with their injured commander disembarkeddirectly onto the beach after setting fire to the ship Following this the commander was transferred by car to thehospital at PanajiIn all the NRP Afonso lost 5 dead and 13 wounded in the battle[48]

The sloops crew formally surrendered with the remaining Portuguese forces on 19 December 1961 at 2030 hrs[49]

As a gesture of goodwill the commanders of the INS Betwa and the INS Beas later visited Captain Aragatildeo as he layrecuperating in bed in PanajiThe Afonso - having been renamed as Saravastri by the Indian Navy - lay grounded at the beach near Dona Paulauntil 1962 when it was towed to Bombay and sold for scrap Parts of the ship were recovered and are on display atthe Naval Museum in Bombay[48]


The military actions in Daman

The ground attack on Daman

Daman approximately 72 km2 in area is located at the southern end of Gujarat bordering Maharashtra and just about193 km north of Bombay The countryside is broken and interspersed with marsh salt pans streams paddy fieldscoconut and palm groves The river Daman Ganga splits the capital city of Daman into two-halves mdash Nani Daman(Damatildeo Pequeno) and Moti Daman (Damatildeo Grande) The Portuguese garrison in Daman was headed by aGovernor Major Antoacutenio Joseacute da Costa Pinto with 360 Portuguese Army soldiers 200 policemen and about 30customs officials under him The strategically important features were Daman Fort and the Air Control Tower of theDaman Airport[50]

The Portuguese Army garrison included two companies of caccediladores (light infantry) and a battery of artillery butthese were armed with insufficient and old ammunition The Portuguese also placed a 20 mm anti-aircraft gun tendays before the invasion to protect the artillery Daman had been secured with small minefields and defensiveshelters had been built[36]

The advance on the enclave of Daman was conducted by the 1st Maratha Light Infantry under the command ofLt-Col SJS Bhonsle[50] in a pre dawn operation on 18 December[41] The plan was to capture Daman piecemeal infour phases to start with the area of the airfield then progressively to area garden Nani Daman and finally MotiDaman to include the fort[50]

The advance commenced at 0400 when one battalion and three companies of Indian soldiers progressed through thecentral area of the northern territory aiming to seize the airfield[36] However the surprise was lost when the IndianA Company tried to capture the Air Control Tower and the Indian battalion suffered three casualties The Portugueselost one soldier dead and six taken captive The Indian D Company captured a position named Point 365 justbefore the next morning At the crack of dawn two sorties by Indian Air Force Mystere fighters struck Portuguesemortar positions and guns inside Moti Daman Fort[50]

At 0430 the Indian artillery commenced the bombardment of Damatildeo Grande The artillery attack coupled withdifficulties in transportation isolated the Portuguese command post in Damatildeo Grande from the forces in DamatildeoPequeno At 0730 a Portuguese unit stationed at the fortress of Satildeo Jeroacutenimo opened mortar fire on Indian forcesattempting to capture the airstrip[36]

At 1130 Portuguese forces resisting an Indian advance on the eastern border at Varacunda ran out of ammunitionand withdrew westwards to Catra At 1200 to delay the Indian advance following the withdrawal from Varacundathe Portuguese artillery battery on the banks of the Rio Sandalcalo is ordered to open fire The commander of thebattery Captain Felgueiras de Sousa instead dismantled the guns and surrendered to the Indians[36] By 1200 theairfield was assaulted by the Indian A and C companies simultaneously In the ensuing exchange of fire the ACompany lost one more soldier killed while seven were wounded[50]

By 1300 the remaining Portuguese forces on the eastern border at Calicachigatildeo-A exhausted their ammunition andretreated towards the coast By 1700 in the absence of any resistance the Indians had managed to occupy most ofthe territory with the exception of the airfield and Damatildeo Pequeno where the Portuguese were making their laststand By this time the Indian Air Force had conducted as many as six air attacks severely demoralising thePortuguese forces At 2000 after a meeting between the Portuguese commanders a delegation was dispatched to theIndian lines in order to open negotiations but was fired upon and was forced to withdraw A similar attempt by theartillery to surrender at 0800 of the next day was also fired on[36]

The Indians assaulted the airfield the next morning upon which the Portuguese surrendered at 1100 without a fight[41] The Portuguese garrison commander Major Antoacutenio Joseacute da Costa[50] - although wounded - was stretchered to the airfield as the Indians were only willing to accept a surrender from him[36] Approximately 600 Portuguese soldiers (including 24 officers[50]) were taken prisoner The Indians suffered 4 dead and 14 wounded[50] while the Portuguese suffered 10 dead and two wounded[41] The 1st Light Maratha Infantry was decorated for the battle with


one VSM for the CO two Sena Medals and five Mentioned in Dispatches[50]

The Daman air raids

In the Daman sector Indian Mysteres flew 14 sorties continuously harassing Portuguese artillery positions

Naval Action at Daman

Like the Vega in Diu the patrol boat Antares at Daman under the command of 2nd Lt Abreu Brito was ordered tosail out and fight the imminent Indian invasion The boat stayed in position from 0700 on 18 December andremained a mute witness to repeated air strikes followed by ground invasion until 1920 when it lost allcommunications with landWith all information pointing to total occupation of all Portuguese enclaves in India Lt Brito attempted to save hiscrew and boat by escaping to Karachi in Pakistan The boat traversed 530 miles (850 km) escaping detection byIndian forces to arrive at Karachi at 2000 on 20 December

The military actions in Diu

The ground attack on Diu

Diu is a 138 km by 46 km Island (area about 40 km2) located at the southern tip of Gujarat The island is separatedfrom the mainland by a narrow channel running though a swamp The channel could only be used by fishing boatsand small craft No bridges existed to cross the channels at the time of hostilities[51]

Diu was attacked on 18 December from the north west along Kob Forte by two companies of the 20th Rajput - withthe capture of the Diu Airfield being the primary objective - and from the northeast along Gogal and Amdepur by theRajput B Company and the 4 Madras[41]

These Indian army units ignored requests from Wg Cdr MPO (Micky) Blake planning-in-charge of the Indian AirForce operations in Diu to attack only on first light when close air support would be available[51] The Portuguesedefences repulsed the attack backed by 876mm artillery and mortars[36] inflicting heavy losses on the Indians[51]

The first attack was made by the 4 Madras on a police border post at 0130 on 18 December at Gogol and wasrepulsed by 13 Portuguese police officers[36] Another attempt by the 4 Madras at 0200 was again repulsed this timebacked with Portuguese 875mm artillery and mortar which suffered due to poor quality of munitions By 0400 tenof the original 13 Portuguese defenders at Gogol had been wounded and were evacuated to a hospital At 0530 thePortuguese artillery launched a fresh attack on the 4 Madras assaulting Gogol and forced their retreat[36]

Meanwhile at 0300 two companies of the 20th Rajput attempted to cross a muddy swamp[36] separating them fromthe Portuguese forces at Passo Covo under cover of dark on rafts made of bamboo cots tied to oil barrels[51] Theattempt was to establish a bridgehead and capture the airfield[41]

This attack was repulsed with fairly heavy losses by a well entrenched unit of between 125 to 130 Portuguesesoldiers armed with small automatic weapons and sten guns[51] as well as light and medium machine guns[41]

According to Portuguese sources this post was defended by only eight soldiers[36]

As the Rajputs reached the middle of the creek the Portuguese on Diu opened fire with two medium and two lightmachine-guns capsizing some of the rafts Major Mal Singh of the Indian army along with five men pressed on hisadvance and crossed the creek On reaching the far bank he and his men assaulted the LMG trenches atFort-De-Cova and silenced them The Portuguese MMG fire from another position wounded the officer and two ofhis men However with the efforts of company Havildar Major Mohan Singh and two other men the three woundedwere evacuated back across the creek to safety As dawn approached the Portuguese increased the intensity of fireand the battalionrsquos water crossing equipment suffered extensive damage As a result the Indian battalion was orderedto fall back to Kob village by first light[50]


Another assault at 0500 was similarly repulsed by the Portuguese defenders At 0630 Portuguese forces retrievedrafts abandoned by the 20th Rajput recovered ammunition left behind and rescued a wounded Indian soldier whowas given treatment[36]

At 0700 with the onset of dawn Indian air strikes commenced forcing the Portuguese to retreat from Passo Covoto the town of Malala By 0900 the Portuguese unit at Gogol also retreated[36] allowing the Rajput B Company (whoreplaced the 4 Madras) to advance under heavy artillery fire and occupy the town[41] By 1015 the Indian cruiser theINS Delhi anchored off Diu commenced the bombardment of targets on the shore[36] At 1245 Indian jets fire arocket at a mortar at Diu Fortress causing a fire in close proximity to a munitions dump forcing the Portuguese toorder the evacuation of the fortress - a task completed by 1415 under heavy bombardment from the Indians[36]

At 1800 the Portuguese commanders agreed in a meeting that in view of repeated air strikes and the inability toestablish contact with headquarters in Goa or Lisbon there was no way to pursue an effective defence and decided tosurrender to the Indians[36] On 19 December by 1200 the Portuguese formally surrendered The Indians took 403prisoners which included the Governor of the island along with 18 officers and 43 sergeants[50]

In surrendering to the Indians the Diu Governor stated that he could have kept the Army out for a few weeks but hehad no answer to the Air Force The Indian Air Force was also present at the ceremony and was represented by GpCapt Godkhindi Wing Cmdr Micky Blake and Sqn Ldr Nobby Clarke[51] 7 Portuguese soldiers were killed in thebattle[51]

Major Mal Singh and Sepoy Hakam Singh of the Indian army were awarded Ashok Chakra (Class III)[50]

On 19 December the 4th Madras C Company landed on the island of Panikot off Diu where a group of 13Portuguese soldiers surrendered to them there[41]

The Diu air raids

A retired Black Archers Toofani (MD450Ouragan) on display at the Indian Air Force

Museum Palam New Delhi These formed thebackbone of the air strikes on Diu

The Indian air operations in the Diu Sector were entrusted to theArmaments Training Wing led by Wg Cdr Micky Blake The first airattacks were made at dawn on 18 December and were aimed atdestroying Dius fortifications facing the mainland Throughout the restof the day the Air Force had at least two aircraft in the air at any timegiving close support to advancing Indian infantry During the morningthe air force attacked and destroyed Diu Airfields ATC as well as partsof Diu Fort On orders from Tactical Air Command located at Pune asortie of two Toofanis attacked and destroyed the airfield runway with4 1000 lb Mk 9 bombs A second sortie aimed at the runway and piloted by Wg Cdr Blake himself was aborted whenBlake detected what he reported as people waving white flags In subsequent sorties the Indian Air Force attackedand destroyed the Portuguese ammunition dump as well a patrol boat that attempted to escape from DiuIn the absence of any Portuguese air presence Portuguese ground based anti-aircraft units attempted to offerresistance to the Indian raids but were overwhelmed and quickly silenced leaving complete air superiority to theIndians Continued air attacks forced the Portuguese governor of Diu to surrender


Naval action at Diu

The Indian naval cruiser INS Delhi was anchored off the coast of Diu and offered a barrage of from its 6-inch guns atthe Diu Fortress where the Portuguese were holed up The Commanding Officer of the Indian Air Force operating inthe area reported that some of the shells fired from the New Delhi were bouncing off the beach and exploding on theIndian mainland However no casualties were reported from this[52]

At 0400 on 18 December the Portuguese patrol boat Vega encountered the New Delhi around 12 miles (19 km) offthe coast of Diu and was attacked with heavy machine gun fire Staying out of range the boat had no casualties andminimal damage the boat withdrew to the port at DiuAt 0700 news was received that the Indian invasion had commenced and the commander of the Vega 2nd LtOliveira e Carmo was ordered to sail out and fight until the last round of ammunition At 0730 the crew of the Vegaspotted two Indian aircraft on patrol missions and opened fire on them with the ships 20 mm Oerlikon gun Inretaliation the Indian aircraft attacked the Vega twice killing the captain and the gunner and forcing the rest of thecrew to abandon the boat and swim ashore where they were taken prisoners of war

Portuguese surrenderDespite orders from Lisbon Governor General Manuel Antoacutenio Vassalo e Silva took stock of the numericalsuperiority of the Indian troops as well as the food and ammunition supplies available to his forces and took thedecision to surrender He later described his orders to destroy Goa as um sacrifiacutecio inuacutetil (a useless sacrifice)In a communication to all Portuguese forces under his command he stated ldquoHaving considered the defence of thePeninsula of Mormugatildeohellip from aerial naval and ground fire of the enemy and hellip having considered the differencebetween the forces and the resourceshellip the situation does not allow myself to proceed with the fight without greatsacrifice of the lives of the inhabitants of Vasco da Gama I have decided with hellip my patriotism well present to getin touch with the enemy hellip I order all my forces to cease-firerdquo[]

The official Portuguese surrender was conducted in a formal ceremony held at 2030 on 19 December whenGovernor General Manuel Antoacutenio Vassalo e Silva signed the instrument of surrender bringing to an end 451 yearsof Portuguese Rule in Goa In all 4668 personnel were taken prisoner by the Indians - a figure which includedmilitary and civilian personnel Portuguese Africans and Indians (Goans)[] This comprised 3412 prisoners in Goa853 in Daman and 403 in DiuPortuguese non-combatants present in Goa at the time of the surrender - which included Mrs Vasalo DSilva wife ofthe Portuguese Governor General of Goa - were transported by 29 December to Bombay from where they wererepatriated to Portugal Manuel Vassalo however remained along with approximately 3300 Portuguese combatantsas POWs in GoaUpon the surrender of the Portuguese governor general Goa Daman and Diu was declared a federally administeredUnion Territory placed directly under the President of India and Major-General K P Candeth was appointed as itsmilitary governor The war had lasted two days India lost 34 killed and 51 wounded Portugal lost 31 killed 57wounded and 4668 capturedThose Indian forces who served within the disputed territories for 48 hours or flew at least one operational sortieduring the conflict received a General Service Medal 1947 with the Goa 1961 bar[53]


Portuguese actions post-hostilitiesOn 18 December even as Indian forces were rolling into Goa a special emergency session of the United NationsSecurity Council was convened at the request of the Portuguese government At the meeting called to consider theIndian invasion of Portuguese territories in Goa Daman and Diu Adlai Stevenson the US representative to the UNcriticised the Indian military action He then submitted a draft resolution that called for a ceasefire a withdrawal ofall Indian forces from Goa and the resumption of negotiations[54] This resolution was co-sponsored by France UKand Turkey but failed after the Soviet Union Indiarsquos long-time Cold War ally exercised its vetoThe New York Times of 19 December 1961 reporting the Western response to the invasion of Goa stated Adlai EStevenson warned the Security Council early today that the United Nations was in danger of dying as the result of aSoviet veto killing a Western resolution to tend the Indian invasion of Goa The resolution would have urged India toaccept an immediate cease-fire and recall her invasion troops from Goa and two other Portuguese enclaves on theIndian coast Moscow however hailed the invasion as a liberation drive and accused the United States of hypocrisyin its criticism of Indias military moves Observers believed the Russians were trying to fan resentment againstNATO to which both Portugal and the United States belong[55]

Canadian political scientist AR Bandeira has argued that the sacrifice of Goa was an elaborate public relations stuntcalculated to rally support for Portugals wars in Africa[33]

Upon receiving news of the fall of Goa the Portuguese government formally severed all diplomatic links with Indiaand refused to recognise the incorporation of the seized territories into the Indian Republic An offer of Portuguesecitizenship was instead made to all Goan natives who wished to emigrate to Portugal rather than remain under Indianrule This was amended in 2006 to include only those who had been born before 19 December 1961 Later in a showof defiance Salazars government offered a reward of US$10000 for the capture of Brigadier Sagat Singh thecommander of the maroon berets of Indiarsquos parachute regiment who were the first troops to enter Panaji Goarsquoscapital[56]

On receiving news of the fall of Portuguese India Lisbon went virtually into mourning and Christmas celebrationswere extremely muted The US embassy placed a curtain in front of its Christmas display in the ground-floorwindow of the US Information Office Cinemas and theatres shut down as tens of thousands of Portuguese marchedin a silent parade from Lisbons city hall to the cathedral escorting the relics of St Francis Xavier[57]

Portuguese Prime Minister Salazar while addressing the National Assembly on 3 January 1962 invoked theprinciple of national sovereignty as defined in the legal framework of the Constitution of the Estado Novo We cannot negotiate not without denying and betraying our own the cession of national territory and the transfer ofpopulations that inhabit them to foreign sovereigns said Salazar[58]

Relations between India and Portugal thawed only in 1974 when following an anti-colonial military coup deacutetat andthe fall of the authoritarian rule in Lisbon Goa was finally recognised as part of India and steps were taken tore-establish diplomatic relations with India In 1992 Portuguese President Maacuterio Soares became the first Portuguesehead of state to visit Goa after its annexation by India following Indian President R Venkataramanrsquos visit toPortugal in 1990[59]


Internment and repatriation of POWsFollowing their surrender the Portuguese soldiers were interned by the Indian Army at their own military camps atNavelim Aguada Pondaacute and Alparqueiros and were kept under harsh conditions which included sleeping on cementfloors and hard manual labour[28] By January 1962 most POWs had been transferred to the newly established campat Ponda where conditions were substantially better[28]

Air Marshal S Raghavendran who met with some of the captured Portuguese soldiers wrote in his memoirs severalyears later I have never seen such a set of troops looking so miserable in my life Short not particularly well builtand certainly very unsoldierlike[60]

In one incident recounted by Lt Francisco Cabral Couto (now retired general) an attempt was made on 17 Januaryby some of the prisoners to escape the camp The attempt was foiled and the Portuguese officers in charge of theescapees were threatened with court martial and execution by the Indians This situation was defused by the timelyintervention of a Jesuit military chaplain[28] Following the foiled escape attempt Capt Carlos Azaredo (now retiredgeneral) was beaten with rifle butts by four Indian soldiers while a gun was pointed at him on the orders of CaptainNaik the 2nd Camp Commander The beating was in retaliation for Azaredos telling Captain Naik to Go to Helland was serious enough to make him lose consciousness and cause severe contusions Captain Naik was laterpunished by the Indian Army for violating the Geneva Convention[]

During the internment of the Portuguese POWs at various camps around Goa the prisoners were visited by largenumbers of Goans - described by Capt Azaredo as Goan friends acquaintances or simply anonymous persons -who offered the internees cigarettes biscuits tea medicines and money This surprised the Indian militaryauthorities who first limited the visits to twice a week and then only to representatives of the Red Cross[]

The captivity lasted for six months thanks to the stupid stubbornness of Lisbon (according to Capt CarlosAzeredo) The Portuguese Government insisted that the POWs be repatriated by Portuguese aircraft - a demand thatwas rejected by the Indian Government who instead insisted on aircraft from a neutral country The negotiationswere delayed even further when Salazar ordered the detention of 1200 Indians in Mozambique allegedly as abargaining chip in exchange for Portuguese POWs[]

By May 1962 most of the POWs had been repatriatedmdashbeing first flown to Karachi in chartered French aircraftand then sent off to Lisbon by three ships Vera Cruz Paacutetria and Moccedilambique[61] On arrival at Tejo in Portugalreturning Portuguese servicemen were taken into custody by military police at gunpoint and without immediateaccess to their families who had arrived to receive them Following intense questioning and interrogations theofficers were charged with direct insubordination on having refused to comply with directives not to surrender to theIndians On 22 March 1963 the governor general the military commander his chief of staff one naval captain sixmajors a sub lieutenant and a sergeant were cashiered by the council of ministers for cowardice and expelled frommilitary service Four captains four lieutenants and a lieutenant commander were suspended for six months[33]

Ex-governor Manuel Antoacutenio Vassalo e Silva was greeted with a hostile reception when he returned to Portugal Hewas subsequently court martialed for failing to follow orders expelled from the military and was sent into exile Hereturned to Portugal only in 1974 after the fall of the regime and was given back his military status He was laterable to conduct a state visit to Goa where he was given a warm reception[62]


International reaction to the capture of GoaThe casualties were minimum I am in favour of all wars being like the war between India and Portugal ndashpeaceful and quickly over - J K Galbraith former US ambassador to India[]

United States of AmericaThe United States official reaction to the invasion of Goa was delivered by Adlai Stevenson in the UN SecurityCouncil where he condemned the armed action of the Indian government and demanded that all Indian forces beunconditionally withdrawn from Goan soilTo express its displeasure with the Indian action in Goa the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee attempted overthe objections of President John F Kennedy to cut the 1962 foreign aid appropriation to India by 25 percent[63]

Referring to the perception especially in the West that India had previously been lecturing the world about thevirtues of nonviolence US President Kennedy told the Indian ambassador to the US ldquoYou spend the last fifteenyears preaching morality to us and then you go ahead and act the way any normal country would behave Peopleare saying the preacher has been caught coming out of the brothelrdquo[64]

In an article titled India The Aggressor The New York Times on 19 December 1961 stated With his invasion ofGoa Prime Minister Nehru has done irreparable damage to Indias good name and to the principles of internationalmorality[65]

Life International in its issue dated 12 February 1962 carried an article titled Symbolic pose by Goas Governor inwhich it expressed its vehement condemnation of the military action

The worlds initial outrage at pacifist Indias resort to military violence for conquest has subsided into resigneddisdain And in Goa a new Governor strikes a symbolic pose before portraits of men who had administeredthe prosperous Portuguese enclave for 451 years He is K P Candeth commanding Indias 17th InfantryDivision and as the very model of a modern major general he betrayed no sign that he is finding Goans lessthan happy about their liberation Goan girls refuse to dance with Indian officers Goan shops have beenstripped bare by luxury-hungry Indian soldiers and Indian import restrictions prevent replacement Even inIndia doubts are heard India said respected Chakravarti Rajagopalachari leader of the Swatantra Partyhas totally lost the moral power to raise her voice against the use of military power

mdash Symbolic pose by Goas Governor Life International 12 February 1962

Soviet UnionThe head of state of the Soviet Union Leonid Brezhnev who was touring India at the time of the war made severalspeeches applauding the Indian action In a farewell message he urged Indians to ignore Western indignation as itcame from those who are accustomed to strangle the peoples striving for independence and from those who enrichthemselves from colonialist plunder Nikita Khrushchev the de facto Soviet leader telegraphed Nehru stating thatthere was unanimous acclaim from every Soviet citizen for Friendly India The USSR had earlier vetoed a UNsecurity council resolution condemning the Indian invasion of Goa[66][67][68]


ChinaIn an official statement released long after the action in Goa Peking stressed the support of the Chinese governmentfor the struggle of the people of Asia Africa and Latin America against imperialist colonialism China neithercondemned nor applauded the invasion despite Portuguese rule of Macau as at the time it was enjoying cordialrelations with India although the Sino-Indian War would begin only months later

PakistanIn a letter to the US President on 2 January 1962 the Pakistani President General Ayub Khan stated ldquoMy DearPresident The forcible taking of Goa by India has demonstrated what we in Pakistan have never had any illusionsabout--that India would not hesitate to attack if it were in her interest to do so and if she felt that the other side wastoo weak to resistrdquo[69]

AfricaBefore the invasion the press speculated about international reaction to military action and recalled the recent chargeby African nations that India was too soft on Portugal and was thus dampening the enthusiasm of freedomfighters in other countries[] Many African nations - themselves former European colonies - reacted with delight tothe capture of Goa by the Indians Radio Ghana termed it as the ldquoLiberation of Goardquo and went on to state that thepeople of Ghana would ldquolong for the day when our downtrodden brethren in Angola and other Portuguese territoriesin Africa are liberatedrdquo Adelino Gwambe the leader of the Mozambique National Democratic Union stated ldquoWefully support the use of force against Portuguese butchersrdquo[]

The Catholic ChurchIn December 1961 just days before the annexation of Goa by Indian troops the Vatican appointed Dom Joseacute Pedroda Silva a Portuguese priest as the auxiliary bishop of Goa and granted him the right to succeed as the Patriarch ofthe Church in Goa Although the Vatican did not voice its reaction to the annexation of Goa it delayed theappointment of a native head of the Goan Church until the inauguration of the Second Vatican Council in Romewhen Msgr Francisco Xavier da Piedade Rebelo was consecrated Bishop and Vicar Apostolic of Goa in 1963[70]

Simultaneously the Church in Goa was placed under the patronage of the Cardinal of India and its links with theChurch in Portugal were severed[71]

Cultural DepictionSaat Hindustani (1969) the debut film of Amitabh Bachchan with an ensemble cast was about Operation Vijay Itwon the 1970 Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration and the Lyric-Writer of the BestFilm Song on National Integration Award for Kaifi Azmi Trikal a film by Shyam Benegal also has a storyline onthe backdrop of 1960s Goa

ReferencesCitations[4] Numbers from 1955 thus excludes Dadra and Nagar-Haveli The bulk (547448) was in Goa (composed of the districts of Old and New Goa

Bardez Mormugatildeo and Salsete and the offshore island of Anjediva) remainder in Damman (69005) and Diu (21138) See Kay (1970)Salazar and Modern Portugal New York Hawthorn p 295)

[5] H Kay (1970) Salazar and Modern Portugal New York Hawthorn[6] Prof Frank DSouza FRANKLY SPEAKING The Collected Writings of Prof Frank DSouza Editor-in chief Mgr Benny Aguiar published

by the Prof Frank DSouza Memorial Committee Bombay 1987 (http www goacom com culture biographies tristao html)[7] Goas Freedom Movement (http www goacom com culture history history4 html) By Lambert Mascarenhas[8] Kamat Research Database - Goas Freedom Struggle (http www kamat com database content goa_freedom )[9] Mainstream Vol XLVII No 14 21 March 2009 (http www mainstreamweekly net article1247 html)


[11] Francisco Monteiro CHRONOLOGY OF TERRORIST ACTIVITY UNLEASHED BY THE INDIAN UNION AGAINST THETERRITORIES OF GOA DAMAtildeO AND DIU (http www colaco net 1 India-ter htm)

[12] SuperGoa Imagens Factos Notiacutecias Informaccedilotildees e Histoacuteria sobra Goa India (http www supergoa com pt 40anos vijay asp)[13] Goa was first recognised as equal to the metropolis in the Royal Charter of 1518 and affirmed in subsequent legislation The term province

was first used in 1576 and the term overseas provinces used in virtually all legislation and constitutions thereafter eg Art1-3 amp Art 162-64of 1822 Constitution online (http www arqnet pt portal portugal liberalismo const822 html) 1826 constitution online (http wwwarqnet pt portal portugal liberalismo carta826 html) Art I amp Title X of the constitution of 1838 online (http www arqnet pt portalportugal liberalismo const838 html) Title V of the Republican constitution of 1911 online (http www arqnet pt portal portugalliberalismo const911 html) and the 1932 Constitution of the Estado Novo

[14] (http www goacom com culture history history4 html) Lambert Mascarenhas Goas Freedom Movement excerpted from HenryScholberg Archana Ashok Kakodkar and Carmo Azevedo Bibliography of Goa and the Portuguese in India New Delhi Promilla (1982)

[15] Sankar Ghose (1993) Jawaharlal Nehru A biography Mumbai Allied p283[16] PW Prabhakar (2003) Wars proxy-wars and terrorism post independent India New Delhi Mittal p39[17] Sankar Ghose (1993) Jawaharlal Nehru A biography Mumbai Allied p282[18] Indian Volunteers Invade Goa 21 Die Unarmed Indians March into Goa New York Times 15 August 1955[19][19] Christophe Jaffrelot The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India Published by Columbia University Press 1998[20] Time Magazine 29 August 1955 (http www time com time magazine article 0917182387800 html)[21] Goas Freedom Movement (http www goacom com culture history history4 html)[22] Francisco Monteiro - India supported banditry in Goa (http www colaco net 1 India-ter htm)[23][23] Comrades at Odds The United States and India 85[24] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 561 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 66[25] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 1161 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 68[26] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 1261 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 69[27] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 1461 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 72[28][28] Remembering the Fall of Portuguese India in 1961[29] http www icj-cij org docket files 32 4521 pdf[30] LN Subramanyam The Liberation of Goa (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF History 1960s Goa01 html) bharat-rakshakcom[31] The Liberation of Goa by Jagan Pillarisetti (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF History 1960s Goa01 html)[32] http www bharat-rakshak com NAVY History 1950s Kore html The Liberation of Goa by Lieutenant-Commander VS Kore[33] The Portuguese armed forces and the - Google Books (http books google co in booksid=ncoOAAAAQAAJamp pg=PA36amp

lpg=PA36amp dq=salazar+ goa+ sacrifice+ troopsv=onepageamp qamp f=false)[34] SuperGoa Imagens Factos Notiacutecias Informaccedilotildees e Histoacuteria sobra Goa India (http www supergoa com pt read news_noticia

aspc_news=603)[36] http www areamilitar net analise analise aspxNrMateria=52amp p=6[37] Dispositivo de defesa (http www areamilitar net analise analise aspxNrMateria=52amp p=4)[38] OS TRANSPORTES AEacuteREOS DA IacuteNDIA PORTUGUESA (http goancauses com 9 html) (TAIP) Geographical Society of Lisbon By

Major-General aviator (retd) Joseacute Krus Abecasis[39] Intolerable Goa (http www time com time magazine article 0917182713900 html) Time 22 December 1961[40] Four Sorties Over Goa (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF History 1960s Goa03 html)[41] BC Chakravorty Operation Vijay Bharat Rakshak Website (http www bharat-rakshak com LAND-FORCES History 1961Goa

262-Operation-Vijay html)[42] P V S Jagan Mohan Remembering Sagat Singh (1918-2001) Bharat Rakshak Monitor Volume 4(3) (http www bharat-rakshak com

MONITOR ISSUE4-3 jagan html)[43] Paulo Mendonccedila Invasatildeo de Goa (uacuteltima actualizaccedilatildeo 16122009) (http www areamilitar net analise analise aspxNrMateria=52amp

p=5)[44] http archiveofgoanwritinginportuguese blogspot com 2011 06 telo-de-mascarenhas-carta-de-rendicao html A carta de Rendiccedilatildeo Telo

de Mascarenhas[46] The Liberation of Goa 1961 by Jagan Pillarisetti (wwwbharat-rakshakcom) (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF History 1960s

Goa01 html)[47] Air Marshal Air Marshal S Raghavendran Eyewitness to the Liberation of Goa para 8 (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF History

1961Goa 1050-Raghavendran html)[48] http www areamilitar net DIRECTORIO NAV aspxNN=128[49] http semanal expresso pt revista artigos interior aspedicao=1519amp id_artigo=ES44188[50] Anil Shore The Forgotten Battles of Daman and Diu The Tribune (http www tribuneindia com 1999 99feb21 sunday head3 htm)[51] Gp Capt Kapil Bhargava (Retd) Operations at Diu The One day war Bharatrakshakcom (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF

History 1961Goa 1013-Diu html)[52] The Liberation of Goa 1961 (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF History 1960s Goa02 html)[53] General Service Medal (http www prideofindia net general html)


[54] American Foreign Policy Current Documents 1961 By U S Department of State Historical Office Staff Published by Ayer ISBN0-405-01795-2 ISBN 978-0-405-01795-7 pages 956-960 (http books google co in booksid=IJvVAAAACAAJamp dq=American+Foreign+ Policy+ Current+ Documents+ 1961)

[55] Janaka Perera Goas Liberation and Sri Lankas Crisis Asian Tribune 18 December 2006 (http www asiantribune com node 3709)[57] Time Magazine 29 December 1961 (http www time com time magazine article 09171827193-200 html)[58] Joseacute Manuel Barroso Soacute soldados vitoriosos ou mortos 2 January 2001 (http www supergoa com pt 40anos)[60] Air Marshal S Raghavendran Eye Witness to the Liberation of Goa para 8 Bharatrakshakcom (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF

History 1961Goa 1050-Raghavendran html)[61] Histoacuteria e Ciecircncia ENFERMEIRAS PAacuteRA-QUEDISTAS EM ACCcedilAtildeO NO PORTUGAL COLONIAL testemunhos- 2 (http

historiaeciencia weblog com pt arquivo 049503 html)[64] (http books google co in booksid=zcylFXH9_z8C) India and the United States Estranged Democracies 1941-1991 By Dennis Kux

Published by DIANE Publishing 1993 ISBN 0-7881-0279-6 ISBN 978-0-7881-0279-0 Page 198[65] (http select nytimes com gst abstract htmlres=F10E14FD3E591A728DDDA00994DA415B818AF1D3amp scp=1amp sq=With his

invasion of Goa Prime Minister Nehru has done irreparable damage to Indias good name and to the principles of international moralityampst=cse) New York Times Page 32 19 December 1961

[66] India-USSR Relations 1947-71 (From Ambivalence to Steadfastness) PART-I (http books google co in booksid=vTEge1JWK8oCamppg=PA29amp lpg=PA29amp dq=Goa+ vetoes+ USSRv=snippetamp q=deploring Indias police action was vetoed by the USSRamp f=false) ShriRam Sharma Shri Ram Sharma Discovery Publishing House 1999 ISBN 81-7141-486-9 ISBN 978-81-7141-486-4

[67] Saude Goa (http www forbes com 2011 01 26 forbes-india-fifty-years-after-liberation-fron-portuguese-rule-tourism-boom-returnshtml) Prince Mathews Thomas Thomas 012611 0600 PM EST Fifty years after its liberation from Portuguese rule this tiny tourist state isrethinking its future again

[68] LIFE (http books google co in booksid=nE0EAAAAMBAJamp pg=PA60amp lpg=PA60amp dq=India+ Goa+ veto+ USSR+ indian+expressv=onepageamp q=U S over the Soviet Vetoamp f=false) 5 January 1962 Vol 52 No 1 ISSN 0024-3019 Published by Time IncLIFE Magazine is the treasured photographic magazine that chronicled the 20th Century It now lives on at LIFEcom the largest mostamazing collection of professional photography on the internet Users can browse search and view photos of todayrsquos people and events Theyhave free access to share print and post images for personal use

[69] Letter From President Ayub to President Kennedy (http history state gov historicaldocuments frus1961-63v19 d83) Rawalpindi 2January 1962 My Dear President The forcible taking of Goa by India has demonstrated what we in Pakistan have never had any illusionsaboutmdashthat India would not hesitate to attack if it were in her interest to do so and if she felt that the other side was too weak to resist KrishnaMenon in fact blatantly said as much in his statement of 23 December

[70] Teotonio R de Souza Goa to Me New Delhi Concept Publ Co 1994 (ISBN 81-7022-504-3) (http www goacom com culturebiographies tdesbio html)

[71] Teotonio R de Souza Unless Ye Become Like Children Goa Today December 1986 Issue (http www goacom com culturehistory church html)

Bibliographybull Rotter Andrew Jon (2000) Comrades at Odds The United States and India 1947-1964 Cornell University

Press ISBN 0-8014-8460-Xbull Couto Francisco Cabral Remembering the Fall of Portuguese India in 1961 ISBN 972-8799-53-5 ( Partial

online version at GoaBooks2 (http goabooks2 blogspot com 2007 01 remembering-fall-of-portuguese-indiahtml))

External linksbull Time Magazine Coverage of the conflict (http www time com time magazine article 0917182713900

html)bull Photo gallery of the Liberation of Goa (http www bharat-rakshak com LAND-FORCES Army

Images-1961 html)bull Image Ram Manohar Lohia (http www kamat org picture aspName=16333 jpg)bull Image The Protests of 18 June 1946 (http www kamat org picture aspName=16334 jpg)bull Image Foreign journalists rescue a protestor shot by Portuguese police officers (http www kamat org picture

aspName=16338 jpg)bull Portugal-India relations (Ministry of External Affairs Government of India) (http meaindia nic in

foreignrelation portugal pdf)

Indian annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli 21

Indian annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Invasion of Dadra and Nagar Haveli

Date 22 July ndash 11 August 1954

Location Dadra and Nagar Haveli Portuguese India

Result Decisive Indian victory

Belligerents Portugal Indian annexation supporters

Supported by Republic of India

Commanders and leaders Virgiacutelio Fidalgo Administrator of Nagar Haveli JD Nagarwala DIG of Maharashtra Police

Francis Mascarenhas leader of UFG Raja Wakankar leader of RSS Prabhakar Sinari leader of AGD

Strength320 Portuguese India Police constables customs guards and rural guards Volunteer fighters of UFG NMLO RSS and

AGDIndian Police forces

Casualties and losses2 killed Unknown

The Indian annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli (also referred to as Liberation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli orInvasion of Dadra and Nagar Haveli) was the conflict in which the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli passedfrom the Portuguese rule to the Indian Union rule in 1954Dadra and Nagar Haveli were small Portuguese overseas territories part of Portuguese India from 1779 until 1954The territories were enclaves without any access to the sea administered by the Portuguese Governor of the DamandistrictAfter India attained independence in 1947 some residents with the help of volunteers of organisations such as theUnited Front of Goans (UFG) the National Movement Liberation Organisation (NMLO) the RashtriyaSwayamsevak Sangh and the Azad Gomantak Dal occupied Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1954 and displacedPortuguese rule The territories were subsequently merged into the Indian Union in 1961


Background

Map of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in the 1950s

After Indian independence in 1947pro-India activists in the Portuguese Indianprovinces as well as Indians from otherplaces proposed of removing Portuguesecontrol of Goa Daman Diu Dadra andNagar Haveli and integrating them withIndia[1] This was in line with the ideologyof Mahatma Gandhi who had before Indiasindependence affirmed that Goa cannot beallowed to exist as a separate entity inopposition to the laws of the free State [ofIndia][2]

Appasaheb Karmalkar a bank employeewith the Goa government took the reins ofthe National Liberation MovementOrganization (NLMO) for the liberation ofthe Portuguese-ruled Indian territoriesSimultaneously the AGD (led byVishwanath Lavande DattatreyaDeshpande Prabhakar Sinari and Gole) andvolunteers of the Rashtriya SwayamsevakSangh (led by Raja Wakankar and Nana Kajrekar) had been planning an armed assault for freeing Dadra and NagarHaveli Wakankar and Kajrekar visited the area around Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman several times in 1953 tostudy the topography and to get acquainted with the local workers and leaders who were agitating for the liberationof the Portuguese territory In April 1954 the NLMO AGD and RSS agreed to form a United Front for liberation ofDadra and Nagar Haveli At a meeting in Elphinstone garden an armed assault was planned Independently anotherorganization United Front of Goans (UFG) also pursued similar plans[1]

JD Nagarwala DIG of the Special Reserve Police which had been deployed along the territory had beensympathetic with the nationalists He had himself visited the area often and advised the nationalists on the nextmoves[1]

Liberation of DadraThe UFG led by Francis Mascarenhas Viman Sardesai and others attacked the police station in Dadra on the nightof 22 July 1954 assassinating Aniceto Rosaacuterio sub-inspector at Dadra Police Station[3] The next morning theIndian flag was hoisted and Dadra was declared a free territory A panchayat led by Jayanti Bhai Desai was formedfor the administration of Dadra[1]

Liberation of NaroliOn 28 July some 20 to 25 RSS volunteers led by Wakankar and 8 to 10 AGD volunteers led by Sinari crossed theDarotha river and reached Naroli The Portuguese police officers in Naroli police station were asked to surrenderThe Chief and his constable surrendered Thus on 28 July 1954 Naroli was liberated from the Portuguese rule On 29July the Gram Panchayat of Free Naroli was established[1]


Liberation of SilvassaAfter Naroli had been captured the Portuguese police under the leadership of Nagar Haveli Administrator CaptainVirgiacutelio Fidalgo was concentrated at Silvassa The nationalists led by volunteers of the RSS and the AGD took theopportunity and captured Piparia[1]

Captain Fidalgo was asked by the nationalists (led by Karmalkar) to surrender but as there was no response from theAdministrator the nationalists decided to march towards Silvassa Two units were led by RSS and the third was ledby AGD All three units moved from three different directions to Silvassa Fidalgo with 150 Police personnel fled toKhanvel hence the nationalists were offered no resistance as they entered Silvassa on 2 August and declared theterritory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli liberated The RSSs Kajrekar was placed in charge of the unit while the AGDsLavande was put in charge of treasury[1]

Surrender of Captain FidalgoRumours were circulating that Portuguese reinforcements were coming to Nagar Haveli from Goa via Daman soKajrekar immediately contacted Nagarwala and requested a wireless set to enable the nationalists to keep in contactwith the Indian SRP Headquarters The wireless set obtained from the Indian SRP was installed in one of the housesby the riversid Bandu Karkhanis an RSS volunteer who knew how to operate the wireless set was put in charge Hewas under instructions that in case of emergency he should throw the set in the river cross the river and take shelterin the Indian territory which was just nearby and protected by Indian SRP[1]

Captain Fidalgo who was moving deep in Nagar Haveli with his 150 men were constantly followed by thevolunteers While the Portuguese set up rearguard defenses on the river bank the Indian volunteer forces crossed theflooded river with local ferries on 10 August assaulting the Portuguese forces at Khandvel and forcing them toretreat The Portuguese unit eventually surrendered to the SRP at Udva on 11 August 1954[1]

At a public meeting Karmalkar was chosen as the first administrator of Dadra and Nagar Haveli[1]

Integration into IndiaDadra and Nagar Haveli became in the eyes of international law an independent country becauseWikipediaPleaseclarify that was never recognized by any other country before 1974 In the decision of the 12th of April 1960 in theCase Concerning Right of Passage Over Indian Territory [29] the International Court of Justice clearly stated thatPortugal had sovereign rights over the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli The residents of the former colonyrequested the Government of India for administrative help KG Badlani an officer of the Indian AdministrativeService (IAS) was sent as the administratorFrom 1954 to 1961 the territory was administered by a body called the Varishta Panchayat of Free Dadra and NagarHaveli[4][5]

In 1961 when Indian forces took over Goa Daman and Diu Badlani was for one day designated the PrimeMinister of Dadra and Nagar Haveli so that as Head of Government he could sign an agreement with the PrimeMinister of India Jawaharlal Nehru and formally merge Dadra and Nagar Haveli with the Republic of IndiaThe territory was only recognised as part of the Indian Union together with all the other former Portuguesepossessions after the recognition of that fact by Portugal after the Carnation Revolution of 1974 A treaty wassigned on 31 December 1974 between India and Portugal on recognition of Indias sovereignty over Goa DamanDiu Dadra and Nagar Haveli[6]

Until 2006 Portugal continued to grant Portuguese citizenship to all natives of Dadra and Nagar Haveli who wishedto have it In that year this was amended to include only those who had been born before 19 December 1961[citation

needed]


References[1][1] P S Lele Dadra and Nagar Haveli past and present Published by Usha P Lele 1987[2] MK Gandhi H 30-6-1946 p 208 (http www mkgandhi org momgandhi chap69 htm)[4] Constitution of India 10th Amendment[5] Umaji Keshao Meshram amp Ors v Radhikabhai wo Anandrao Banapurkar AIR 1986 SC 1272 (http www austlii edu au ~andrew

CommonLII INSC 1986 43 html) this judgment mentions the Administration of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in this period[6] TREATY BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA AND THE GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF PORTUGAL ON

RECOGNITION OF INDIAS SOVEREIGNTY OVER GOA DAMAN DIU DADRA AND NAGAR HAVELI AND RELATEDMATTERS 1974 (http www commonlii org in other treaties INTSer 1974 53 html)

Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo

Operation Polo (1948)

The State of Hyderabad in 1909 (excluding Berar)

Date 13 September 1948 ndash 18 September 1948

Location Hyderabad State South India

Result Decisive Indian victory State of Hyderabad annexed to the Union of India

Belligerents India Hyderabad

Commanders and leaders Major General Joyanto Nath

ChaudhuriHome Minister Sardar PatelLt General E N GoddardGeneral Bucher

SA El Edroos Qasim Razvi

Strength35000 Indian Armed Forces 22000 Hyderabad State Forces

est 200000 Razakars (Irregular forces)[citation needed]


32 killed[1]

97 woundedHyderabad State Forces490 killed122 wounded1647 POWs[2]

Razakars1373 killed 1911 captured[2]

Operation Polo the code name of the Hyderabad Police Action[3][4] was a military operation in September 1948 inwhich the Indian Armed Forces invaded the State of Hyderabad and overthrew its Nizam annexing the state into theIndian UnionThe conflict began after Nizam Osman Ali Khan Asif Jah VII decided not to join the princely State of Hyderabad toeither India or Pakistan after the partition of India The Nizams defiance was backed by Qasim Razvis armedmilitias known as Razakars and had the moral support of Pakistan[2] After a stalemate in negotiations between theNizam and India and wary of a hostile independent state in the centre of India Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Pateldecided to annex the state of Hyderabad He sent the Indian Army and the Hyderabad State Forces were defeatedwithin five days

Operation Polo 26

BackgroundThe State of Hyderabad located over most of the Deccan Plateau in southern India was established in 1724 byNizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah after the collapse of the Mughal Indian Empire As was the case in several Indian royalstates the Nizam was a Muslim while a majority of the subject population was Hindu In 1798 Hyderabad becamethe first Indian royal state to accede to British protection under the policy of Subsidiary Alliance instituted by ArthurWellesley When the British finally departed from the Indian subcontinent in 1947 they offered the various princelystates in the sub-continent the option of acceding to either India or Pakistan or staying on as an independent stateThe State of Hyderabad under the leadership of its 7th Nizam Mir Usman Ali was the largest and most prosperousof all princely states in India It covered 82698 square miles (214190 km2) of fairly homogenous territory andcomprised a population of roughly 1634 million people (as per the 1941 census) of which a majority (85) wasHindu Hyderabad State had its own army airline telecommunication system railway network postal systemcurrency and radio broadcasting serviceNizam decided to keep Hyderabad independent The leaders of the new Union of India however were wary ofhaving an independent - and possibly hostile - state in the heart of their new country and were determined toassimilate Hyderabad into the Indian Union even if it were by compulsion unlike the other 565 princely states mostof which had already acceded to India or to Pakistan voluntarily

Events preceding hostilities

Political and diplomatic negotiationsThe Nizam of Hyderabad initially approached the British government with a request to take on the status of anindependent constitutional monarchy under the British Commonwealth of Nations This request was howeverrejectedWhen Indian Home Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel requested the Hyderabad Government to sign the instrumentof accession the Nizam refused and instead declared Hyderabad as an independent nation on 15 August 1947 thesame day that India became independent Alarmed at the idea of an independent Hyderabad in the heart of Indianterritory Sardar Patel approached the governor general of India Lord Mountbatten who advised him to resolve theissue without the use of forceAccordingly the Indian government offered Hyderabad a Standstill Agreement which made an assurance that thestatus quo would be maintained and no military action would be taken Unlike in the case of other royal statesinstead of an explicit guarantee of eventual accession to India only a guarantee stating that Hyderabad would notjoin Pakistan was given Negotiations were opened through KM Munshi Indiarsquos envoy and agent general toHyderabad and the Nizamrsquos envoys Laik Ali and Sir Walter Monckton Lord Mountbatten who presided over thenegotiations offered several possible deals to the Hyderabad government which were rejected The Hyderabadienvoys accused India of setting up armed barricades on all land routes and of attempting to economically isolatetheir nation The Indians retaliated by accusing the Hyderabad government of importing arms from PakistanHyderabad had given Rupees 200 million to Pakistan and had stationed a bomber squadron thereIn June 1948 Mountbatten prepared the Heads of Agreement deal which offered Hyderabad the status of anautonomous dominion nation under India The deal called for the restriction of the regular Hyderabadi armed forcesalong with a disbanding of its voluntary forces While it allowed the Nizam to continue as the executive head of thestate it called for a plebiscite along with general democratic elections to set up a constituent assembly TheHyderabad government would continue to administer its territory as before leaving only foreign affairs to behandled by the Indian governmentAlthough the plan was approved and signed by the Indians it was rejected by the Nizam who demanded onlycomplete independence or the status of a dominion under the British Commonwealth

Operation Polo 27

The Nizam also made unsuccessful attempts to seek the arbitration of the President Harry S Truman of the UnitedStates of America and intervention of the United Nations

Civil unrest in HyderabadThe 1941 census had estimated the population of Hyderabad to be 1634 million over 85 of who were Hindus andwith Muslims accounting for about 12 It was also a multi-lingual state consisting of peoples speaking Telugu(482) Marathi (264) Kannada (123) and Urdu (103) In spite of the overwhelming Hindu majorityHindus were severely under-represented in government police and the military Of 1765 officers in the State Army1268 were Muslims 421 were Hindus and 121 others were Christians Parsis and Sikhs Of the officials drawing asalary between Rs600-1200 per month 59 were Muslims 5 were Hindus and 38 were of other religions The Nizamand his nobles who were mostly Muslims owned 40 of the total land in the state [5]

Even as India and Hyderabad negotiated most of the sub-continent had been thrown into chaos as a result ofcommunal Hindu-Muslim riots pending the imminent partition of India Fearing a Hindu civil uprising in his ownkingdom the Nizam allowed Qasim Razvi a close advisor and leader of the radical Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen(MIM) Party to set up a voluntary militia of Muslims called the Razakars The Razakars - who numbered up to200000 at the height of the conflict - swore to uphold Islamic domination in Hyderabad and the Deccan plateau inthe face of growing public opinion amongst the majority Hindu population favouring the accession of Hyderabadinto the Indian UnionAs the manpower and arsenal of the Razakars grew there was an escalation of violence between the Razakars andHindu communities In all more than 150 villages (of which 70 were in Indian territory outside Hyderabad State)were pushed into violence In Telangana large groups of peasants aided by the Communist Party of India andAndhra Mahasabha revolted against local Hindu and Muslim landlords and also came into direct confrontation withthe Razakars in what became known as the Telangana Rebellion Meanwhile parties like the Hyderabad StateCongress were involved in non-violent protests against the Nizams ruleOn 4 December 1947 Narayan Rao Pawar a member of a Hindu nationalist organisation called the Arya Samajmade a failed attempt to assassinate the Nizam outside his palace[6]

Hyderabadi military preparationsThe Nizam of Hyderabad had a large army with a tradition of hiring mercenary forces These included ArabsRohillas North Indian Muslims and Pathans The State Army consisted of three armoured regiments a horse cavalryregiment 11 infantry battalions and artillery These were supplemented by irregular units with horse cavalry fourinfantry battalions (termed as the Saraf-e-khas paigah Arab and Refugee) and a garrison battalion - all forming atotal of 22000 men This army was commanded by Major General El Edroos an Arab[7] 55 per cent of theHyderabadi army was composed of Muslims with 1268 Muslims in a total of 1765 officers as of 1941[8]

In addition to these there were about 200000 irregular militia called the Razakars under the command of civilianleader Kasim Razvi A quarter of these were armed with modern small firearms while the rest were predominantlyarmed with muzzle-loaders and swords[7]

It is reported that the Nizam received arms supplies from Pakistan and from the Portuguese administration based inGoa In addition additional arms supplies were received via airdrops from an Australian arms trader Sidney Cotton

Operation Polo 28

Breakdown of negotiationsAs the Indian government received information that Hyderabad was arming itself and was preparing to ally withPakistan in any future war against India Sardar Patel described the idea of an independent Hyderabad as an ulcer inthe heart of India - which had to removed surgically In response Hyderabads prime minister Laik Ali stated Indiathinks that if Pakistan attacks her Hyderabad will stab her in the back I am not so sure we would not Sardar Patelresponded later by stating If you threaten us with violence swords will be met with swords[8]

In Hyderabad militia leader Qasim Razvi told a crowd of Razakars Death with the sword in hand is alwayspreferable to extinction by a mere stroke of the pen Razvi was later described by Indian government officials asThe Nizamrsquos Frankenstein Monster In response to reports that India was planning to invade Hyderabad Razwistated If India attacks us I can and will create a turmoil throughout India We will perish but India will perish alsoTime magazine pointed out that if India invaded Hyderabad the Razakars would massacre Hindus which would leadto retaliatory massacres of Muslims across India[9]

Skirmish at KodarOn 6 September an Indian police post near Chillakallu [10] village came under heavy fire from Razakar units TheIndian Army command sent a squadron of The Poona Horse led by Abhey Singh and a company of 25 GurkhaRifles to investigate who were also fired upon by the Razakars The tanks of the Poona Horse then chased theRazakars to Kodar in Hyderabad territory Here they were opposed by the armoured cars of 1 Hyderabad Lancers Ina brief action the Poona Horse destroyed one armoured car and forced the surrender of the state garrison at Kodar

Indian military preparationsOn receiving directions from the government to seize and annex Hyderabad the Indian army came up with theGoddard Plan (laid out by Lt Gen E N Goddard the Commander-in-Chief of the Southern Command) The planenvisaged two main thrusts - from Vijayawada in the East and Solapur in the West - while smaller units pinned downthe Hyderabadi army along the border Overall command was placed in the hands of Lt Gen Rajendrasinghji DSOThe attack from Solapur was led by Major General JN Chaudhari and was composed of four task forces11 Strike Force comprising a mix of fast moving infantry cavalry and light artillery22 Smash Force consisting of predominantly armoured units and artillery33 Kill Force composed of infantry and engineering units44 Vir Force which comprised infantry anti-tank and engineering unitsThe attack from Vijayawada was led by Major General AA Rudra and comprised the 25 Gurkha Rifles onesquadron of the 17th (Poona) Horse and a troop from the 19th Field Battery along with engineering and ancillaryunits In addition four infantry battalions were to neutralize and protect lines of communication Two squadrons ofHawker Tempest aircraft were prepared for air support from the Pune baseThe date for the attack was fixed as 13 September even though General Sir Roy Bucher the Indian chief of staffhad objected on grounds that Hyderabad would be an additional front for the Indian army after Kashmir

Commencement of hostilities

Day 1 13 SeptemberThe first battle was fought at Naldurg Fort on the Solapur Secundarabad Highway between a defending force of the 1st Hyderabad Infantry and the attacking force of the 7th Brigade Using speed and surprise the 7th Brigade managed to secure a vital bridge on the Bori river intact following which an assault was made on the Hyderabadi positions at Naldurg by the 2nd Sikh Infantry The bridge and road secured an armoured column of the 1st Armoured Brigade - part of the Smash force - moved into the town of Jalkot 8 km from Naldurg at 0900 hours

Operation Polo 29

paving the way for the Strike Force units under Lt Col Ram Singh Commandant of 9 Dogra (a motorised battalion)to pass through This armoured column reached the town of Umarge 61 km inside Hyderabad by 1515 hours whereit quickly overpowered resistance from Razakar units defending the town Meanwhile another column consisting ofa squadron of 3rd Cavalry a troop from 18th King Edwards Own Cavalry a troop from 9 Para Field Regiment 10Field Company Engineers 32 Punjab Regiment 21 Gurkha Rifles 1 Mewar Infantry and ancillary units attackedthe town of Tuljapur about 34 km north-west of Naldurg They reached Tuljapur at dawn where they encounteredresistance from a unit of the 1st Hyderabad Infantry and about 200 Razakars who fought for two hours beforesurrendering Further advance towards the town of Lohara was stalled as the river had swollen The first day on theWestern front ended with the Indians inflicting heavy casualties on the Hyderabadis and capturing large tracts ofterritory Amongst the captured defenders was a British mercenary who had been tasked with blowing up the bridgenear NaldurgIn the East forces led by Lt Gen AA Rudra met with fierce resistance from two armoured units of Humberarmoured cars and Staghound armoured cars but managed to reach the town of Kodar by 0830 hours Pressing onthe force reached Mungala by the afternoonThere were further incidents in Hospet - where the 1st Mysore assaulted and secured a sugar factory from units ofRazakars and Pathans - and at Tungabhadra - where the 55 Gurkha attacked and secured a vital bridge from theHyderabadi army

Day 2 14 SeptemberThe force that had camped at Umarge proceeded to the town of Rajasur 48 km east As aerial reconnaissance hadshown well entrenched ambush positions set up along the way the air strikes from squadrons of Tempests werecalled in These air strikes effectively cleared the route and allowed the land forces to reach and secure Rajasur bythe afternoonThe Assault force from the East was meanwhile slowed down by an anti-tank ditch and later came under heavy firefrom hillside positions of the 1st Lancers and 5th Infantry 6 km from Suryapet The positions were assaulted by the25 Gurkha - veterans of the Burma Campaign - and was neutralised with the Hyderabadis taking severe casualtiesAt the same time the 311 Gurkha Rifles and a squadron of 8th Cavalry attacked Osmanabad and took the town afterheavy street combat with the Razakars who determinedly resisted the Indians[]

A force under the command of Maj Gen DS Brar was tasked with capturing the city of Aurangabad The city wasattacked by six columns of infantry and cavalry resulting in the civil administration emerging in the afternoon andoffering a surrender to the IndiansThere were further incidents in Jalna where 3 Sikh a company of 2 Jodhpur infantry and some tanks from 18Cavalry faced stubborn resistance from Hyderabadi forces

Day 3 15 SeptemberLeaving a company of 311 Gurkhas to occupy the town of Jalna the remainder of the force moved to Latur andlater to Mominabad where they faced action against the 3 Golconda Lancers who gave token resistance beforesurrenderingAt the town of Surriapet air strikes cleared most of the Hyderabadi defences although some Razakar units still gaveresistance to the 25 Gurkhas who occupied the town The retreating Hyderabadi forces destroyed the bridge at Musito delay the Indians but failed to offer covering fire allowing the bridge to be quickly repaired Another incidentoccurred at Narkatpalli where a Razakar unit was decimated by the Indians

Operation Polo 30

Day 4 16 SeptemberThe task force under Lt Col Ram Singh moved towards Zahirabad at dawn but was slowed down by a minefieldwhich had to be cleared On reaching the junction of the Bidar road with the Solapur-Hyderabad City Highway theforces encountered gunfire from ambush positions However leaving some of the units to handle the ambush thebulk of the force moved on to reach 15 kilometres beyond Zahirabad by nightfall in spite of sporadic resistance alongthe way Most of the resistance was from Razakar units who ambushed the Indians as they passed through urbanareas The Razakars were able to use the terrain to their advantage until the Indians brought in their 75 mm guns

Day 5 17 SeptemberIn the early hours of 17 September the Indian army entered Bidar Meanwhile forces led by the 1st Armouredregiment were at the town of Chityal about 60 km from the capital city while another column took over the town ofHingoli By the morning of the 5th day of hostilities it had become clear that the Hyderabad army and the Razakarshad been routed on all fronts and with extremely heavy casualties At 5PM of 17 September Nizam announcedceasefire thus ending the armed action[]

Capitulation and surrender

Consultations with Indian envoyOn 16 September faced with imminent defeat the Nizam summoned the Prime Minister Mir Laik Ali and requestedhis resignation by the morning of the following day The resignation was delivered along with the resignations of theentire cabinetOn the noon of 17 September a messenger brought a personal note from the Nizam to Indias Agent General toHyderabad KM Munshi summoning him to the Nizams office at 1600 hours At the meeting the Nizam statedThe vultures have resigned I dont know what to do Munshi advised the Nizam to secure the safety of the citizensof Hyderabad by issuing appropriate orders to the Commander of the Hyderabad State Army Major General ElEdroos This was immediately done

Radio broadcast after surrender by NizamIt was the Nizams first visit to the radio station The Nizam of Hyderabad in his radio speech on 23 September1948 said In November last [1947] a small group which had organized a quasi-military organization surroundedthe homes of my Prime Minister the Nawab of Chhatari in whose wisdom I had complete confidence and of SirWalter Monkton my constitutional Adviser by duress compelled the Nawab and other trusted ministers to resignand forced the Laik Ali Ministry on me This group headed by Kasim Razvi had no stake in the country or anyrecord of service behind it By methods reminiscent of Hitlerite Germany it took possession of the State spreadterror and rendered me completely helpless [11]

Operation Polo 31

The surrender ceremony

Major General El Edroos (at right) offers his surrenderof the Hyderabad State Forces to Major General (laterGeneral and Army Chief) Joyanto Nath Chaudhuri at

Secunderabad

According to the records maintained by Indian Army GeneralChaudhari lead an armoured column into Hyderabad at around 4pm on September 18 and the Hyderabad army led by MajorGeneral El Edroos surrendered[12]

References[1] http indianarmy nic in - Official Indian army website complete Roll of

Honor of Indian KIA[2] Hyderabad 1948 Revisited (http www indiadefence com hyderabad htm)

IndiaDefencecom[3] http indianarmy nic in Site FormTemplete frmTempSimple

aspxMnId=K KtVO4bQNg=amp ParentID=a2GSpnDbruI=[4] http www hyderabad co uk policeaction htm[6] http www boloji com analysis2 0233 htm[7] http www bharat-rakshak com MONITOR ISSUE2-3 lns html[8] http www indianofficer com forums history-wiki

899-operation-polo-liberation-hyderabad html[10] https maps google co in mapsq=chillakallu+ andhra+ pradeshamp

safe=activeamp ie=UTF-8amp hl=en[11] Autocracy to Integration Lucien D Benichou Orient Longman (2000) p 237

bull Zubrzycki John (2006) The Last Nizam An Indian Prince inthe Australian Outback Pan Macmillan Australia ISBN 978-0-330-42321-2

External linksbull A Blog by Narendra Luther on Operation Polo (http narendralutherarchives blogspot com 2006 12

nizam-and-radio html)bull Picture of VII Nizam with Sardar Patel after his surrender (http www hindu com 2004 09 17 stories

2004091706840400 htm)bull From the Sundarlal Report (http www frontlineonnet com fl1805 18051140 htm) Frontlinebull Of a massacre untold - AGNoorani (http www hinduonnet com fline fl1805 18051130 htm)bull In the Nizams dominion (http ags ou edu ~bwallach documents In the Nizam pdf)bull Armchair Historian - Operation Polo (Monday 18 September 2006) - Contributed by Sidin Sunny Vadukut - Last

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History of Sikkim 32

History of Sikkim

Statue of Guru Rinpoche the patron saint of Sikkim in Namchi isthe tallest statue of the saint in the world at 36 meters (120 ft)

The history of Sikkim begins with ancient Hindu andTibetan contacts followed by the establishment of aTibetan kingdom (Chogyal) in the 17th century Sikkimemerged as a polity in its own right against a backdrop ofincursions from Tibet and Bhutan during which thekingdom enjoyed varying degrees of independence In theearly 18th century the British Empire sought to establishtrade routes with Tibet leading Sikkim to fall underBritish suzerainty until independence in 1947 InitiallySikkim remained an independent monarchy however in1975 its subjects voted by plebiscite to become a state ofIndia

Ancient history

Not much is known about Sikkims ancient history except that the first inhabitants were the Lepcha people (orRong) They were later encompassed and absorbed by other groups Sikkim also finds its mention on many Hindutexts as Indrakil or Garden of Lord Indra

The Buddhist saint Guru Rinpoche is said to have passed through the land in the 9th century According to legendthe Guru blessed the land introduced Buddhism to Sikkim and also foretold the era of the monarchy in the statewhich would arrive centuries later There are numerous stories regarding the migration of Tibetans into Sikkim andthe establishment of the Sikkimese monarchy The most popular states that in the 13th century Guru Tashi a princefrom the Mi-nyak House in Kham in Eastern Tibet had a divine revelation one night instructing him to travel southto seek his fortunes Guru Tashi settled down in the Chumbi Valley in Sikkim In recent years a number of scholarlyarticle have been written on the history of Sikkim which cast doubt over the validity of these stories[1][2]


Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim

In 1642 the fifth generation descendant of Guru TashiPhuntsog Namgyal was consecrated as the first DenjongGyalpo or the Chogyal (king) of Sikkim by the three greatLamas who came from the north west and south toYuksom Norbugang in West Sikkim The event NaljorChezhi was as predicted by Guru Rinpoche some eighthundred years before This historical gathering of thethree virtuous lamas is called Yuksom which in Lepchameans the The Place where the Three monks met as inLepcha a lama is called a Yukmun and three is calledSom The chogyal along with the three lamasproselytised the Lepcha tribes into Buddhism andannexed the Chumbi Valley the present-day Darjeelingdistrict and parts of todays eastern Nepal

Invasions from Bhutan and Nepal

Phuntsog Namgyal was succeeded by his son TensungNamgyal in 1670 The reign of the chogyal was peacefuland saw the capital being shifted from Yuksom toRabdentse Chakdor Namgyal the kings second wifesson took over the throne from him in 1700 This outragedhis elder half-sister Pendiongmu who ousted him withthe help of the Bhutanese From 1700 to 1706 whenChakdor Namgyal the third chogyal ruled the Kingdom of Sikkim most parts of Sikkim were under the invasion ofDeb Naku Zidar the king of Bhutan Chakdor Namgyal went in exile into Tibet The Tibetan people expelled theBhutanese army and called Chakdor Namgyal back to Sikkim[] Chakdors son Gyurmed Namgyal succeeded him in1717 Gyurmeds reign saw many skirmishes between the Nepalese and Sikkimese Phuntsog Namgyal II theillegitimate child of Gyurmed succeeded his father in 1733 His reign was tumultuous as he was faced with attacksby the Bhutanese and the Nepalese who managed to capture the capital Rabdentse

Tenzing Namgyal chogyal from 1780 to 1793 was a weak ruler and his sovereignty saw most of Sikkim beingappropriated by Nepal In 1788 the Nepali Gurkha Army invaded Sikkim and took Limbuana and the former capitalRabdentse by storm The king of Sikkim went into exile in Tibet for a second time In 1788 the 8th Dalai Lamastationed him in Chumbi Valley in Regravenagrave zong (also Regraverigrave todays Yadong County)[][3] Tshudpud Namgyal his sonreturned to Sikkim in 1793 to reclaim the throne with the help of China Finding Rabdentse too close to the Nepaleseborder he shifted the capital to Tumlong

Relations with the British EmpireWith the arrival of the British in neighbouring India Sikkim allied itself with them as they had a common enemy ndashNepal The infuriated Nepalese attacked Sikkim with vengeance overrunning most of the region including the TeraiThis prompted the British East India Company to attack Nepal resulting in the Gurkha War in 1814 Treaties signedbetween Sikkim and Nepal ndash the Sugauli Treaty and Sikkim and British India ndash Titalia Treaty returned the territoryannexed by the Nepalese to Sikkim in 1817Meanwhile the British were looking for a route to establish trading links with Tibet An offshoot of the ancient Silk Road through Sikkim meant that the kingdom was ideal as a transit route A secondary reason for the establishment


of links was to quell the growing Russian influence in Tibet However ties between Sikkim and India grew sour withthe taxation of the area of Morang by the British In 1835 Sikkim was forced to cede the town of Darjeeling to theBritish on the condition that a compensation of Rs 35000 be paid to himIn 1849 a pair of British doctors Campbell and Hooker ventured into the mountains of Sikkim unannounced andunauthorised by the Chogyal of Sikkim The doctors were detained by the Sikkim government which led to apunitive British expedition against the Himalayan kingdom in which the whole of Darjeeling district and Morangwere annexed in 1861 although the kingdom continued to exist as an independent rump state centred around thecapital at Gangtok The old Chogyal was forced to abdicate in favour of his son Sidekong Namgyal in 1863The Chogyals of Sikkim endeavoured to modernise their state in the succeeding decades along with their army Astate visit to Darjeeling by Sidekongs half brother Chogyal Thutob Namgyal in 1873 failed to yield such resultsand he returned to Tumlong disappointed In 1886 the British interested in trade with Tibet launched a briefexpedition into Sikkim The Tibetans occupied several of Sikkims northern border forts and the Chogyal and hiswife were held prisoner by the British when they came to negotiate at Calcutta In 1888 the Tibetans were defeatedand northern Sikkim came under the rule of British India The British established new landholdings in Sikkim butreleased the Chogyal only to have him captured again in 1891 In 1894 the capital was shifted to GangtokIn 1895 the Chogyal was released but the British governors in India reneged on an agreement ndash the Ten ClausesAgreement ndash which returned sovereignty to Sikkim The governor of British India Claude White refused to returnany sovereignty and only let the Chogyal retain the judiciary of SikkimIn 1905 the Prince of Wales ndash the future King George V ndash arrived in Calcutta on a state visit during which he metthe Chogyal The two made an excellent acquaintance and the Crown Prince of Sikkim Sidkeong Tulku was sent tostudy at Oxford University When Sidkeong came to power he arranged widened sovereignty for Sikkim from KingGeorges government and endorsed sweeping reforms in his short rule as Chogyal which ended in 1914 In 1918Sikkims independence in all domestic affairs was restored and in the next decade she embarked on a policy to endsocial ills outlawing gambling child labour and indentured service


Independent monarchy

Tashi Namgyal Chogyal of Sikkim 1938

Sikkim had retained guarantees of independence fromBritain when she became independent and suchguarantees were transferred to the Indian governmentwhen it gained independence in 1947 A popular vote forSikkim to join the Indian Union failed and Indian PrimeMinister Jawaharlal Nehru agreed to a specialprotectorate status for Sikkim Sikkim was to be atributary of India in which India controlled its externaldefence diplomacy and communication A state councilwas established in 1953 to allow for constitutionalgovernment for the Chogyal which was sustained until1973

In 1962 India and the Peoples Republic of China went towar Although Sikkim was an independent countryskirmishes occurred at the Nathula Pass between Indianborder guards and the Chinese soldiers After the war theancient pass was shut down (it reopened July 6 2006)

The old ruler Tashi Namgyal died in 1963 after sufferingfrom cancer The last hereditary ruler the Chogyal PaldenThondup Namgyal ascended to the throne in 1965Trouble began to brew for the crown even before theChogyal assumed the throne as Indian Prime Minister Nehru who had carefully preserved Sikkims status as anindependent protectorate died in 1964 His daughter Indira Gandhi who became Prime Minister in 1966 wouldhave little patience for maintaining an independent Sikkim or its monarchy The chogyal who responded to theincreased pressure by drinking was viewed by India as politically dangerous especially after his wife the Americansocialite Hope Cooke published a journal article advocating a return of certain former Sikkimese properties

In early 1970 the anti-monarchy Sikkim National Congress Party demanded fresh elections and greaterrepresentation for the NepaleseIn 1973 anti-royalty riots in front of the palace led to a formal request for protection from India India worried thatan unstable Sikkim would invite China to act on its claims that Sikkim was part of Tibet and therefore part of ChinaThe Indian government appointed a Chief administrator Mr B S Das who effectively wrested control of thecountry away from the ChogyalFrosty relations between the Chogyal and the elected Kazi (Prime Minister) Lhendup Dorji resulted in an attempt toblock the meeting of the legislature The Kazi was elected by the Council of Ministers which was unanimous in itsopposition to the retention of the MonarchyIndian reserve police were moved in and took control of the streets of Gangtok the borders were closed and littlewas known until American climber Caril Ridley happened into the capital and was able to smuggle photos and legaldocumentation out When confirmed by China Indiarsquos actions were brought into the spotlight of world awarenessHowever history had already been written and matters came to a head in 1975 when the Kazi (Prime Minister)appealed to the Indian Parliament for representation and change of status to statehood On April 14 1975 areferendum was held in which Sikkim voted to merge with the union of India Sikkim became the 22nd Indian Stateon April 26 1975 On May 16 1975 Sikkim officially became a state of the Indian Union and Lhendup Dorjibecame head of State (chief minister) This was promptly recognised by the United Nations and all countries exceptChina


The position of Chogyal was thus abolished ending the monarchy In 1982 Palden Thondup succumbed to cancer inthe United States

State of IndiaThe 1979 assembly election saw Nar Bahadur Bhandari elected Chief Minister of Sikkim Bhandhari held on to winagain in 1984 and 1989 In 1994 Assembly politician Pawan Kumar Chamling became the Chief Minister ofSikkim In 1999 and 2004 Chamling consolidated his position to sweep the pollsSino-Indian relations were somewhat bruised in 2000 by an event in Sikkim which challenged Chinas longstandingclaim of Sikkim as an independent country The unusual event was the escape of Ogyen Trinley Dorje from Tibet toDharamsala India Ogyen Trinley Dorje is one of the two rival claimants who seeks recognition as the 17thKarmapa the head of the Black Hat branch of Tibetan Buddhism (see Karmapa controversy) The two claimants didbattle in the Indian court system for control of the considerable funds collected by the 16th Karmapa for therestoration and maintenance of Rumtek Monastery located in Gangtok Sikkim The Chinese who recognize OgyenTrinley Dorje as the true Karmapa were unhappy about the court outcome which awarded the monastery funds tothe other rival However the Chinese government was in a quandary as to what to do about it as any protest to Indiawould mean an explicit endorsement that the high court of India holds jurisdiction over SikkimIn 2003 with the thawing of ties between the two nations Indian sovereignty over Sikkim was finally recognised byChina The two governments also proposed to open the Nathula and Jelepla Passes in 2005On 18 September 2011 a magnitude 69Mw earthquake struck Sikkim killing at least 116 people in the state and inNepal Bhutan Bangladesh and Tibet[4] More than 60 people died in Sikkim alone and the city of Gangtok sufferedsignificant damage[5]

References

Further readingbull Datta-Ray Sunanda K (1980) Smash and Grab The Annexation of Sikkim (http books google com

booksid=RCMuAAAAMAAJ) Vikas ISBN 0-7069-2509-2 Retrieved September 26 2011bullbull Forbes Andrew Henley David (2011) Chinas Ancient Tea Horse Road Chiang Mai Cognoscenti Books

ASIN B005DQV7Q2

External linksbull Genealogy of the Namgyal dynasty of Sikkim (http www 4dw net royalark India sikkim htm)bull Discuss History amp Culture of Sikkim (http www sikkimonline info forumdisplay phpf=54)

Indian integration of Junagadh 37

Indian integration of JunagadhJunagadh was a princely state of India located in what is now Gujarat outside but under the suzerainty of BritishIndiaIn the independence and partition of British India of 1947 the 562 princely states were given a choice of whether toeither join the new Dominion of India or the newly formed state of Pakistan or to remain independentThe Nawab of Junagadh Muhammad Mahabat Khanji III a Muslim whose ancestors had ruled Junagadh and smallprincipalities for some two hundred years decided that Junagadh should become part of Pakistan much to thedispleasure of many of the people of the state an overwhelming majority of whom were Hindus The Nawabacceded to the Dominion of Pakistan on 15 September 1947 against the advice of Lord Mountbatten arguing thatJunagadh joined Pakistan by sea[1] The principality of Babariawad and Sheikh of Mangrol reacted by claimingindependence from Junagadh and accession to India[1] When Pakistan accepted the Nawabs Instrument ofAccession on 16 September the Government of India was outraged that Muhammad Ali Jinnah could accept theaccession of Junagadh despite his argument that Hindus and Muslims could not live as one nation though this was aseen as a strategy to get a plebiscite held for the case of Kashmir which was a Muslim majority with a Hindu ruler[]

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go to Pakistan it would exacerbate thecommunal tension already simmering in GujaratThe princely state was surrounded on all of its land borders by India with an outlet onto the Arabian Sea Theunsettled conditions in Junagadh had led to a cessation of all trade with India and the food position becameprecarious With the region in crisis the Nawab fearing for his life felt forced to flee to Karachi with his family andhis followers and there he established a provisional governmentVallabhbhai Patel offered Pakistan time to reverse its acceptance of the accession and to hold a plebiscite inJunagadh Samaldas Gandhi formed a government-in-exile the Aarzi Hukumat (in UrduAarzi TemporaryHukumat Government) of the people of Junagadh Eventually Patel ordered the forcible annexation of Junagadhsthree principalities Junagadhs state government facing financial collapse and lacking forces with which to resistIndian force invited the Government of India to take control A plebiscite was conducted in December in whichapproximately 99 of the people chose India over Pakistan[]

BackgroundAfter the announcement by the last Viceroy of India Lord Mountbatten on 3 June 1947 of the intention to partitionBritish India the British parliament passed the Indian Independence Act 1947 on 11 July 1947 as a result the nativestates were left with these choices to remain independent or to accede to either of the two new dominions the Unionof India or the Dominion of PakistanThe Indian Government made efforts to persuade Nawab Sahab of Junagadh to accede to India but he remainedfirm The Indian minister V P Menon came to request an accession to India threatening consequences in case ofdenial The Nawab however decided to accede to Pakistan and an announcement to this effect was made in thegazette of Junagadh (Dastrural Amal Sarkar Junagadh) on 15 August 1947[2]

Instrument of accessionImmediately after making the announcement in Dastrural Amal Sarkar Junagadh the Jungadh governmentcommunicated to Pakistan its wish to accede and a delegation headed by Ismail was sent to Karachi with theInstrument of Accession signed by the Nawab The Constituent Assembly of Pakistan considered the proposal indetail and approved it The Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah as Governor General of Pakistan counter-signedthe Instrument of Accession on 15 September 1947 This was notified in the Gazette of Pakistan and Dasturul Amalthe Gazette of Junagadh on that date


The Instrument of Accession provided for the right of the Pakistan legislature to legislate in the areas of Defence andCommunication as well as othersAlthough the territory of Junagadh was geographically not adjoining the existing Pakistan it had a link by seathrough the Veraval Port of Junagadh

Menons reactionV P Menon the Secretary of the States department of the Government of India travelled to Junagadh on 17September 1947 and met Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto the dewan (or Chief Minister) of Junagadh Menon said he hadbrought a message from the Indian Government and wished to deliver it to the Nawab in person Bhutto said hecould not arrange a meeting with the Nawab as he was not feeling well Menon expressed displeasure but conveyedthe message of the Indian Government to Bhutto insisting that Junagadh should withdraw its accession to PakistanBhutto told Menon that the accession was now complete and that according to international law only theGovernment of Pakistan was responsibleMenon went to Bombay and met Samaldas Gandhi a journalist of Rajkot who was related to Mohandas Gandhi andothers and unfolded the scheme of Arziee Hukumat (Provisional Government)[3]

On 24 September 1947 Mohandas K Gandhi condemned the action of the Junagadh government in a prayer meetingheld at Delhi

Provisional government (Aarzee Hukumat)In the meanwhile there were exchanges between the governments of India and Pakistan Pakistan told the IndianGovernment that the accession was in accordance with the Scheme of Independence announced by the outgoingBritish and that Junagadh was now part of Pakistan While this exchange of correspondence was going on Indiaclosed all its borders to Junagadh and stopped the movement of goods transport and postal articles In view ofworsening situation the Nawab and his family left Junagadh and arrived in Karachi on 25 October 1947On 27 October 1947 Bhutto as Chief Minister of Junagadh wrote a letter to Jinnah explaining the critical situationof which the State government As the situation worsened he wrote again on 28 October 1947 to IkramullahSecretary of the Pakistan Ministry of Foreign Affairs seeking help and directionsWhen all hopes for assistance from Pakistan were lost Bhutto wrote by telegram on 1 November 1947 to NawabSaheb at Karachi explaining the situation and the danger to life and property considering an armed attack wasimminent In a return telegram the Nawab authorised Bhutto to act in the best interests of the Muslim population ofJunagadh[4]

A meeting of the Junagadh State Council was called on 5 November to discuss the critical situation The Councilauthorised Bhutto to take appropriate action He sent Captain Harvey Johnson a senior member of the Council ofMinisters to Rajkot to meet Indian officials[5]

Another meeting of the Junagadh State Council was convened on 7 November and some prominent citizens ofJunagadh state were also invited The meeting continued till 3 oclock in the morning and decided that instead ofsurrendering to the Provisional Government the Indian Government should be requested to take over theadministration of Junagadh to protect the lives of its citizens which were being threatened by ProvisionalGovernment forcesOn 8 November Bhutto sent a letter to Nilam Butch Provincial Head of the Indian Government in Rajkotrequesting him to help to restore law and order in Junagadh to prevent bloodshed Harvey Johnson took the messageto Rajkot The head of the Indian administration telephoned V P Menon in Delhi and read out the letter Menonimmediately rushed to see Jawaharlal Nehru and explained the situation After consultation with other ministers andV B Patel the home minister a formal order was drafted and a notification issued announcing the take-over ofJunagadh at the request of its Chief Minister The notification promised a referendum in due course


Bhutto left Junagadh for Karachi on the night of 8 November 1947 On 9 November the Indian Air Force flewseveral sorties at low level over Junagadh [6]

Entry of Indian forcesSoon columns of Indian tanks and other vehicles carrying Indian soldiers entered Junagadh state At 6 pm on 9November Captain Harvey Johnson and Chief Secretary Gheewala a civil servant of Junagadh state formallyhanded over the charge of the State to the Indian GovernmentOn the same day Nehru sent a telegram to Liaquat Ali Khan about the Indian take-over of Junagadh Khan sent areturn telegram to Nehru stating that Junagadh was Pakistani territory and nobody except the Pakistan governmentwas authorised to invite anybody to Junagadh He also accused the Indian Government of naked aggression onPakistans territory and of violating international law The Government of Pakistan strongly opposed the Indianoccupation Nehru wrote

In view of special circumstances pointed out by Junagadh Dewan that is the Prime Minister of Junagadhndash our Regional Commissioner at Rajkot has taken temporarily charge of Junagadh administration Thishas been done to avoid disorder and resulting chaos We have however no desire to continue thisarrangement and wish to find a speedy solution in accordance with the wishes of the people ofJunagadh We have pointed out to you previously that final decision should be made by means ofreferendum or plebiscite We would be glad to discuss this question and allied matters affectingJunagadh with representatives of your Government at the earliest possible moment convenient to youWe propose to invite Nawab of Junagadh to send his representatives to this conference [7]

The Government of Pakistan protested saying that the accession of the state to Pakistan was already accepted Inreply to the above telegram the Prime Minister of Pakistan sent the following

Your telegram informing that your Government had taken charge of Junagadh was received by me onNovember 10 1947 Your action in taking over State Administration and sending Indian troops to statewithout any authority from Pakistan Government and indeed without our knowledge is a clear violationof Pakistan territory and breach of International law Indian Governmentrsquos activities on accession ofJunagadh to Pakistan have all been directed to force the State to renounce accession and all kinds ofweapons have been used by you to achieve this end We consider your action in taking charge ofJunagadh Administration and sending Indian troops to occupy Junagadh to be a direct act of hostilityagainst Pakistan Dominion We demand that you should immediately withdraw your forces andrelinquish charge of administration to the rightful ruler and stop people of Union of India from invadingJunagadh and committing acts of violence

This was the followed by a Press Statement made by the Prime Minister of Pakistan It was communicated to PrimeMinister of India on November 16 1947 and read as follows

In spite of the gravest provocation we have refrained from any action which should result in armedconflict We could with full justification and legal right could have sent our forces to Junagadh but at notime since the accession of state was a single soldier sent by us to Junagadh and our advice throughoutto the State Authorities was to exercise the greatest restraint Manavadar another State which hadacceded to Pakistan and Mangrol and Babariawad have also been occupied by Indian troops

Immediately after the take-over of the state all rebel Muslim officials of the state were put behind the bars[8]Theyincluded Ismail Abrehani a senior minister in the Junagadh government who had taken the instrument of Accessionto Jinnah for his signature Abrehani refused to leave Junagadh even when he was offered in jail the option of goingto Pakistan saying that despite its occupation Junagadh was part of Pakistan according to international law and hepreferred to remain He stayed and later died in Junagadh[9]


PlebisciteA plebiscite was held on 20 February 1948 in which all but 91 out of 190870 who voted (from an electorate of201457) voted to join India ie 99 of the population voted to join India[10]

Later arrangementsJunagadh became part of the Indian Saurashtra State until November 1 1956 when Saurashtra became part ofBombay State Bombay State was split into the linguistic states of Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1960 and Junagadh isnow one of the modern districts of Saurasthra in Gujarat

References[1] History introduction (http www hellojunagadh com history_introduction aspx) at hellojunagadhcom On September 15 1947 Nawab

Mohammad Mahabat Khanji III of Junagadh a princely state located on the south-western end of Gujarat and having no common border withPakistan chose to accede to Pakistan ignoring Mountbattens views arguing that Junagadh adjoined Pakistan by sea The rulers of two statesthat were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh Mangrol and Babariawad reacted by declaring their independence from Junagadh and accedingto India

[2] http books google com booksid=wmKIiAPgnF0Camp dq=Instrument+ of+ accession+ Junagadhamp source=gbs_navlinks_s[3] http books google com booksid=wmKIiAPgnF0Camp dq=Instrument+ of+ accession+ Junagadhamp source=gbs_navlinks_s[4] http books google com booksid=wmKIiAPgnF0Camp dq=Instrument+ of+ accession+ Junagadhamp source=gbs_navlinks_s[5] http books google com booksid=wmKIiAPgnF0Camp dq=Instrument+ of+ accession+ Junagadhamp source=gbs_navlinks_s[6] http books google com booksid=wmKIiAPgnF0Camp dq=Instrument+ of+ accession+ Junagadhamp source=gbs_navlinks_s[7] http books google com booksid=Fr1PAQAAIAAJamp dq=Nehru20letters20Junagadhamp source=gbs_similarbooks[8] http books google com booksid=wmKIiAPgnF0Camp dq=Instrument+ of+ accession+ Junagadhamp source=gbs_navlinks_s[9] http books google com booksid=wmKIiAPgnF0Camp dq=Instrument+ of+ accession+ Junagadhamp source=gbs_navlinks_s

Article Sources and Contributors 41

Article Sources and Contributors1961 Indian annexation of Goa Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphpoldid=564766333 Contributors A suyash Abhi2point0 Abhi6693 Ad80 Adaptifada Adnanjsr AgarwalSumeetAngrense Anirudhnandan Anthony Appleyard Antonio Manuel Saraiva Arctic Night Aumnamahashiva Axeman89 BBird BD2412 Bazj Bentogoa Binksternet Blanche of Kings LynnBluedenim Boaby Bob103051 Bogdan Nagachop BritishWatcher Bry9000 Buckshot06 Calbaer CaliforniaAliBaba Carioca Chanakyathegreat Chris the speller ChrisGualtieriChromium12 Chronodm Chwyatt Clarificationgiven CommonsDelinker Crab182 Cuchullain Cyrexxx Dantadd Dave1185 Davidiad De Administrando Imperio Deepak DSouza DesioneDewritech Dimadick Doorvery far Dwaipayanc E Wing Echuck215 EdJohnston El C Embarcadourodetembim EricSerge Erik-the-red Eumolpo Evanh2008 Evilhairyhamster EyeSereneFMPARENTE Feroshki Flamarande Flatronwide Fnlayson Fram GHOStSHARK111 Gavia immer GeorgeLouis Gian-2 Giraffedata Goali GoonerDP Graham87 GregorB GreswikGround Zero Gugganij HappyInGeneral Hcdc83 Headbomb Heimstern Hellobobroberts Hendrick 99 Herostratus History Sleuth Howcheng Hugo999 Humphrey20020 Husond IridescentJHunterJ Jeremiestrother Joeldrodrigues Joeylawn John John Nevard Joseon Empire Joseph Solis in Australia Joshua JosueM Jovianeye Kallgan Karnan KathrynLybarger King Philip Vof Spain Kingal86 Koavf Lightmouse Lihaas LtSpecht Madmonk11 Makrandjoshi Manxruler Maproom Maralia Marathi mulgaa MarchOrDie Mcferran Miguelzinho MilborneOneMimihitam Mlavannis Moonraker12 Morgan Hauser Mouramoor MrXp Namaacha Neelkamala Nick Number Nick-D Nirvana888 Nolanpinto Novulus Olivenccedila Open2universeOptimist on the run Orangewhitegreen Otolemur crassicaudatus Pablo X Panzerkampf1990 Paris1127 Pauli133 PaulinSaudi PauloMendonccedila Peroxwhy2gen Phil Bridger PhilKnightPjsjudge Poliocretes Pwt898 Quiensabe Quintucket RnB Ragib Raju C Rao Ravindra Raptus Regaliter Cattus Petasatus Ratmangxa Ravichandar84 Reaper Eternal ReenemRegentsPark Relata refero Rich Farmbrough Richard Weil Rjwilmsi Robert1947 Rockybiggs Rogriv Rsrikanth05 S h i v a (Visnu) Salmanazar Sangjinhwa Sardanaphalus Sdrtirs SentinelR Ser Amantio di Nicolao Shadowjams Shovon76 Shyamsunder Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington Skcpublic Skorpio78 Smith2006 SnowFire Solankijayant Speedboy SalesmanStanguy Stifle Sundaryourfriend Supergodzilla2090 Surajhpatil Tedder TejinderSR The Discoverer The Madras The Ogre The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick Theo47 Theodore Theoffice89Thisthat2011 Thumperward Tigerassault Triplejumper Turbnz Turgidson Uch Ulric1313 Utcursch Valenciano Vedant Vishnava Walrasiad Waqas1987 Warut Welsh WoohookittyXPTO XavierGreen YSSYguy YUL89YYZ Yosy Zack Holly Venturi 한민족 352 anonymous edits

Indian annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphpoldid=561889959 Contributors AJ-India AJiitm BDD Binksternet Chatfecter DavshulHmains Hullaballoo Wolfowitz Joseon Empire Joshua Issac Jsobral MatthewVanitas Neelkamala Nihar S Peroxwhy2gen Prodigyhk Shyamsunder Sumanch Tabletop ThemightyquillThisthat2011 23 anonymous edits

Operation Polo Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphpoldid=567686645 Contributors marc A2Kafir Abdaal Abhishekmathur Abrahamlast Acroterion Aftab Kiran Aja1210Alex43223 Alren Andrew Gwilliam Andris Animum Anthony Appleyard Anurag Garg ArchStanton69 Arskoul Axeman89 Baba Ovian Bharatveer Bowlhover Brutaldeluxe CaerwineChasingsol Chedorlaomer Chirags CommonsDelinker Daily Goals Dattakillerneo Dawkeye Deepak DSouza Deville Dimadick Dormskirk Download Dreadstar Eluchil404 FauwazFleiger Fowlerampfowler Gaius Cornelius Gaurav GeeJo Ghirlandajo Gobeshock Gobochondro Gyanotirtho Grafen Greg Grahame Ground Zero Grubb Gunnala Guptadeepak Hardikjadeja HarryHenryGebel Hebrides Hibernian Hu Hugo999 Idleguy JForget Jaiiaf Jethwarp John Hill Jon C JorgeGG Josemanimala Jovianeye JustAGal KajasudhakarababuKazipetasurya Kelvinc Kirill Lokshin Kishanjoshi LaMenta3 Lightmouse Lilaac Lionheart5 MaGioZal Mac Davis MantisEars Manujfloyd Mark83 Mike Rosoft MohitkhullarMoonraker Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg Mueacutero Niceguyedc Nikai Nishkid64 OceanMash Olegwiki Open2universe Pallab1234 PamD Pnr26j Qwyrxian Race911 RamasArrow Randhirreddy Rao Ravindra Rapidsurfer Reenem Rjwilmsi Rmetre RobNS Rohit1987 Rubber soul Rueben lys S h i v a (Visnu) Sainathgupta Sardanaphalus Sarvagyana guruSavitr Scuffy05 Secret of success ShiningStar Shyamsunder Sixtynotes Skcpublic Somdev Sumanth Mamidala Tbhotch Techcorp Theycrashed Thisthat2011 Tienouchou TigerassaultTim Tristan benedict Urduboy Utcursch Uzdzislaw Vacuumloops Vegaswikian Vinchem Vipinhari Vishnava Voorlandt Vyzasatya Wandalstouring Welsh Wetman Whoop whoop pullup Woohookitty XavierGreen Xn4 YellowMonkey Yorkiano Zezolock Δ 132 anonymous edits

History of Sikkim Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphpoldid=562680199 Contributors Academic Challenger Ahoerstemeier Alren Andres rojas22 Andrew Gray AntemisterBhadani BikashDai BillShurts Centauri Chirags Coemgenus DabMachine Darwinek Download Dvd Avins Epbr123 Evryman Firsfron Gonzonoir Ground Zero ImpuMozhi JFHJr JohnHill John K Joy1963 Kintetsubuffalo MZMcBride Michaelmas1957 Mr Tan Nichalp Norm mit Paxsimius Pearle PhnomPencil Pradiptaray Pwt898 Rangan datta Rebroad RichFarmbrough Ronz Satyenpandey Sesel Shyamsunder Sikkiboy Sikkimmomo Sikkimonline Special Cases 虞海 50 anonymous edits

Indian integration of Junagadh Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphpoldid=552325018 Contributors Advil Altetendekrabbe Andrew Gwilliam Ardfern AtulsnischalAumnamahashiva Bogdan Nagachop Caiaffa Cherrysmith1 Darkness Shines Ekabhishek EoGuy GoingBatty Golgofrinchian Ground Zero Harish Jasani Heracletus Hugo999 IdleguyJethwarp LibStar Mandarax Mar4d Moonraker Mushroom9 Narayansg Night w Nightstallion Patelurology2 Paxse RnB Rgiyer Rjwilmsi Sardanaphalus Shahab Shovon76Shyamsunder SimonP Sobreira TopGun Tovojolo Tutu1234 Umar Zulfikar Khan Vimalkalyan Vishnava Yessrao 45 anonymous edits

Image Sources Licenses and Contributors 42

Image Sources Licenses and ContributorsFileFlag of Portugalsvg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileFlag_of_Portugalsvg License Public Domain Contributors Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910 genericdesign) Viacutetor Luiacutes Rodrigues Antoacutenio Martins-Tuvaacutelkin (2004 this specific vector set see sources)FileFlag of Indiasvg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileFlag_of_Indiasvg License Public Domain Contributors Anomie MifterFileGoamappng Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileGoamappng License Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 30 Unported Contributors UserNichalpFileCanberrapr9takeoffarpjpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileCanberrapr9takeoffarpjpg License Public Domain Contributors Arpingstone De728631Groumfy69 Mattes PMGFileNRP Afonso de Albuquerquejpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileNRP_Afonso_de_Albuquerquejpg License Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 30 Contributors UserChanthujohnsonFileMD450 Ouragon 2jpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileMD450_Ouragon_2jpg License GNU Free Documentation License Contributors Ad Meskens PibwlStahlkocher 1 anonymous editsFileDadra-Nagarhaveli 1956jpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileDadra-Nagarhaveli_1956jpg License Public Domain Contributors Aotearoa Juiced lemonImageHyderabad state from the Imperial Gazetteer of India 1909jpg Sourcehttpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileHyderabad_state_from_the_Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India_1909jpg License Public Domain Contributors Avicennasis John of ReadingMaGioZalImageIn hyder1900apng Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileIn_hyder1900apng License GNU Free Documentation License Contributors AnonMoos HimasaramJjvaca Juiced lemon Roland zh Smooth OFileWhite flag iconsvg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileWhite_flag_iconsvg License Public Domain Contributors Ash Crow Captaincollect1970 Cycn Ludger1961Rocket000 Sarang SiBr4 WB Xiengyod 1 anonymous editsFileOp Polo Surrenderjpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileOp_Polo_Surrenderjpg License Public Domain Contributors UnknownFileGururinpochenjpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileGururinpochenjpg License GNU Free Documentation License Contributors UserNichalpFileSikkimjpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileSikkimjpg License Public Domain Contributors CIA Original uploader was Pascal at enwikipediaFileBundesarchiv Bild 135-S-03-24-03 Tibetexpedition Der Maharaja von Sikkimjpg Sourcehttpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileBundesarchiv_Bild_135-S-03-24-03_Tibetexpedition_Der_Maharaja_von_Sikkimjpg License Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 30Germany Contributors Origamiemensch Roland zh

License 43

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 30 Unportedcreativecommonsorglicensesby-sa30


1961 Indian annexation of Goa

Invasion of Goa Daman and Diu

Date 18ndash19 December 1961

Location Portuguese India and surrounding sea and airspace

Result Decisive Indian victory and incorporation of territories into the Republic of India

Belligerents Portugal

bull Portuguese India India

Commanders and leaders Ameacuterico Tomaacutes Antoacutenio de Oliveira Salazar Governor-General of Portuguese India Manuel Antoacutenio Vassalo e Silva

Rajendra Prasad Jawaharlal Nehru Major General K P

Candeth Air Vice Marshal Elric

Pinto V K Krishna Menon

Strength3995 Army200 Naval personnel1 frigate3 patrol boats

45000 infantry1 Light Aircraft Carrier2 Cruisers1 destroyer8 frigates4 Minesweepers20 Canberras6 Vampires6 Toofanis6 Hunters4 Mysteres


30 killed[]

57 wounded[]

4668 captured[]

1 Frigate disabled[][]

22 killed[]

54 wounded[]

The 1961 Indian annexation of Goa (also referred to as the Invasion of Goa[1] the Liberation of Goa[2] the Fallof Portuguese India [3] and the Portuguese-Indian War[citation needed]) was an action by Indias armed forces thatended the colonial rule of Portugal in its exclaves in India in 1961 The armed action codenamed Operation Vijayby the Indian government involved air sea and land strikes for over 36 hours and was a decisive victory for Indiaending 451 years of Portuguese colonial rule in Goa Twenty two Indians and thirty Portuguese were killed in thefighting[] The brief conflict drew a mixture of worldwide praise and condemnation In India the action was seen asa liberation of historically Indian territory while Portugal viewed it as an aggression against national soil









Goa Western India





















































bombers




























The Daman air raids





















The Diu air raids





Naval action at Diu













































[15] Sankar Ghose (1993) Jawaharlal Nehru A biography Mumbai Allied p283[16] PW Prabhakar (2003) Wars proxy-wars and terrorism post independent India New Delhi Mittal p39[17] Sankar Ghose (1993) Jawaharlal Nehru A biography Mumbai Allied p282[18] Indian Volunteers Invade Goa 21 Die Unarmed Indians March into Goa New York Times 15 August 1955[19][19] Christophe Jaffrelot The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India Published by Columbia University Press 1998[20] Time Magazine 29 August 1955 (http www time com time magazine article 0917182387800 html)[21] Goas Freedom Movement (http www goacom com culture history history4 html)[22] Francisco Monteiro - India supported banditry in Goa (http www colaco net 1 India-ter htm)[23][23] Comrades at Odds The United States and India Page 185[24] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 561 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 66[25] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 1161 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 68[26] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 1261 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 69[27] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 1461 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 72[28][28] Remembering the Fall of Portuguese India in 1961[29] http www icj-cij org docket files 32 4521 pdf[30] LN Subramanyam The Liberation of Goa (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF History 1960s Goa01 html) bharat-rakshakcom[31] The Liberation of Goa by Jagan Pillarisetti (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF History 1960s Goa01 html)[32] http www bharat-rakshak com NAVY History 1950s Kore html The Liberation of Goa by Lieutenant-Commander VS Kore[33] The Portuguese armed forces and the - Google Books (http books google co in booksid=ncoOAAAAQAAJamp pg=PA36amp















































Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43










Goa Western India





















































bombers




























The Daman air raids





















The Diu air raids





Naval action at Diu






























































invasion of Goa Prime Minister Nehru has done irreparable damage to Indias good name and to the principles of international moralityampst=cse) New York Times 2 19 December 1961






























Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43




Goa Western India





















































bombers




























The Daman air raids





















The Diu air raids





Naval action at Diu




























































































Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43














































bombers




























The Daman air raids





















The Diu air raids





Naval action at Diu




























































































Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43























The Daman air raids





















The Diu air raids





Naval action at Diu




























































































Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43









The Diu air raids





Naval action at Diu




























































































Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43



Naval action at Diu




























































































Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43

























































































Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43



























[15] Sankar Ghose (1993) Jawaharlal Nehru A biography Mumbai Allied p283[16] PW Prabhakar (2003) Wars proxy-wars and terrorism post independent India New Delhi Mittal p39[17] Sankar Ghose (1993) Jawaharlal Nehru A biography Mumbai Allied p282[18] Indian Volunteers Invade Goa 21 Die Unarmed Indians March into Goa New York Times 15 August 1955[19][19] Christophe Jaffrelot The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India Published by Columbia University Press 1998[20] Time Magazine 29 August 1955 (http www time com time magazine article 0917182387800 html)[21] Goas Freedom Movement (http www goacom com culture history history4 html)[22] Francisco Monteiro - India supported banditry in Goa (http www colaco net 1 India-ter htm)[23][23] Comrades at Odds The United States and India 5[24] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 561 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 66[25] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 1161 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 68[26] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 1261 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 69[27] US Department of State Central Files 753D0012 - 1461 (http www state gov r pa ho frus kennedyjf 46453 htm) Document 72[28][28] Remembering the Fall of Portuguese India in 1961[29] http www icj-cij org docket files 32 4521 pdf[30] LN Subramanyam The Liberation of Goa (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF History 1960s Goa01 html) bharat-rakshakcom[31] The Liberation of Goa by Jagan Pillarisetti (http www bharat-rakshak com IAF History 1960s Goa01 html)[32] http www bharat-rakshak com NAVY History 1950s Kore html The Liberation of Goa by Lieutenant-Commander VS Kore[33] The Portuguese armed forces and the - Google Books (http books google co in booksid=ncoOAAAAQAAJamp pg=PA36amp















































Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43


































Published by DIANE Publishing 1993 ISBN 0-7881-0279-6 ISBN 978-0-7881-0279-0 8[65] (http select nytimes com gst abstract htmlres=F10E14FD3E591A728DDDA00994DA415B818AF1D3amp scp=1amp sq=With his































Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43






















































Background
















needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43











needed]





Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43






Operation Polo 25

Operation Polo













32 killed[1]




Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43


Operation Polo 26




Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43


Operation Polo 27







Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43


Operation Polo 28







Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43


Operation Polo 29





Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43


Operation Polo 30






Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43


Operation Polo 31



Secunderabad














History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43



History of Sikkim



Ancient history




Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43



Kingdom of Sikkim

Map of Sikkim


















References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43














References



ASIN B005DQV7Q2





































License 43





































License 43
