20120406 memory

Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5

Chapter 5: Memory: Models and Research Methods


沒有記憶的日子會變成什麼模樣 ?

你想像得到嗎…


Understanding Memory


Some Questions of Interest

• 研究記憶的作業有哪些？• 記憶的結構是什麼？過去的理論模型？


記憶是 …

• The mechanism we use to create, maintain, and retrieve information about the past


登錄 (encode)

儲存 (storage)

提取 (retrieval)

將外在的物理輸入轉譯為記憶可接受的編碼或表徵，並將此表徵「放在」記憶中

保留（或儲存）已經編碼的表徵

從記憶系統提取訊息

記憶的三個歷程• 訊息處理理論 Information processing model


Methods Used to Study Memory

• Which type of memory test would you rather have?–申論題？選擇題？–回憶？再認？


Methods Used to Study Memory

• Serial recall（序列式回想）– Recall the names of all previous presidents in the

order they were elected– Need to recall order as well as item names

• Free recall（自由回想）– Recall all the words you can from the list you saw

previously

• Cued recall（線索回想）– Recall everything you can that is associated with the

cued item– Participants are given a cue to facilitate recall


Recognition Tasks

• Circle all the words you previously studied

• Indicate which pictures you saw yesterday

• Participants select from a list of items they have previously seen


Implicit vs. Explicit Memory Tasks

• Explicit memory tasks– Involve conscious recollection– Participants know they are trying to retrieve

information from memory

• Implicit memory tasks– Require participants to complete a task– The completion of the task indirectly

indicates memory


Implicit Memory Tasks

Participants are exposed to a word list

TigerLion

ZebraPanda

LeopardElephant

After a delay…

Participants then complete word puzzles; they are not aware this is a type of memory testWord fragment completion:C_E_TA_E_E_ _A_ N__ E _ R AWord stem completion:Mon _____Pan_____


Procedural Memory

• Knowing how to do something– Ride a bike

– Skateboard

– Ski


Methods to Assess Procedural Memory

• Rotary-pursuit task– Keep stylus on a dot

on a rotating disk

• Mirror-tracing task– Watch mirror image

to trace a figure


Models of Memory

• Represent ways that memory has been conceptualized– Atkinson & Shiffrin’s three-stage model– Craik & Lockhart’s level of processing model– Baddeley’s working memory model– Tulving’s multiple memory systems model– McClelland & Rumelhart’s connectionist

model


Traditional Model of Memory

• Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) three-stage model


感官記憶 Sensory memory

• 特性 :

1. 自動發生，因此不需要耗費資源2. 容量極大3. 瞬間即逝而易被干擾4. 訊息只能持續很短時間5. 只有少部分感覺儲存訊息會得到注意

而從感覺儲存庫被傳送到短期儲存庫

• 後像 (afterimage)、餘音 (echo)


記憶大考驗 I

人究竟能記得多少呢？請隨手拿個筆和紙，我們準備開始！


X X X XX X X XX X X X

Whole Report


B 5 Q T2 H S 9O 4 M Y

X


請寫出剛剛畫面中呈現的所有字母請寫出剛剛畫面中呈現的所有字母


B 5 Q T2 H S 9O 4 M Y


X X X XX X X XX X X X

Partial Report – No Delay


X

2 V 9 RQ M 7 L

> K H 5 F <

> <


2 V 9 RQ M 7 L

> K H 5 F <


請寫出剛剛畫面中請寫出剛剛畫面中 ><><所指到的字母所指到的字母


Sperling (1960) Iconic Memory Research

• Whole report procedure– Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds– Identify as many letters as possible– Participants typically remember 4 letters

• Partial report procedure– Flash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds– Participants are told to report bottom row– Participants were able to report any row

requested


Sperling Sensory Memory Demonstration

• A matrix of 12 letters and numbers briefly flash on the next few slides

• As soon as you see the information, write down everything you can remember in its proper location


Sperling’s Results


Sensory Stores• Iconic store or visual sensory register

– Holds visual information for 250 msec longer

– Capacity: up to 12 items– Information fades quickly

• Econ or auditory sensory register – Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds

longer to enable processing


全現遺覺記憶 Photographic memory

• 「照像式」的記憶能力• 非常罕見（ < 10%的人擁有）• 常在小孩身上發現，但往隨著年齡增長而消失

• 與感官記憶十分相關



• 能夠擁有這項能力是不是看似非常幸運 ? 但…

• 擁有 Photographic memory的缺點 :記太多不相關的細節不夠有效率有些人甚至忘也忘不掉那些自己不想記的一種自閉症 (Autism)的症狀


短期記憶Short-term memory


Short-Term Memory

• Attention– Attend to information

in the sensory store, it moves to STM

• Rehearsal– Repeat the

information to keep maintained in STM

• Retrieval– Access memory in

LTM and place in STM

Short-Term Memory (STM)

AttentionStorage & Retrieval

Rehearsal


Research on Short-Term Memory

• Miller (1956)– Examined memory capacity– 7+/- 2 items or “chunks”– 電話號碼的編制

• Cowan (2001)– 認為短期記憶的限制大概是 4 個單位

• Jonides (2009)– 其實只有 1 個…


記憶大考驗 II

人究竟能記得多少呢？請隨手拿個筆和紙，我們準備開始！


1. 1. 英文題英文題


準備好了嗎準備好了嗎…………


DADNCKUMITANTFBIETORNBA


請依序寫出剛剛畫面中的所有字母請依序寫出剛剛畫面中的所有字母


2. 2. 數字題數字題


準備好了嗎準備好了嗎…………


77088088252521314520


請依序寫出剛剛畫面中的所有數字請依序寫出剛剛畫面中的所有數字


記憶廣度的限制

• 若將大量且複雜的訊息組織成較小而若將大量且複雜的訊息組織成較小而有意義的單位有意義的單位 (chunking)(chunking) ，則可以，則可以記得較多的訊息記得較多的訊息 !!

• Chunk的愈好愈有效率就能記得愈多愈牢


• 若採取若採取保持性的複誦保持性的複誦 ((maintenance maintenance rehearsalrehearsal))，也可以使訊息保留在記，也可以使訊息保留在記憶中較久憶中較久



個體以自己的方式解讀、組織、安排訊息，使訊息得以長久保存

•例如：–對新訊息加以分析、處理–將新訊息和舊有的知識、經驗作聯結–找出新訊息彼此間的關係



1. 英文題1.DADNCKUMITANTFBIETORNBA

2.DAD NCKU MIT ANT FBI ET OR NBA

• 數字題– 77088088252521314520

– 770 880 8825252 1314 520

– 親親你抱抱你爸爸餓我餓我餓一生一世我愛你

解答時間 !!!!!


How to train your memory

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pyVxD1zE7H4

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V8S8V9VEFyI


Storage Capacity of STM

• Vogel, Woodman, & Luck (2001)

• Used colors and orientations


Vogel, Woodman, & Luck Results (2001)

• Can retain 3-4 colors or orientations

• Store integrated objects, not just features


工作記憶Working memory


Baddeley & Hitch (1974)Baddeley & Hitch (1974)工作記憶和短期記憶一樣是負責暫時記憶訊息

但和短期記憶不同 :有不同的機制來負責不同種類訊息的記憶

有監控機制

Graham Hitch

Alan Baddeley

不歇息的記憶活動


Baddeleys’ Working Memory Model (1986)


Working Memory Model

• Phonological Loop（語音迴路）– Used to maintain information for a short time

and for acoustic rehearsal

• Visuo-spatial sketch pad（視覺空間模板）– Used for maintaining and processing visuo-

spatial information

• Episodic buffer（情節緩衝系統）– Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding

an integrated episode between systems using different codes


Working Memory Model

• Central executive（中央執行系統）– Focuses attention on relevant items and

inhibits irrelevant ones

– Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules processes in complex tasks, often switches attention between different parts

– Updates and checks content to determine next step in sequence


Working Memory Model Support

• Baddeley (1986) – Participants studied two different list types – 1 syllable: wit, sum, harm, bay, top – 5 syllables: university, opportunity,

aluminum, constitutional, auditorium

• Reading rate seemed to determine recall performance

• Supports conceptualization of an articulatory loop


Working Memory Model Support

• Visuo-spatial sketch pad– Dual-task paradigm

– Sketchpad can be disrupted by requiring participants to repeatedly tap a specified pattern of keys or locations while using imagery at the same time


長期記憶Long-term memory


長期記憶系統• 特性 :

–保存時間從數分鐘、數年甚至終生–如果短期記憶是電腦的 RAM，則長期記憶是電腦的硬碟

–記憶容量極大，甚至似乎沒有限制• Shepard (1967)

– 600張圖片，一小時後仍能辨識 99%• Standing et al. (1970)

– 2500張圖片，一小時後仍能辨識 90%


Long-Term Memory

• Capacity– Thus far limitless

• Duration– Potentially

permanent

Long-Term Memory (LTM)


Tulving’s Multiple-Memory Systems Model

• Semantic memory– General knowledge– Facts, definitions, historical dates

• Episodic memory– Event memories (first kiss, 6th birthday)


長期記憶系統


Multiple-Memory Systems Model Support

• Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving (1996)– PET technology to look at episodic and

semantic memory– Asked people to engage in semantic or episodic

memory tasks while being monitored by PET

• Results – Left (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially

active in encoding (both) and in semantic memory retrieval

– Right (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in retrieval of episodic memory


Levels of processing model


Levels of Processing Model of Memory

• Craik & Lockhart (1972)– Different ways to process information lead to

different strengths of memories– Deep processing leads to better memory

• Elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory

– Shallow processing emphasizes the physical features of the stimulus

• The memory trace is fragile and quickly decays

– Distinguished between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal


Support for Levels of Processing

• Craik & Tulving (1975) – Participants studied a list in three different

ways • Structural: Is the word in capital letters? • Phonemic: Does the word rhyme with dog? • Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence?

“The ______ is delicious.”

– A recognition test was given to see which type of processing led to the best memory


Craik & Tulving (1975) Results

0

0.1

0.2

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0.5

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0.8

0.9

1

Yes No

Sentence Type

Rec

og

niz

ed

Case

Rhyme

Sentence


• Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977)– Encoding with respect to oneself

increases memory

Self-Reference Effect

Capital Rhymes Means the Describes letters? with? same as? you?


Criticisms of LOP Model•Circular definition of levels•Transfer appropriate processing effect

– Morris, Bransford, & Franks (1977) – Two processing tasks: semantic vs. rhyme – Two types of tests: standard yes/no recognition vs. rhyme test – Memory performance also depends on the match between

encoding processes and type of test

Encoding Task Recognition Rhyme

Semantic 0.83 0.31

Rhyme 0.62 0.49


Connectionist Perspective

• Parallel distributed processing model– Memory uses a network– Meaning comes from

patterns of activation across the entire network

– Spreading activation network model

– Supported by priming effects


失憶症的記憶


Deficient Memory

• Amnesias – Retrograde amnesia

• Loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma

– Infantile amnesia• Inability to recall events of young

childhood

– Anterograde amnesia• No memory for events that occur after

the trauma


失憶症的記憶• 失憶症的主要症狀是完全無法記得每天的事件，因此無法獲取新的事實訊息順向失憶症（ anterograde amnesia）

• 失憶症的第二種症狀是無法記得受傷或生病前發生的事件逆向失憶症（ retrograde amnesia）


• 失憶症患者在記憶、學習知覺與動作技能時則沒有困難。外顯和內隱記憶分別負責事實和技能的編碼，屬於不同的記憶系統。

• 失憶症患者仍然保留的技能包括動作技能及知覺技能。

• 失憶症患者和一般人的促發程度完全相同，表示其內隱記憶正常，但是外顯記憶比一般人更差。

失憶症的記憶


失憶症患者是幫助心理學家了解記憶系統的重要份子！

• Clive Wearing– 上次課堂中提到的

• A.T.–記憶廣度很小，剛呈現的訊息無法立即正確回憶–但對以前發生的事情都記得很清楚

• H.M. (科學史上最有名的病人之一 )– 幼時騎車摔倒後常有癲癇發作– 接收顳葉切除的手術治療– 癲癇症狀消失但是導致嚴重的失憶症長期記憶與短期記憶的區分


鏡描作業Mirror-Tracing Task

• H.M’s performance

Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5童年失憶症和幼兒失憶症

Childhood amnesia & Infantile amnesia


–每個人都有的現象• 沒有人能回憶生命中最初幾年的事情

• 大多數人的最初記憶發生在 3歲之後，少數人可以回溯至 1 歲但回憶的正確與否也無法確定

童年失憶症和幼兒失憶症Childhood amnesia & Infantile

amnesia


–原因• 成人使用分類與基模 (Schema)來建構記憶，但是兒童在編碼時不會多加修飾或連到相關事件

• 從生理原因來看，由於海馬迴大約到 1 、 2歲才會成熟，因此童年初期的事件無法充分凝固，導致後來無法回想

• 其他心理原因包括認知因素，特別是語言發展和入學。語言和學校的思考方式提供組織經驗的新方法

童年失憶症和幼兒失憶症Childhood amnesia & Infantile

amnesia


Alzheimer’s Disease

• Leads to memory loss and dementia in older population

• Over the age of 65 are labeled “late onset”

• “Early onset” is rare but can affect those in their mid 30s and in middle age


• Atrophy of the cortical tissue – Alzheimer’s brains shows abnormal fibers that

appear to be tangles of brain tissue and senile plaques (patches of degenerative nerve endings)

– The resulting damage of these conditions may lead to disruption of impulses in neurons

Alzheimer’s Disease and the Brain


Alzheimer’s Disease

• Symptoms (gradual, continuous, and irreversible)– Memory loss– Problems doing familiar tasks– Problems with language– Trouble knowing the time, date, or place– Poor or decreased judgment– Problems with abstract thinking– Misplacing things often, such as keys– Changes in mood, behavior, and personality

• These symptoms could be an early sign of Alzheimer’s when it affects daily life


Hippocampus and Memory

• Hippocampus– Critical for integration and consolidation– Essential for declarative memory– Without the hippocampus, only the learning

of skills and habits, simple conditioning, and the phenomenon of priming can occur

INSERT VIDEO #20, The Brain and Memory

20120406 memory

Education