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3. Conflicts Related to Offshore Oil Development外海石油開發有關的使用衝突

Although offshore oil development represents one of the most economically profitable uses of the sea, it can have significant adverse effects on other uses of the coastal zone and ocean, such as fishing operations, coastal tourism, recreation, aquaculture, and marine transportation.

Some examples of conflicts surrounding offshore oil development may be drawn from Norway, China, and the United States.

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Norway ( Norge )

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①Norway: ( Oil Development versus Marine Fisheries )

Traditionally, Norwegian waters have provided abundant fishing grounds, enabling Norway to become the world’s primary producer and exporter of Atlantic salmon.

On the other hand, petroleum production activities within these waters have rapidly increased since the late 1960s have had negative effects on the fishing industry.

Petroleum production activities can harm fishing activities in at least three different ways: through reduction of fishing space, through pollution, and by means of seafloor debris.

Debris: 碎片

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Although the expanding offshore oil development and resulting pollution have decreased access to fishing grounds, the most direct negative effect has been the problem of seafloor debris.

By the end of 1981, more than 3,000 incidents of loss or damage to fishing gear had been reported; estimated costs totaled nearly $5 million.

The Norwegian authorities have pursued a strategy of integrated marine policy as a response to these interuser conflicts.

Source: Andresen and Floistad 1988.

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②China: ( Oil Development versus Estuarine Fisheries )

China’s offshore oil development has been concentrated in the shallow waters of the semi-enclosed Bohai Sea.

The drilling muds (a sometimes toxic by-product of the drilling process) are discharged largely onsite and receive little treatment.

The long-term effects of these discharges on the health of the coastal ecosystem of the Bohai Sea are causing concern.

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In addition, in the Changjiang River estuary and Hangzhou Bay, an oil concentration of 0.46 milligrams per liter was recorded, significantly exceeding the level (0.05 milligrams per liter) set by class 1 of the national seawater quality standard.

These estuarine areas represent China’s largest fish spawning and feeding grounds for several species of high economic value.

Fishermen have complained about the loss of their intertidal aquaculture areas to oil- related projects and about fish and shellfish mortality attributable to oil spills.

Mortality: 死亡率Source: Yu 1994.

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4. Threats to Coral Reefs from Various Marine Uses不同海洋使用對於珊瑚礁的威脅

Coral reefs are among the world’s most valuable ecosystems in terms of their biological diversity and their productivity and as a source of livelihood for many coastal communities.

As noted by A. T. White and colleagues (1994), reefs provide food for a countless number of economically marginalized communities, they are a source of jobs and revenues (from the fishing and tourism sectors), are a source of recreation and enjoyment, and protect tropical from storm damage, among other values. Marginal: 邊緣

However, coral reefs face many t from the destructive activities of other coastal users and from activities in upland areas, as the following examples from the Philippines, Egypt, and Sri Lanka suggest.

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①Philippines: ( Destructive Fishing Practices versus Coral Reefs and Fish Habitat ) 破壞性的漁釣 對上 珊瑚潭和魚類棲息地

The residents of San Salvador Island in the Philippines face related to severe damage or destruction of fish habitat from explosives and sodium cyanide for catching aquarium fish, the use of finemesh nets, and overfishing.

Nearly one-fifth of the island’s coral cover has been killed by recent misuses of sodium cyanide in fishing coupled with the physical destruction of large portions of coral reefs by scuba divers collecting aquarium fish.

After introducing sodium cyanide into holes and tanneries, the divers remove entire pieces of the reef in order to reach fish that are hiding.

Sodium cyanide: 氰化鈉

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San Salvador Island, Philippines

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San Salvador Island, Philippines (bigger)

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The local community was poorly organized ans unwilling to work cooperatively to address these destructive fishing methods.

In 1988, the Marine Conservation Project for San Salvador (MCPSS) was established in the community, using education, community organization, and community participation to establish a municipal marine park.

This approach seems to have put an end to coral reef destruction on the island.

Source: Buhat 1994.

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②Philippines: ( Deforestation from Logging versus Coral Reefs and Fisheries)破壞性伐木 對上 珊瑚潭和漁業

Coastal development is rapidly expanding in the Bacuit Bay area in the Philippines, leading to conflicts over resources among the tourism, fisheries, and logging industries.

Logging in the area has accelerated erosion and sediment input into the main river and bay, resulting deposition in the bay and on the coral reefs.

This has killed the corals and led to a subsequent decline of associated fisheries.

Source: Hodgson and Dixon 1988.

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Bacuit Bay, Palawan, Philippines

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③Egypt: (Unregulated Tourism Development versus Coral Reefs)無節制旅遊業發展 對上 珊瑚礁

By 1991, tourism was the second largest in Egypt.

As a result, the Hurghada—Port Safâga region on the Red Sea coast became host to numerous holiday villages, which are growing considerably faster than the government’s capacity to provide infrastructure.

Consequently, facilities for tourists were poorly regulated and sited. These poor management practices caused extensive degradation of coastal and marine habitats, especially coral reefs.

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Egypt

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Safaga Port, Egypt

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Safaga Port, Egypt

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Safaga Port, Egypt

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The Tourism Development Authority was created in 1991 to support environmentally sound, master-planned tourism.

Although there were conflicts among the oil, tourism, and fisheries industries, coastal zone management and environmental assessment tools provided a framework for a planned approach to tourism, thus alleviating the problems in the Hurghada—Port Safâga region and providing a sound basis for complementary reef conservation and tourism along the Red Sea coast.

Source: World Bank 1994.

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④Sri Lanka: ( Mining of Coral Reefs versus Shoreline Stability)

One of the utilitarian functions of fringing and patch-type coral reefs is to buffer adjacent tropical shorelines.

The coral formations create a natural breakwater system, protecting coastlines from high-energy, storm-driven waves and swells.

On the coastlines of Sri Lanka, erosion has been a critical problem. The human activity most harmful to shoreline and beach stability is the severe mining of coral and coral sands for lime production, cement manufacture, and other purposes.

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Sri Lanka

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Coral material is harvested from both coastal quarries and offshore areas using dynamite, crowbars, and boats.

Erosion is further accelerated by the mining of natural replenishment sands for use as construction aggregate and for lime production and placers.

In locations along Sri Lanka’s southwestern coast such as Hikkaduwa, the net effect of these practices has been severe coastal erosion.

Crowbars: 鐵橇 replenish: 補充 placer: 存放者Source: DuBois and Towle 1985.

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Hikkaduwa, Sri Lanka

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BREAK POINT