ingvistici aplicati qi Istoriafost cercetltor la Institutul

Universitliile din Londra giFi din Bradford ca bursiernlt'Bctor al Universititii dinlin CNEEA a parlamentuluide la Bucuregd la Glasgow gi

I primul maarral linguafon diqgled la TlR (196?-69), deue Diqtionar englez-romdn alru fiazeologic englez-romdne britanici {EDp 1983), de'aion (2 volume, K.G. Saur,rr (red- R Legendre, Guerin.ciliza,tiei britanice (lnsriturui: Sardii Culturale Britanice al

tan tle Eoliest Times to the

b lle Seventeenth Century /

rEc[ aceasta_

ADRIAN NICOLESCU

A Short History of British Civilisation

From the Earliest Times to the Seventeenth Century

INSTITUTUL EUROPEAN20t2

CONTENTS

Foreword / 9Acknowledgements / 13

Introduction / 15

LTNIT ONE. Prehistoric Britain and Celtic Britain 123Celtic heritage (29). Topical bibliography (33)

UNIT TWO. Roman Britain / 35

Political history (35). Social and economic history: Towns (35). Roads(45). Aqueducts (46). Commerce (46). Industry (47). Population (47).Cultural history (47). Heritage (47): place-names (48), architectural re-mains (49), statuary (49), mosaics (49), jewellery (50). Topical bibliog-raphy (51).

UNIT THREE. Anglo-Saxon England / 53Political history. England (53). Scotland (58). Wales (59). keland (60).Christianization of Britain (62). Social and economic history: Popuia-tion (65). Life in towns and villages (65). Commerce (67). Local gov-emment (67). Central govemment and the administration of justice(68). The army (73). Cultural history: Architecture (73). Sculpture Q\.Graphic art (75). Jewellery (75). Music (76). Language (77). Literature(79). Topical bibliography (82).

UNIT FOUR. Norman and Angevin England 1066-1216 185Danish heritage (85). Scandinavian influence (86). Political history:William I (88), William II (90), Henry I (91), Stephen (92), Henry II(93), Richard I (95), John (96). Social and economic history: Population(98). Life in towns and villages (98). Fumiture (100). Commerce (100).

culturar history: Architecture (r00). painting (103). I'uminated manu_scripts (r03). Tapestry (r03). sculprurg rrori !#;; grass (104). Mu-sic (104). Language (104). Literature 1r r)y 'iopir:oiiuiography(r 14).

LrNIT FryE' The Earry and Later Middre Ages 1216- r4gs / ,7potiticat history: Henry rlr (117),.r9y* ifrlq),'Edward Ir (t2t),Edward rtr.!t^?2): Richard d 1r.z+y, IJ"".y rV d'it1, u"*y V (128),Henry vI (129), Edward tv lrir;, nayari v 1rizl, nichard IrI (133).social and economic historyipopuration. eg.i.rroir. and animal hus_bandry (r35). Towns aod boroughs (r35). 6"iiJr ?r:a). Industry andcommerce (139). The condition of women and oi ethnic minorities(139). Culturar history (raO): church and domestic architecture (r54).Military u."hi1"-.^tr: (r56). Sculprure (r58). rainting frsS). Illuminated

manuscripts ( r 59). stained glass ( l 60). g"i,u*io".v ? r oo).'na,r.i" riooiEducarion and science 6ezj. Language (16g). rit"ruL. (169). Topicarbibliography (174).

trNIT sIX' Tudor and Erizabethan Engrand 14g5 to 1603 / 177potilicat h*,!,o?:.H?*v vI 1tti1, H."lv vIIriiisl, sd*urd Vr (182),Mary I (1s4J, E)iTbet\ r (185). sociar Lrd ch)rch'ii,ory,The Refor-mation (rs7)..curturar history: Domestic architecto." lrsa;. Militaryarchitecture Jl.rU Sgulpture (Ig2). Canvas *O *"fi painting (tg2).Jewellery (r95)..Fumiture (196). Fashion (1921. spon uod leisure (rg7).|{ysic (r97). Education and science 1rr). r""g""g"1201). Literature(206). shakespeare in music and on firm'e1e7 ripi""t bibriography.General biblio graphy e2g).

Appendices / 237List of monuments in^uK coming under uNESCo world Heritage Sites / 239Roman chronology from Caesar to Honorius / 239Govemors of Roman Britain / 242List of rulers of the British Isles / 243LirJ ll contemporaneous rurers of Britain and the continent from AD g00to 1600 / 263A short glossary of medieval history terms /2g2A short glossary of architecturalterms / 327A short glossary of art terms / 341A short glossary of musical terms / 346General Bibliography / 354List of abbreviations and symbols / 355

General Index / 357

6

Unit One

Prehistoric Britain and Celtic Britain

Little is known about primitive Man in the Palaeolithic Age, except fora few human remains known as Boxgrove Man (West Sussex, radio-carbondated 1993 to c. 500,000 BC) and Swanscombe Man Q.{orth Kent, c. 200,000BC). A few engravings on bone have been found in five caves at CreswellCrags (Derbyshire, c. 13,000 BC, perhaps older).

The Mesolithic Age is practically unknown.The Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age is represented by:

o a wealth of rectangular trapezoidal earth mounds known as "long barrows"which apparently served as cornmunal tombs. There are 12 such long bar-rows in England, 14 in Wales and 7 in Scotland. A fine example thereof isthe West Kennet long barrow situated c. 2 miies south of Avebury (Wilt-shire) whose construction commenced c. 3,600 BC (i.e. some 500 years be-fore the first stage of Stonehenge, see infra) and was in use until c. 2,500BC. The earliest example is the White Barrow in Wiltshire dating from c.4,000 BC; it is 80 m long by 50 m wide. Long barrows used as collectivetombs can also be found in continental Celtic, Slavic and Baltic cultures.

o a prehi.storic village at Skara Brae (near Kirkwall, on the Mainland, OrkneyIslandsr c.2,500-2,000 BC) which is regarded as the best-preserved group ofhouses in Westem Europe, complete with old sandstone dressers2, straw-filled

I Also known as Pomona. There is another island, also called the Mainland, the largest ofthe Shetlands, with Lerwick as chief town.

2 Archaeological diggings from the Orkneys to the Giza Plateau in Egypt have uncoveredstone tools and other utilitarian objects, all ofwhich prove that they were in current usewell into the Bronze Age. There are no clear demarcation lines and certainly no cut-offpoints between the different Ages throughout the world, especially between Late Neolithicand Earl Bronze Age. The Bronze Age was in full swing in Continental Europe before itsemergence in Britain; the island of Crete was the centre for the expansion of the bronzetrade to Europe.

23

A SHORT HISTORY OF BRITISH CIVLISATION

beds and cupboards. It is thought that this New stone Age site must have beensuddenly covered by a sandstor- b.for" 2,000 BC, *r.i.fi *oura explain why ithas been so remarkably wefl-preserved (cf. the tuuu'.orr.r"a lompeii in Italy andso preserved it intact to this day).o Eur.ope's largest man-made ihulk,nou.rd at Silbury Hill, near west Kennetand Avebury (Wiltshire), rising to a height of 130 fti:;0;i*d radio_carbondated c. 2,200.

o Stonehenge on Salisbury plain (near.Al"rglry, wiltshire). This survivingmegalithic monument of rlgrld reputer, of whicil th" nrrt rior"s were laid inc. 3,000 BC2 has been built in three riug", (c..3,100 to c.ijhji, *,in "i_rights and lintels (called menhirs and dormens in continentJ.r Europe) form_ing trilithons. There are sarsen stones in an outer ring and bluestones in aninner ring. Despite some claims to the contrary, Stonehenge remains a dou_ble mystery: a'l was it used as a Druid temple, as an astronoinicat observatoryor as burial ground, or any combination thereof?, and,b/t o* *"." the hugeblocks, some weighing up to g0 tons, carried from mountains c. r50 milesaway?

stonehenge belongs to the so-calred wessex curturea. The curture is re_lated to the Hilversum culture of central Netherlands, netgir; and northemFrance, especially to the tumuli in Brittany (ancient e.-o.i"Jio ihe Romans). Itis also coltgmporary with the Beaker Folk culture of the Middre Rhine (Gtock_enbecherkultar). wessex culture has been subdivided r.rto w"ss"* I (c. 2,000_c'1,650 BC) and wessex II (c .r,650-c.1,400 BC). Stonehenge lit, i... the thirdbuilding stage of Stonehenge, makes ihis megalithic moriument correspondchronologically with Wesser L

t Since 1986 is has been on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.t This makes the monument half a millennium older than tte *o.ld fu.nou, step pyramid atsaqqara reputedly built for p-hqaoh Djoser (old Kingdom,-gra^ovnur,vl by Imhotep.However, the Neolithic site.of Gob.ekri Tepe in soutrreist enuioiiffi.t.y;, with its T_shaped 9 ft tall pillars placed on a hilltop pr"dut", Stonehenge uy rorri"-z,oo0 years, being

, the oldest man-made sanctuary yet discovered.' Stage III, c. 1,800-1,500 BC, makes it contemporaneous with the temple of Hatshepsut(New Kingdom, l8th dynasty) at Deir el-Bahri. The rrrst."r**".i"'stonehenge is byGeoffrey of Monmouth (q.v.j according to whom the giant .o.t, *"." r.ought by Giantsfrom Africa and placed on Mount Killaiaus (another fiction) in lreland. As it was said thatthe rocks had hearing properties, Merrin, the Sorcerer, and Utha pendragon (King Arthur,sfarher) at the head of r5,0b0 knighrs shiited rherocks onro suriruuf F[in.o This is the predominant prehisto-ric culture oit"nt ur and southern g.ituln during the EarlyBronze Age, as defined by archaeologist Stuart piggot in rs:a, ;rJl;r;rdingly has noth_ing to do with the Anglo-Saxon kingd-om or*"rr"^ of much later date.

24

Stone Age site must have beenC, whichwould explain why it,a covered pompeii in Italy and

lbury Hill, near West Kenneti0 ft (= 40 m) and radio_carbon

),, Wiltshire). This survivingh the first stones were laid ii3,100 to c.1,500)3, with up_n Continental Europe) form_:er nng and bluestones in an. Stonehenge remains a dou_an astronomical observatory

?, and b/ how were the hug!rom mountains c. 150 miles

r culture4. The culfure is re_nds, Belgium and northemArmorica to the Romans). Itrf the Middle Rhine (Glock_ed into Wessex I (c. 2,000_itonehenge III, i.e. the thirdrhic monument correspond

: Sites.: u'orld famous step pyramid at,T, 3r9 dynasty) by Imhorep..A-natolia (Turkey), with its i_

r_ee by some 7,000 years, being

ivith the temple of Hatshepsutreference to_stonehenge ii Uyrocxs were brought by Giants

) rn Ireland. As it was said that-ttha Pendragon (King Arrhur,s'alrsburv Plain.rthern Britain during the Early138. and accordingly has noth-r later date.

Prehistoric Britain and Celtic Britain

One of the earliest references to Stonehenge appears in the "Chronicleof Robert of Gloucester" (c. 1,300 AD) compiled in Middle English:

"Upo the plein of Salesbury that other wonder is,That Stonheng is icluped, none more wonder nis.Evene upright and suithe heigh, that wonder hit is to se,

The stones stondeth there so grete, none more nemowe be;And othere liggeth heie above that man may be aferd,That eche manwondry may, hou hii wereferst arered."

(Glossary: icluped: called, none more: greater, suithe = v€ry, nemowe: can-not, liggeth: lie, hii = they)

r Also in Wiltshire stand the megalithic stone circles at Avebury, Europe'slargest, constructed c. 2,000 BC, as well as the Neolithic ceremonial monu-ment called Woodhenge situated 2 miles northeast of Stonehenge, just northof Amesbury. The latter monument dates from c. 2,300 BC, which makes itcontemporary with the middle phases of the 3rd building stage of Stonehenge.

o Rudston near Bridlington (East Yorkshire) has the tallest free-standing stone(monolith) in ail Britain. Situated quite close to the parish Church of AllSaints, it is 25 ft (:7.6 m) high and weighs about 46 tonnesr.

o Scotland has two impressive stone circles. One is situated at Tomnaverienear Tarlan (in Aberdeenshire), the other at Torhouse near Wigtown (inDumfries and Galloway council area). Both date from c. 2,000 BC. There isalso a very fine megalithic stone circle dating from c. 3,000 BC at Callanishnear Stornoway on the island of Lewis and Harris in the Outer Hebrides.

Around tne tfrirO millennium BC, well before the arrival of the Beaker Follgthe westem parts of Britain (i.e. Wales and Comwall), as well as keland, were settledby the Iberians. These were a Neolithic, Caucasoid (i.e. predominantly white-skinned)people who had probably come from Norttr Africa and who have given their name tothe lberian Penirsula. Lr addition to Spain, faces of this population have been foundin southem France, in Corsica and in the Canary Isles. Anthropologically speaking,the Iberians were small, dark and dolicocephalic (i.e. long-headed). They are thoughtto be the distant forefathers of the present inhabitanb of Wales and Comwall.

Other outstanding artefacts from the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age:

o gold lunulas with neat geometric designs (c.2,300-1,600 BC) found in a peatbog on Mangerton Mount, country Kerry, Ireland. Now on display in theBritish Museum.

t 0.907: 1 short ton:2000 pounds; i.016 tonne: I long ton:2240pounds (See also UnitTwo: Roman Britain).

25

, _ ,.,

i.i.

A SHORT HISTORY OF BRITISH CIWLISATION

o an embossed solid sheet-gold cape dating^fom bglween (c 2,400-r,600 BC)found at Mold, clwyd, in nortrreast wares. Arso in the British Museum. In shapeand design, it much resembles the capes wom by Egypti*;"y;fty.r bell beakers engraved with a twisGd cord impreisea into trre wet clay, or acomb (indicative of the grooming habits of tire ;;k",.j; ol .u"r, a toothedy.h":l. These large, wide-mouthei drinking vessels ,"r"#ui. old continentalblack pottery, but.also. modern English

!-rack pottery^lriirr hi"g made atPrinknash Abbey in.GloucestershirJ) and Romanian braci pottery (Margi_nea, county suceava). These artefacts are ascribed to tt.-.o_"ulled BeakerFolk thought to have come from cenhar Egrgne ".*"J2,+00 BC (whichwould account for similarities of shape and design)

"r ilr" time of Stone_

l.-"9.-T. They were.brachycephalic (round-headed) and taler than the Neo_lithic Britons with whom theyintenningled, and they arro*la individual tomass graves, such.as the one dug up at Barnack, a viilage in cambridg.st irgwhere a human skeleton *u, ronna in a crouched pJsition and the gravegoods included a beaker?ot g{ a copper dagger. rt-ir-ti""grrt that bronzewas first brought over to Britain by the Beaker Folk.o Also from the Bronze Age are the peterbolough i*a, 1rt"t"tons, weapons,jewels dug up in 1989) aJwe'l as (from g: L# er"*JA;"j a stone house,:?Tirk*tv well preserved,

_ compiete wit! rto.r" t *it*!-(including bedsfilled with sfaw) forurd at Tofts Ness on sanday (orkney rrmai, c. g00 BC).o The Milton Keynes Hoard is so far the rargest rrouro oi rute Bronze Agejewellery found in Britain (in Buckinghamshlre). It

"orrrp.ir"r r*o solid gordtorques and three gord bracelets weighin g 2.2 kg. rr f".-i""" dated to c.1150-800 BC. On display in the Britist M.rr"rrrn.

In the 6th-5th cenh*i:r--Bc, o*t* the Early hon Age, Britain was in-vaded by the Hallstatt !3rt1 fo-rrowed (:razna cc) fy tn. r-u rerr" certs. Thenew arrivals mingled with the rocal Iberians with ihe resurt that a new popura_tion of mixed blood was born, namely the Celtiberians.

' Remains of the La Tdne culture are few and far between, viz.:e the "Hendy Head" carved in sandston"t ,u.pririrr-gt,'iii""r.. fike a fla,-headed, long-nosed orang-utanr with a wise ""pr"rrion o'i,, smiley face.Found on farmland near Llanfairpwell, Anglesey (c 100 BCtr horse masks in repoussd-bronzelTorrs, south dcottano;

".-iooBC. It is un_clear whether it was used as animai protec^tion in battle or, u, rru, been sug-gested, as a faciar mask suggesting a sort of shamanistic rituar.

t Only Asia is home to the orang-utan.

26

T Tt "tr (c 2,400-1,600 BC)

r in the British Museum. In shapey Egyptian royalry.Lpressed into the wet clay, or a!e makers), or even a toothed:ssels resemble old Continentalk ponery (still being made at

lTP3t black pottery (Margi-nbed to the so_called Bealierope around 2,400 BC (whichdesign) at the time of 3too"_:aded) and taller than the Neo_rd they favoured individual to_c a village in Cambridgeshire,uched position and the grave€er. It is thought that bronzeFolk.gh finds (skeletons, weapons,:e Bronze Age) a stone htuse,ne- furnifure (including bedsOrkney Islands, c. gO0 BC).j loard of Late Bronze Age). It comprises two solid gjdkg. It has been dated to c.

l.

ePrehistoric Britain and Celtic Britain

r engraved bronze mirrors (Birdlip, Cotswolds) c. 100 BC which are indica-tive of the Celts'preoccupation with hairstyle and fashion.

o the Snettisham Hoard found between 1948-1959 at Snettisham outsideKing's Lynn (Norfolk), consisting of c. 180 pieces of jewellery, mostlygolden or electrum twisted neck rings (torques or torcs) dating from 70 BC,now on diplay at the British Museum and at Norwich Castle Museum. Simi-lar Iron Age torques have been unearthed at Sedgeford (l'Iorfolk) in 1965, atStirling in 2003 and at Newark Q.{ottinghamshire) in 2005. They have beenvariously dated to between 300-50 BC.

o the Witham shield (< River Witham, Lincolnshire),? 4th-3rd c. BC, made ofa single piece of bronze (which was unusual) showing a high degree ofcraftsmanship.

o the Waterloo Bridge helmet and the Battersea shield (the latter made of threebronze sheets), dated to 2nd-lst c. BC, which were found in the Thames riv-erbed (London area). The helmet is unique in that it is the only homed hel-met to have been found in Europe before the time of the Vikings. Both arte-facts are on display at the British Museum,

o In 1943, in Lake Llyn Cerrig Bach on the Isle of Anglesey, a large hoard ofc. 150 artefacts of bronze and iron was discovered dating from the Iron Age(La Tdne), including spearheads, swords, shields and chariot parts, but also abronze trumpet. They are on display at the National Museum of Wales inCardiff. It would seem that the artefacts had been thrown into the lake as vo-tive offerings, as Anglesey was a powerful Druidic centrel.

o The so-called Stanwick hoard was found in 1843 in the village of StanwickSt John situated between Richmond and Darlington in North Yorkshire.They contain 140 metal artefacts including four sets of horse hamess forchariots, and a stylized horse mask from c. AD 50. Completely surroundingthe village are Stanwick Iron Age fortifications, a huge Iron Age hillfortcomprising 6 miles (:10 km) of ditches and ramparts covering some 700acres of land. Some think that they were the defences of Rigodunum, thecapital of Brigantia in the time of Cartimandua, queen regnant of the Brigan-tes (see Unit Two ---+).

Speaking of hillforts, these are a type of fortified settlements taking ad-vantage of natural forms of relief, such as hills (whence their name). As a rule,the fortifications follow the contour of the hill. They have one or more lines ofearthwork, some with ramparts or defensive walls, and external ditches. Thereare over 2,000 of them in the British Isles, mostly in Devon and Somerset. Theycan also be found in Scandinavia and northem Russia, the Baltic States, Ger-

t These artefacts show that bronze-made articles continued being made well into the IronAge, contrary to popular belief.

ly kon Age, Britain was in_t by the La Tdne Celts. Thehe result that a new popula-ns.far between, viz.:singly, it looks like a flat_rression on its smiley face.(c. 100 BC).oJland) c. 200 BC. It is un_r baftle or, as has been sug_anistic ritual.

27

A SHORT HISTORY OF BRITISH CIVIISATION

many, Poland, the czech Republic, France, Spain and portugar. one of the fin_est and best-preserved exemplars, Maiden Castle, is near thJ iown of Dorches-ter, in the county otf9pet.._extending over an area of 47 acres (:19 hectares) inthe territory of the celtic tribe.of Duiotriges (see u"it i;;--j, i, i, the largesthillfort in Britain and one of the rargest i". n_*9n. tmpregnabie though it may-"11,"^1t'

it was captured by the Romans in AD +: at ttre tinie oithe craudian in_vaslon.o In 1963 two brass plaques showing human faces were found on Mount Cader

Idl.l in Gwynedd, northwestem ffui"r, in the Snowdonia National park.r In 1984, in a peat bog at Lindow Moss, Cheshire, the remains were found ofa human (freeze-dried.head and bust): rinao*vtandffil"y in the BritishMuseum) which has been radio-carton dated to lsi;";d; AD. By com_parison, Grauballe Man (Moesgaard Museum near Aarhus, Denmark), c.290BC, is a complete body with hair and nails.

The celts thought of theirgods as giants and so portrayed them as such. Themost famous of such "giants" is the so-called Ceme Abbas clurt "rrt

into thechalk hillside above the village of ceme Abbas near Dorchesier (Dorset). It isfh9 white figure of a naked man rg0 ft (:55 m) high, holding an enornous macein his right hand. In Roman times, it rnay have represented a very virile Hercu_les on account of his enormous erect p..ri., perhaps a fertility ,y-uor. It is some1,500 years old.o The Long Man of Wilmington cut into the side of Windover Hill on the South

Downs (Sussex) is 226 ft tall.r The white Horse at Uffington (oxfordshire)2 cut in the turf of the Berkshirechalk downs3 1c.lst c. BC) seems to have been a tribal emblem, since a simi-lar motif was found on pre-Roman coins of rocal celtic tribes. It is 374 ft (:110 m) long.

r A couple of years ago, a team of archaeorogists headed by phiiip crummy, ve!eran director of the colchester Archaeological Trust, *"r. iu"ty to fini nearcolchester (Essex) a medicar kit containing a scarper, forceps, and a saw. Thefind was dated to AD 43 which makes it contemporary with craudius,s invasionof Britain (see infra).

Tate Gallery (Millbank, London), now better hoyl r Tr: Britain, possesses a landcapeof Lake Ltyn-y-Cau on the volcanic mountain of Cader Idris by ni,i.*a wrron. oil oncanvas 67 x 90 cm.Before the tenitorial reorganization of r974,it was in historical Berkshire.Oddly enough, in English "downs" means "hills.',

28

-.fl

Prehistoric Britain and Celtic Britain

Celtic heritage

As well as the above remains, the Celtic heritage is mostly linguistic.For many cenfuries, Celtic languages were spoken in Britain, viz. Welsh andComish (which belong to the Brythonic group), Irish, Scots, and Manx (whichbelong to the Gaelic, or Goidelic, branch). Of these, some have virtually disap-peared, such as Manx and Cornish (now very infrequently spoken as an ac-quired language on the Isle of Man and in Comwall respectively). One Cornishword that has survived in contemporary English is "sea-gull" or "gull" (< Cor-nish "gullan"). To French-speaking tourists there are a few Cornish wordswhich pose no comprehension problems, e.g. "lyver" (book), "fenester" (win-dow), "doctour" (doctor). Cornish was most closely related to Breton spoken inBrittany (northwestern France), a language which seems to have originated inCornwall, with some Brythonic Celtic refugees fleeing the Anglo-Saxon inva-sions in the mid-fifth century AD. Comouailles, as well as being French forCornwall, is the name of a historic region (Cornouaille in Finistdre) and one ofthe four Breton dialects still spoken in Brittany, albeit on a small scalel. Speak-ing of France, very little is known about Gaulish, the oldest, long extinct, Celticlanguage.

The number of monoglot speakers of Scots Gaelic (or Erse) and Irish isconstantly on the decrease, the majority of speakers being bilingual. ScotsGaelic is commonly spoken in the Outer Hebrides, which explains why in al-most all places road signs are exclusively in Gaeiic. kish (also called Erse, ofwhich Scots Gaelic was an offshoot) is still spoken as the mother tongue bysome 50,000 in the western areas of the Republic of Ireland. It is taught as acompulsory subject in schools and is a requirement for civil service posts. Acomparison between Scots Gaelic (or Gaidhlig), kish Gaelic (or Gaeilge),Manx, and Cornish designating numerals from 1 to 10 can prove instructive (thefirst bracketed word is Scots,.the second Irish, the third Manx and the fourthCornish): I (aon, haon, nane, onen),2 (da, d6, jees, deu),3 (tri, tri, three, try),4(ceithir, ceathair, kiare, peswar), 5 (coig, ctiig, queig, pymp), 6 (sia, sd, shey,wh€gh),7 (seachd, seacht, shiaght, seyth), 8 (ochd, hocht, hoght, Ath),9 (naoi,naoi, nuy, naw), l0 (deich, deich, jeih, dAk). Celtic words can be either fairlytransparent (forg:fork; eilean=island; caisteal:castle; buntatalotato; litir=letter; putan:brttton; geata:gate) or quite opaque (truinnsear-plate; air-gioAmoney; orAhammer; cumanlail; luch=nouse; faradh:ladder;cuileag:fly. Who could imagine that "modern" Celtic words like "guthan",

I In most places in Brittany, road signs are bilingual: a well-known square in Rennes readsPlace de Bretagne alongside Plasenn Breizh. The same is true of Wales.

...fl-

in and Portugal. One of the fin_e, is near the town of Dorches_.:-ot 4lacres (:19 hectares) in: Ult Two --+), it is the Urjestp.

Fpf"gnable rhough it riayat rhe time of the Claudian in_

es were found on Mount Cader: Snowdonia National park.

9", th" remains were found ofMan (on display in the Britishto lst century AD. By com_

near Aarhus, Denmark), c.290

o portrayed them as such. The:rne Abbas Giant cut into therear Dorchester (Dorset). It islh, holding an enonnous macerresented a very virile Hercu_s a fertilify symbol. It is some

rf Windover Hill on the South

It in the turf of the Berkshirer tribal emblem, since a simi_rl Celtic tribes. It is 374 ft (:aded by Philip Crummy, vet_rust, were lucky to find nearlpel, forceps, and a saw. Therary with Claudius's invasion

rte.Britain, possesses a landcapedris by Richard Wilson. Oil on

Betkhirc.

29

A SHORT HISTORY OF BRITISH CIVLISATION

"bat'adhair", "maor-sith" and "trillsean" mean terephone, aeroplane, policemanand electric torch, respectively? or that ,,uisge,,

is Gaelic ro. i"ot.r, whisky?There are still a number of Scots Eiglish words

"r.J'i" StandaJEng-lish, like "cairn", "1:"ll:-'l.b.o'], r'brae", "gl"ni' ir"rriJli ;;;, with. kish Eng-lish), "loch", "firth",_ t'ilk't, *clan", ,,tartai1,', llkilt,',

,'plaid;- ,rPorran,,, ,,dirk,,,"slogan", "bonnie",^"b1im'', ',burgh", "Hl!", 'rlassie,','r;;;,,,, ,,cookie,,, ,,gigot,,,'Jotter", "links", "fresher", t'Higiheist', "Lord provost,,, ;,Hogmanay,,, ,,AuldLang syne" (now the title

-of a song fog* throughout the Engrish-speakingworld), and "whisky" (snel.t "whisGy" in Ireland'ana uie, and commonrycalled "Scotch" everywhere), some oi which ur. i","*urio"uily known. ScotsEnglish, also known as Lallans, can still be heard in the Lowiands. It has pro__{y"-.d

the poetry of Robert Burns and Hugh MacDiarmid, u, *"il as the tales ofwalter Scott. Its use.is encouraged and fept uri"" ly-til" -ugazine ,,Lallans,,.

Typical Scots English phrases. tfat may stilt be hearo in ,u"ryauy speech in_clude "what do you^cry (: call) him?", i'mask (: make / brewjtne tea,,, ,,wheredo you ltuy (: live)?", "far ben" (= on very friendly terms) . i. comparison be-tween phrases like "to^take something to avizandum" (: to consiaei a matterj,"do you mind when

.?] (: do you rememter when ...?), ,,bid. u*"",, (: wait abit), "the back of lO.o'clock" 1: strortty after 10 o'.to"kj or-'ni*u fash yersel,,(: dont bother) speaks volumes about the difference between scots English andScots Gaelic. Most.:*?T"r_ beginning ylth Mac_ f"fr" ,p.ft Mc_, meaning

"son"), as in Macmillan, Mackintish, f"Adu*, MacDonald, Macleod, McAt-pine, McDiarmid, Macpherson, are typically Scottish.Irish (i.e. Irish Gaelic) can stiil be occasionally heard in the Far West ofIreland in a few areas collectively called the Gaeltacht. There are several dia-lects (Munster, connacht, Donegal and Dubrin). The number of monoglot

speakers of Irish, whalever the diilect, is extremely small despite a revival ofinterest in this old celtic language (rnostly for poiiticai *"*ir.i. The officialname of the "hish Free State" (1922-lg37j *u, 'suo.rt6t

Eireann. The name ofthe Irish.nationalist party Sinn Fdin means "We Ourselves,'. The state radio andTV service is called Raidi6 Teilifis Eireann. Since the 70s there has also been aradio station called Raidi6 na Gaeltachta. A numbe. orpu"e_names have beenAnglicised following the repeated intermittent waves Jr B"giirr, immigrants.pne. sych. game is Tyrone-(i.e. county Tyrone) which ir u' arilt"isation of Tirrggha]n ("land of "). Dublin comes from Duibhlinn, literally ;[Lck pool, , (dubh:.!h:k' Iinn: pool). The locar name of the capitar city oriretano i, guil"'AlhuCliath.

kish English is. the Engrish ranguage spoken in herand with a heavyadmixture of kish Gaelic_ words and syr6x. A perfect illustration of the state ofAnglo-Irish is given by Jonathan swift who, in two u"rr"rqu" fieces (',A Dia-logue in Hibernian Style" and "Irish Eloquence"), satirizes tt e patois spoken in

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Iephone, aeroplane, policemanGaelic for Scotch whisky?

t-words used in StandardEng_

"hich it shares with kish Eni_

tt',,, t'plaidtt, ttsporrantt, ttdirk;,;ie", t'weetr ttcookiettr rtgigottt,rovost", "Hogmanay", -"Iuldrughout- the English_speakingrd and USA, and commonlyintemationally known. Scots

t.in the Lowlands. It has pro_)iarmid, as well as the talei ofe by the magazine "Lallans,,.reard in everyday speech in_nake / brew) the tea;', "wherely terms) . A comparison be_mo" (: to consider a matter),n ...?), "bide awee', (: wait aclock) or "dinna fash yersel"e between Scots English and:- (also-spelt Mc_, meaningacDonald, Macleod, McAI_h.tlly heard in the Far West ofacht. There are several dia_The number of monoglot

y small despite a revival ofitical reasons). The officialrrstdt Eireann. The name ofselves". The state radio andre 70s there has also been a: of place-names have been,'es of English immigrants.h rs an Anglicisation of Tirliterally "black pool,, (dubhtry* of Ireland is Baile Atha

n.in heland with a heavyt illustration of the state ofburlesque pieces ("A Dia_irizes the patois spoken in

Prehistoric Britain and Celtic Britain

his native town Dublin. The Standard English word "brogue" meaning strongwalking shoes for outdoor use, with thick soles and an ornamental pattern ofsmall holes in the leather uppers (when used in the plural: "brogues"), but also astrong local accent (when used in the singular: "Irish brogue") comes from br6g(the Irish word for "shoe"). This is a way of saying that the true-born Irishmanspeaks with a "shoe on his tongue", a phrase borrowed from Irish Gaelic that isstill current in Irish English. kish English words are "bally" (town), "beaker"(m.rg), "boreen" (lane, by-road), "broughan" (porridge), "abroad" (outside), "ereyesterday" (the day before yesterday), "evening" (afternoon), "Old Year'sNight" Q.{ew Year's Eve), "planters" (English or Scots settlers in Ireland). Typi-cal Irish English idioms include "put something on the long finger" (put smth.off;, "take the headstaggers" (go crazy), "to be at oneself' (to be feeling fine),"to be after doing something" (to have just done something), "you suit you hairlong" (long hair suits you). A phrase iike "Is it ready you are?" (Are you ready?)is indicative of Gaelic word-order. On the other hand, there are quite a numberof Irish words, like "bog", "glen" (also used in Scots English) or "smithereens",that have become part and parcel of Standard English. Irish English can best besampled in the poetry of William Butler Yeats, the novels of James Joyce andthe plays of Sean O'Casey and John Millington Synge. Surnames beginningwith O - (from d = grandson), like O'Connor, O'Malley and O'Shaughnessy, areunmistakably kish. Surnames beginning with Mac- (or Mc) can be either Scot-tish (see supra) or hish: MacArthur, McCarthy.

Welsh (known locally as Cymraeg) still holds its own, particularly inthe rural areas; in the past three decades or so there has been a revival ofinterestin Welsh that has received no insignificant support from the local media, i.e.S4C (Sianel Pedwar Cymru), and Radio Wales (Radio Cymru) with exclusivelyWelsh-language programmes. BBC Wales is the only television channel broad-casting in English. The Welsh Language Act of 1993 gave Welsh and Englishequal status not only in court proceedings, but in pubiic life generallyr. Roadsigns everywhere are now bilingual. The Welsh Nationalist Party is called PlaidCymru. Welsh is also taught in schools even where Welsh children are a minor-ity group. According to the Welsh Language Use Survey of 2004, almost 22%o

of the population can speak Welsh. To a much lesser extent, the same is true ofCornish (Kernowek). Welsh and Comish are so widely different from StandardEnglish that there is nothing in between. There is nothing like a Welsh English,or a Cornish English, distinct dialect. Welsh English (Wenglish) is the variety ofEnglish spoken in Wales, with a slight admixture of Welsh graflrmar and lexis,and this is also valid for Cornish now spoken by some 300 people out of a local

t Thir r"u".red the provisions of the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542 which made Englishthe only language used in court.

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