AN ROINN COMHSHAOIL

AGRICULTURE

FORESTRY

MARINE RESOURCES

ENERGY

INDUSTRY

TRANSPORT

TOURISM

TRADE

Printed on recycled paper

AN ROINN COMHSHAOIL

Printed on recycled paper

© Government of Ireland 1997

ISBN 0706 3850-X

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Contents

Minister's Foreword/Brollach leis an Aire

Part I Strategic Programme 1

1 Summary of Key Strategic Actions 3

Part II Strategic Framework 17

2 Overview 19

3 Overall Goals and Priorities 25

4 Environment and Economic Development 29

Part III Strategic Sectors 35

5 Agriculture 37

6 Forestry 53

7 Marine Resources 61

8 Energy 69

9 Industry 83

10 Transport 101

11 Tourism 115

12 Trade 125

Part IV Supporting the Strategy 131

13 Environmental Quality 133

14 Spatial Planning and Land Use 145

15 The Built Environment 149

16 Public Action and Awareness 157

17 Ireland in the International Community 169

Part V Implementing and Monitoring the Strategy 175

18 Monitoring and Indicators 177

19 Implementation and Review 183

Appendices

I Some Economic, Social and Environmental Trends 191

II List of those who made submissions as part of thePublic Consultation Process on the Strategy 241

III References 243

Sustainable development is one of the most universally endorsed aspi-

rations of our time. It has been defined as development which meets the

needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of

future generations to meet their own needs.

Continued economic growth is essential to meet people's legitimate

ambitions for a better life and to provide the resources for implementing

environmental protection measures. But we should not tolerate devel-

opment that is inefficient, that is excessive in its consumption of natural

resources or that unduly pressurises the environment.

The Irish public already strongly support this assessment. In a recent EU commissioned atti-

tude survey, only 9% of Irish people agreed that economic development was more important

than environmental protection. The overwhelming majority, some 68%, wanted economic

development to be progressed but the environment to be protected at the same time.

Sustainable development is also about solidarity: solidarity between the present and future

generations, between various participants in our society and between different countries.

This National Sustainable Development Strategy is designed to apply considerations of sus-

tainability more systematically to Irish economic policies and to integrate them into associat-

ed decision making processes. The EPA’s State of the Environment in Ireland shows that

Ireland's environment, while still generally of a high quality, is affected by a number of

adverse trends and serious threats.

There are two ways of responding to these problems. First and immediately, we need where

possible to establish specific counter-measures to mitigate adverse environmental effects.

Regulation, improved environmental infrastructure and other targeted actions are all impor-

tant in providing solutions of this kind.

But we must also get the fundamentals right. Environmentally adverse trends can only be

radically reversed by having the main economic sectors pull with rather than against the

environment.

We must do more with less. We must reduce the intensity of natural resource consumption

associated with energy, industrial and agricultural production. We need more efficient and

sparing use of transport and of consumer goods. Through changes of this kind, excessive

Foreword by Mr. Brendan Howlin, T.D., Minister for the Environment

waste generation and pressures on air, water and soil are headed off at source. This is the

meaning of sustainable development.

More sustainable approaches to economic activity will also be assisted by a better valuation

and pricing of relevant products and services. The external polluting impact of products and

services must be better factored into their costs so that consumers receive the right price sig-

nals to inform their market choices.

Sustainable development is not just a constraint on the economy. In the Irish situation, it offers

many opportunities to enhance the marketing of key natural resource based industries and to

exploit the fast growing world market for environmental goods and services. Adoption of

sustainable policies is calculated to increase rather than threaten Irish employment.

This Government Strategy is important in providing a focus for the concept of sustainable

development and a plan for its integration into key economic sectors. But achieving sustain-

able development is a continuing task; that is why the Strategy also puts in place mechanisms

for monitoring and review. I intend that these will be actively deployed.

I am satisfied that this new Strategy reflects and takes forward Ireland's commitment to the

principles and agenda for sustainable development agreed at the Earth Summit in Rio in

1992. It responds also to the EU Fifth Action Programme for the Environment, which was

reviewed during the Irish Presidency of the European Union and in whose implementation

Ireland is actively participating. The Strategy will assist Ireland's participation in the major

UN review of Agenda 21 which will take place at a Special Session of the General Assembly

in June 1997.

Brendan Howlin T.D.

Minister for the Environment

Tá forbairt inmharthana mar cheann de na mianta dár linne lena réitítear go huilíoch.

Sainmhíníotar í mar fhorbairt a riarann ar riachtanais na glúine seo gan chumas na nglúnta

atá le teacht a gcás féin a riaradh a chur i gcontúirt.

Ní foláir fás eacnamaíochta leanúnach chun uaillmhianta dlisteanacha daoine ar saol níos

fearr a shásamh, agus chun na hacmhainní a sholáthar chun bearta d'fhonn cosaint na tim-

peallachta a chur i gcrích. Ach ní chóir dúinn glacadh le forbairt atá neamhéifeachtach, a

ídíonn achmainní nádúrtha go hiomarcach, nó a chuireann brú éagorach ar an dtimpeallacht.

Aontaíonn pobal na hÉireann go láidir leis an measúnú seo cheana féin. I suirbhé a iarraidh

an CE le déanaí, níor aontaigh ach 9% de phobal na hÉireann go raibh forbairt eacnamaíochta

níos tábhachtaí ná cosaint na timpeallachta. Theastaigh ón mórchuid millteanach, 68%,

leanacht le forbairt eacnamaíochta ach an timpeallacht a chosaint ag an am céanna.

Tá dlúthpháirtíocht mar chuid d'fhorbairt inmharthana freisin: dlúthpháirtíocht idir an

ghlúin atá anois ann agus dóibh siúd a bheas ann amach anseo, idir rannpháirtithe éagsúla

an sochaí againne, agus idir tíortha éagsúla.

Ceaptar an Stráitéis Forbartha Inmharthana Náisiúnta seo chun cúrsaí cothabhála a chur i

bhfeidhm ar bhealach níos struchtúrtha i bpolasaithe eacnamaíochta na hÉireann, agus chun

iad a thabhairt isteach sna bproiséis cinnteoireachta a bhfuil bainteach leo. Taispeánann an

Tuairisc ar Staid an Chomhshaoil (An Ghníomhaireacht um Chaomhnú Comhshaoil, 1996) go

gcuireann treonna naimhdeacha agus bagartha chinniúnacha isteach ar timpeallacht na

hÉireann, cé go bhfuil ard-chineál ar an dtimpeallacht sin go ginéarálta.

Is féidir diriú ar na fadhbanna seo i ndá shlí. I dtús báire, ní mór dúinn, áit ar féidir, frithb-

heartanna faoi leith a bhunú chun toraidh naimhdeacha comhshaoil a laghdú. Tá rialachán,

infrastructúr feabhsaithe comhshaoil, agus gníomhaithe le cuspóirí eile go léir tábhachtach

chun teacht ar réitigh den chineál seo.

Ach ní mór dúinn na bunphrionsabail cearta a aimsiú chomh maith. Ní féidir treonna

naimhdeacha comhshaoil a aisiompú go fréamhaí gan na príomh-earnálacha eacnamaíochta

a bheith ag obair ar son na timpeallachta, in áit ina coinne.

Caithfimid breis a dhéanamh le níos lú. Caithfimid tréine ídiú achmhainní nádúrtha, atá

comhcheangailte le fuinnimh, táirgeadh tionsclaíoch agus talmhaíocht, a laghdú. Tá gá le

húsáid níos éifeachtaigh agus níos coigiltí d'iompair agus d'earraí íditheora. Is tríd athruithe

Brollach leis an Aire Comhshaoil

den chineál seo a sháraítear, ag an bhfoinse, táirgeadh truflaise iomarcach agus brúnna ar aer,

uisce agus talamh. Seo is brí le forbairt inmharthana.

Rachfaidh luacháil agus meastóireacht níos fearr ar tháirgí agus ar sheirbhísí ábharthacha i

gcabhair ar bhealaí níos inmharthanaí chuig gníomhaíocht eacnamaíochta. Ní mór turraing

sálú imeallach de tháirgí agus seirbhísí a chur isteach ina gcostaisí, chun go mbeidh tuilleadh

eolais ag íditheoirí ó chomharthaí praghsanna agus rogha margaidh á dhéanamh acu.

Ní iallach ar an eacnamaíocht í forbairt inmharthana. I gcás na hÉireann, cuireann sí go leor

deiseanna ar fáil margaí méadaithe a bhaint amach do thionscail bunaithe ar achmhainní

nádúrtha, agus sochar a bhaint as an margadh domhanda do tháirgí agus do sheirbhísí

comhshaoil, atá ag fás go tapaidh. Is féidir le polasaí inmharthanachta fostaíocht in Éirinn a

mhéadú, seachas a bheith mar bhagairt uirthi.

Tá an Stráitéis Rialtais seo tábhachtach chun fócas a thabhairt ar choincheap forbartha

inmharthana agus ar phlean chun í a chur i ngníomh sna phríomh-earnálacha. Ach is saothar

leanúnach í chun forbairt inmharthana a chur i gcrích; sin é an fáth go mbunaíonn an Stráitéis

meicníochtaí le haghaidh monatóireacht agus athbhreithniú. Tá sé de chuspóir agam go

mbainfí úsáid gníomhach astu siúd.

Táim sásta go dtaispeánann agus go gcuireann an Stráitéis seo le ceangal na hÉireann leis na

prionsabail agus leis an gclár d'fhorbairt inmharthana a shocraíodh ag Cruinniú Mullaigh na

Cruinne i Rio i 1992. Tugann sí freagra freisin ar an 5ú Clár Gníomhaíochta ar an

dTimpeallacht den CE, a rinneadh athbhreithniú air le linn Uachtaránacht na hÉireann ar an

gComhphobal Eorpach, agus ina a bhfuil Éire páirteach go fuinniúil ina chomhlíonadh.

Cabhróidh an Stráitéis le rannpháirtíocht na hÉireann san mhór-athbhreithniú ar Chlár 21 ag

Seisiún Speisialta de Thionól Ginéarálta na Náisiún Aontaithe i mí Mheithimh, 1997.

Breandán Ó hÚilín

Aire Comhshaoil

National Sustainable Development Strategy

page vi

PART 1 - STRATEGIC PROGRAMME

1 Summary of Key Strategic Actions

The principal purpose of the Strategy is to pro-vide a comprehensive analysis and frameworkwhich will allow sustainable development to betaken forward more systematically in Ireland.This process cannot be completed by theStrategy document itself, but requires a continu-ing adaptation and review of policies, actionsand lifestyles. It is not, therefore, intended thatthe main impact or contribution of the Strategyshould consist in a series of discrete new initia-tives. However, for ease of reference variousspecific initiatives indicated in the Strategy areset out below.

Securing Sustainable Development:Better Supporting Structures

• The Government will propose that the JointOireachtas Committee on SustainableDevelopment should become a standingCommittee of the Oireachtas to oversee rele-vant policy development and the implementa-tion of this Strategy.

• The Government will establish a NationalSustainable Development Council, indepen-dently chaired and with wide representationfrom Social Partners and environmental NGOsto facilitate participation in the achievement ofsustainable development and promote consul-tation and dialogue.

• Relevant Government Departments, and theEPA as appropriate, will be designated as TaskManagers to lead in the development of themore detailed processes and measures neces-sary to give full effect to the Strategy. Theirreports, and the National SustainableDevelopment Council's comments on them,will provide a basis for the periodic review ofthe Strategy by Government.

• Regional Authorities will have ongoingresponsibility for the regionalisation of theStrategy. They will be asked to define region-al sustainability priorities, recommend appro-priate implementation mechanisms in the

regions, and develop regional sustainabilityindicators. Regional Sustainability Fora willbe held in 1997.

• An Eco-Management and Audit Scheme willbe developed for local government.

• Local authorities have a key role as environ-ment protection authorities and agents of sus-tainable development. All local authoritieswill be asked to complete a Local Agenda 21for their areas by 1998.

• Sustainable development projects by localauthorities and NGOs in partnership will beco-funded by a new Environment PartnershipFund.

• Government will bring forward proposals,within three years, to develop a strategic envi-ronmental impact assessment (SEA) systemfor major plans and programmes, in additionto supporting EU proposals for SEA of landuse plans and programmes.

A Positive Impact on Enterprise andEmployment

• In line with Partnership 2000 Government willconsider further streamlining of the planningsystem and the introduction of acceleratedplanning procedures for major projects involv-ing significant employment and added value.

• Government will support a shift in tax bur-dens away from labour towards polluters.

• Government will develop suitable economicinstruments to improve internalisation ofexternal costs, including:- resource pricing;- green taxation measures; and - exploration of market-based instruments,

such as emissions trading, offering flexibili-ty to industry to achieve environmentalimprovements.

Chapter 1 Key Strategic Actions

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Key Strategic Actions

• Enterprise authorities will encourage and pro-mote the development of environmentalindustry.

• Government will maintain a substantial envi-ronmental infrastructure investment pro-gramme to underpin sustainable economicand social development.

• Active labour market policies will be pursuedto support the transition to cleaner productionand extension of environmental management.

Achieving Integration: BringingEnvironment to the Heart of SectoralPerformance

Agriculture

• The Government will extend environmentalcross-compliance as a standard considerationin respect of agricultural support generally orin selected schemes.

• The Code of Good Agricultural Practice to ProtectWaters from Pollution by Nitrates, launched inJuly 1996, and including recommendedNitrogen application rates, will be promotedby local authorities, Teagasc and farmer repre-sentative associations. The implementation ofthe Code will be closely monitored. Efforts toprevent build-up of nitrates in waters willmaintain and, where necessary, improve onthe quality of drinking water.

• The use of revised recommended applicationrates for phosphorus fertilisers for grassland(launched by Teagasc in December 1996) willbe encouraged and promoted so as to reducesoil P levels, where excessive to crop require-

ments at present, down to the recommendedlevels over a period of five years. In particular,the Strategy targets a reduction of 10% perannum in artificial P fertiliser usage over thenext five years.

• Appropriate adjustments will be made by theDepartment of Agriculture, Food and Forestryto the specification for the Rural EnvironmentProtection Scheme (REPS) to reduce phospho-rus losses from agriculture which contribute toeutrophication of rivers and lakes.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will produce comprehensive guid-ance and advice on agricultural practices forthe purpose of protecting all environmentalmedia and the ecosystems they support, andpromoting sustainable agriculture.

• Nutrient Management Planning (as now statu-torily provided for in the Waste ManagementAct, 1996), will be promoted mandatorily bylocal authorities in areas where theEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) waterquality data identify agriculture as a signifi-cant contributor to eutrophication of riversand lakes. Emphasis will be placed on suchplanning on an individual farms basis and incatchment and regional areas.

• Teagasc will continue to provide advice andeducational services to farmers, including thepromotion of awareness on the nutrient valueof farm wastes and the achievement of a moresustainable balance between soil inputs andoutputs. The services will be reviewed toallow greater targeting, in consultation withEPA, towards the catchments of eutrophicrivers and lakes.

• Intensive agriculture is a scheduled activity forthe purposes of Integrated Pollution Control(IPC) licensing under the EnvironmentalProtection Agency Act, 1992. IPC requirementsfor new activities were introduced inSeptember 1996 and IPC requirements forexisting activities will be phased in from 1998.

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• To assist in maintaining an environmentally-sound farming sector, the Government isintroducing, for a three-year period to 1999,improved capital allowances for targetedinvestment by farmers in pollution controlmeasures.

• A system of environmental management offarming in proposed Natural Heritage Areas(NHAs), including sustainable stocking densi-ties, will be elaborated between theDepartment of Agriculture, Food and Forestry,the Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht, Teagasc and REPS planning agen-cies, as well as environmental and farm organ-isations. Agreed conditions in this regard, cor-rectly applied, will provide for sustainablefarming systems in such areas, as well as plac-ing restrictions on environmentally-damagingactivities.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry is seeking the approval of theEuropean Commission to extend the applica-tion of REPS in overgrazed areas from 5 to 15years. Measures will also be put in place toensure that the environmental benefitsachieved under REPS in designated common-age areas are not diminished by non-partici-pants in the scheme.

• An uptake of 30% of farmers in REPS will beachieved by the year 1999.

• The National Biodiversity Plan, to be complet-ed by end-1997, will identify the actions neces-sary to preserve biodiversity, including speciesand habitats, from human activities includingthe pressures of agriculture.

• The Department of the Environment will reviewthe regulatory thresholds for environmentalimpact assessment of drainage works in 1997.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will coordinate action to improveinformation on the use of pesticides, and toreduce the environmental risks associatedwith their storage, use and disposal.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will continue its support for organicfarming, including financial support for mea-sures to improve marketing and public aware-ness of the environmental benefits of organicproducts.

• A farm plastic films recovery scheme, a volun-tary initiative involving industry and farmingoperations, is commencing operation in 1997,and will contribute to national recycling tar-gets.

• The need for precaution in the use of geneti-cally modified organisms (GMOs) in food pro-duction is recognised. The new Food SafetyAuthority will be established in 1997, and willhave responsibility for novel foods. Betterlabelling provisions in Community legislationare being sought for products containingGMOs.

Forestry

• The threshold at which planning permissionand environmental impact assessment (EIA) isrequired for afforestation has been reducedwith effect from 1 October, 1996, from 200hectares to 70 hectares. In addition, planningpermission and EIA will now be required forcumulative afforestation which results in atotal area planted exceeding 70 hectares.

• The Minister for the Environment will takenew powers in relation to forestry control inthe next Local Government (Planning andDevelopment) Bill to enable planning permis-sion to be required for plantations whichwould not warrant EIA.

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• Forestry legislation will be reviewed to reflectthe principles of sustainable forestry develop-ment, as set out under the Helsinki process.As part of this process, Ireland will also devel-op a national sustainable forestry plan andnational criteria and indicators by whichprogress can be measured, and theDepartment of Agriculture, Food and Forestrywill develop a Code of Practice for sustainableforest management over the full forestry rota-tion period.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will implement a strategic plan forthe forestry sector in Ireland, which will takeaccount of sustainable development require-ments.

• The Department of the Environment hasissued draft consultation guidelines for plan-ning authorities in relation to forestry and theneed to protect views and scenic areas, land-scape and water quality, and the natural andarchaeological heritage and to avoid rural iso-lation. These guidelines will be finalised in1997. In accordance with the guidelines, plan-ning authorities will be entitled to designateareas which they consider to be sensitive toforestry development, and the Forest Servicewill notify these authorities of all proposedforestry developments, regardless of size,within such designated areas.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will regularly review its existing envi-ronmental controls, including its existingguidelines in relation to the landscape, fish-eries and archaeology, and will introduce newguidelines on wildlife and habitat diversity,harvesting and clearfelling, use of chemicalsand herbicides, and amenity and recreation.Particular attention will be paid to the plan-ting of broadleaf trees on the margins of largeconiferous plantations.

Marine resources

• Ireland will continue to support efforts, underthe EU Common Fisheries Policy (CFP), tooptimise the management and conservation ofsea fisheries in the interests of sustainable andrenewable use.

• In this context, Ireland will support the devel-opment within the CFP of further measures toreduce the catching of juvenile fish, throughimprovements in the selectivity of fishing gearand other technical conservation measures,and monitor and quantify the by-catch ofcetacea in fishing gear, as required by theHabitats Directive.

• National measures will be maintained to con-serve inshore fish-stocks of salmon, sea-troutand bass. A new salmon management strate-gy is being implemented on a phased basis.

• The Minister for the Marine has introduced pro-posed legislation to establish a new licensing andregulatory system for aquaculture. The new sys-tem will include an independent Appeals Board.

• The Dumping at Sea Act, 1996, will be imple-mented to prohibit waste dumping in themajority of situations and ensure rigorous con-trol of residual disposals.

• Existing regulations for preventing pollutionfrom port operations and ships in harbourswill be reinforced by the express duty of portcompanies established by the Harbours Act,1996, to have due regard to the consequencesof their activities on the environment.

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• Ireland will ratify the Convention for theProtection of the Marine Environment of theNorth-East Atlantic (OSPAR) in 1997.

• A Quality Status Report, required by theOSPAR Convention, is being prepared for theIrish and Celtic Sea and areas west of Irelandand Scotland in cooperation with the UKauthorities.

• Cooperation with UK authorities on manage-ment and monitoring of the Beaufort's Dykemunitions dumpsite will be continued, and aninventory of other dumpsites will be devel-oped in preparing the Quality Status Reportunder the OSPAR Convention.

• The Minister for the Environment will formu-late a policy directive to planning authorities,An Bord Pleanála and the EnvironmentalProtection Agency indicating that there shouldbe a presumption against the location of newlandfills adjacent to coasts or estuaries.

• The Framework Strategy for the developmentof the marine sector, to be published shortly bythe Department of the Marine, will take fullaccount of the requirements of sustainabledevelopment.

• The Department of the Marine, in consultationwith the Department of Transport, Energy andCommunications, is devising an updated andcomprehensive strategy to ensure that offshoreoil and gas exploration and development donot adversely affect the marine environment.

• The Government will continue to press in theappropriate international fora for the imple-mentation of a strict new code governing theshipment of nuclear materials, and will seek tohave the existing Code on the Safe Carriage ofIrradiated Nuclear Fuel, Plutonium and High-Level Radioactive Wastes in Flasks on Board Shipsmade mandatory.

Energy

• Energy conservation and demand side man-agement programmes will be encouraged andmonitored. The Irish Energy Centre will con-tinue to develop its energy conservation pro-gramme, including the promotion of energyefficiency in industry, the provision of techni-cal advice, and information campaigns andsupport measures.

• Under the Department of Transport, Energyand Communication's Renewable EnergyStrategy, installed electricity generating capac-ity from renewables will reach 10% of totalinstalled capacity by the end of 1999; furthergrowth under the strategy will increase this to14% by 2010.

• The Minister for Finance, in consultation withthe Minister for Transport, Energy andCommunications, will introduce new incen-tives to encourage investment in renewableenergies.

• For purposes of the UN climate change nego-tiations, Ireland has adopted an indicativenational objective of limiting the growth intotal emissions of carbon dioxide, methaneand nitrous oxide up to the year 2010 to 15%above their 1990 levels.

• A study has been commissioned to evaluatethe scope for intensifying (or introducing new)policies and measures to limit greenhouse gasemissions.

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• Action will be continued to reduce emissionsof sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (NOx)from power generation; these actions includefuel substitution, energy conservation andinstallation of low-NOx burners in somepower stations, supported as necessary by vol-untary agreements with energy producers.

• Ireland will ratify the Second Sulphur Protocol(Oslo Protocol) in 1997.

• In relation to emissions of NOx, Ireland willwork towards achievement of the more strin-gent emission ceilings now being developed atUN ECE and EU level.

• Energy is a scheduled activity for the pur-poses of Integrated Pollution Control licensingunder the Environmental Protection Agency Act,1992, and IPC licensing requirements willcome into operation for the sector by the endof the decade.

• The threshold at which peat extractionbecomes liable to EIA will be reduced.

• The Government will continue to oppose anyexpansion of the international nuclear indus-try, and to avail of all opportunities at bila-teral, EU and wider international level toadvance its concerns in this regard. Closure ofthe Sellafield operations remains an objectiveand will be pursued through legal actionshould sufficient evidence of pollution or pub-lic health impact be obtained. Possibilities inthis regard are being pursued in particularunder the provisions of the Paris and OSPARConventions. Ireland has ratified the NuclearSafety Convention, and is actively promoting anew Global Convention on Radioactive WasteManagement, which is expected to be finalisedin 1997.

Industry

• While legislation and regulation will continueto be important instruments for managingindustrial impacts on the environment, abroader mix of instruments will be appliedwhere environmental benefits are achievableas efficiently or more cost-effectively. This willinclude increasing the use of market-basedinstruments over time and using voluntaryagreements with industry where appropriate.

• Integrated Pollution Control licensing is beingextended on a phased basis by 1998 to mostindustries covered by the EnvironmentalProtection Agency Act, 1992 (the EPA Act).

• The EPA Act will be amended to give effect tothe provisions of Council Directive 96/61/ECon Integrated Pollution Prevention andControl (IPPC).

• The Waste Management Act, 1996, will be rapid-ly implemented. This will increase the focuson waste prevention and minimisation and onrecovering, rather than disposing of, the by-products and wastes arising from industrialprocesses, and of products themselves andtheir packaging.

• Producer responsibility initiatives (such as theREPAK scheme already mobilised) will beencouraged to increase reuse and recycling ofwastes, with regulatory support to ensure faircompetitive conditions for participatingindustries.

• A Pollution Emissions Register will be pub-lished by the EPA in 1997. Regulations will be

Chapter 1 Key Strategic Actions

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introduced subsequently to establish by 1998 amore complete Toxics Release Inventory.

• Ireland will support international efforts todevelop legally binding instruments for thereduction and/or elimination of emissions ofpersistent organic pollutants to the environment.

• The Department of Enterprise andEmployment will review the coordination ofcleaner production mechanisms to ensuremaximum efficiency and value in the uptakeand replication of initiatives, and as a basis forfuture targeting of supports to the SME sector.

• The extension of the EU Eco-Management andAudit Scheme (EMAS) to all major industrialsites will be actively promoted.

• Grant assistance for industrial developmentwill remain conditional on compliance withenvironmental regulatory requirements.

• The EPA, in cooperation with the CentralStatistics Office and the Department ofTransport, Energy and Communications, willdevelop a materials and energy balance forindustry to determine the full extent of indus-try's environmental/natural resource impactsand advise on targets for greater eco-efficiency.

• Forbairt and An Bord Tráchtála, with the sup-port and assistance of the Marine Institute, asappropriate, will explore the opportunities forIrish industry in the growth area of environ-mental industry, including pollution controltechnology and equipment and environmentalconsultancy services.

• The Government has undertaken and will pur-sue a rapid mobilisation of new initiatives inthe Science and Technology area, in line withthe 1996 White Paper on Science, Technology andInnovation.

• Greater policy coordination at Departmentallevel in the areas of industry, environment andsustainability will be ensured through thedevelopment of the Green Network ofGovernment Departments.

Transport

• Minimisation of potential growth in transportdemand will be incorporated as a leading con-sideration in land use planning.

• Government policy and investment for roadtransport will support necessary economicgrowth. To this end, the roads programmewill continue to target bottlenecks which rep-resent inefficiencies in the infrastructural sys-tem.

• Increased efforts will be made to manage theexisting roads network more efficiently.

• Government policy will continue to supportand improve public transport systems andinfrastructure with a view to increasing theirmarket share. Efficient, cost-effective and cus-tomer focused development of the rail net-work will be supported for its economic,social, environmental and regional develop-ment benefits.

• The agencies concerned, led by theDepartment of the Environment and theDepartment of Transport, Energy andCommunications, will work together to pro-vide more sustainable and environmentally-acceptable alternatives to private car trans-port, including better facilities for non-motorised transport and, where feasible,improved public mass transport modes.

• Implementation of the Dublin TransportationInitiative will be intensified.

• Noise controls will be developed under roads(or other) legislation to limit permissible noisefrom road transport.

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• Opportunities for non-motorised transportwill be improved. This will include increasedprovision of cycle lanes and safer facilities forpedestrians.

• The Department of the Environment andappropriate agencies, such as the DublinTransportation Office, will actively encouragegreater public awareness of the unsustainableaspects of increasing use of vehicle transport.

• The Government will commission research tomore accurately estimate the environmentalexternalities of road transport, and will makethe results available both for public informa-tion and to the National Roads Authority(NRA) and local authorities. The NRA will beasked to amend various planning parametersto take greater account of these externalitiesand the cost benefits and viability of proposedmajor roads schemes will be assessed accord-ingly.

• The Government will support policy develop-ment at EU level and participate in measurestowards internalising the external costs associ-ated with transport.

• Ireland will strongly support the completionof EU proposals to reduce CO2 emissions frommotor vehicles and/or provide greater incen-tives for the use of fuel efficient vehicles.Pending full establishment of measures toreduce CO2 emissions from motor vehicles,Irish vehicle tax provisions will be alignedmore closely with this objective.

• Where allowable under EU law, considerationwill be given to the application of tax incen-tives to encourage the placing of more efficientand less polluting vehicles on the marketahead of relevant EU deadlines.

• The scrappage scheme introduced in the 1995Budget, which encourages the replacement ofolder cars with new, more efficient models, isbeing maintained for 1997 as a financial incen-

tive to improve the age profile and efficiencystandard of the vehicle fleet. Its effects will bemonitored to ensure that it continues to meetthis objective without creating other environ-mental problems, particularly in relation todisposal of vehicle waste. The Minister for theEnvironment is pursuing with the motorindustry the development of more systematicvoluntary arrangements for recycling vehiclematerials.

• Ireland will support the EU Auto Oil pro-gramme as an appropriate means of address-ing many of the environmental issues arisingfrom transport emissions.

• Ireland will support the continued develop-ment at EU level of strict emission controlstandards for motor vehicles. In particular,Ireland will support a significant tightening ofbenzene and other limits in the context of theAuto Oil programme.

• The use of leaded petrol will be phased out bythe year 2000.

• Vehicle testing will be extended to apply toprivate cars over four years old with effectfrom 1 January, 1998. Particular emphasis willbe placed on adequate emission controls toreduce pollutants.

• Air transport is an increasing source of pollut-ing emissions (particularly CO2 and NOx).Ireland is supporting the initiation of action bythe EU to address this problem in a widerinternational context, with due regard toeffects on national competitiveness.

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Tourism

• Tourism development will be taken intoaccount, as appropriate, by the Department ofthe Environment in the preparation of landuse policy guidelines for planning authorities,developers and the public.

• Planning authorities will make provision intheir development plans for sustainabletourism, and ensure through the planningprocess that over-development does not takeplace.

• Bord Fáilte will consider the implementation of amanaged network of scenic landscapes by 1999.

• The Department of Tourism and Trade/BordFáilte will issue appropriate guidelines ongood environmental management to thetourist accommodation sector.

• The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will implement good environmentalmanagement, including energy conservation,in historic properties and other tourist attrac-tions under its care.

• The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will consider implementing collec-tive transport, such as operates in Glenveagh,in other National Parks.

• The provisions of the Foreshore Acts in rela-tion to preventing and penalising damage tobeaches, sand dunes and seashore ecosystemswill continue to be fully implemented.

• The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will ensure that all river cruiserslicensed for hire are fitted with appropriatewaste water storage and pumping facilities.Local authorities and the Department willensure that the complementary shore pump-ing facilities are properly used and main-tained.

• The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will develop appropriate manage-ment strategies to protect riverine archaeolog-ical monuments, which may be vulnerable todamage from cruising activities.

• Consideration will be given to the need forcontrols or restrictions on certain unsustain-able leisure activities; the Department of theEnvironment, in consultation with theDepartment of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht, the Department of Tourism andTrade and the Department of the Marine,where appropriate, will provide suitable guid-ance for local authorities.

• Bord Fáilte, the Department of Tourism andTrade and the Marine Institute, where appro-priate, will commission research on the "criti-cal loads" of tourist destinations, includingsensitive coastal or wilderness areas, to pro-vide a firm basis for the establishment of sus-tainable tourist numbers.

• CERT, in conjunction with the education sec-tor, will continue to provide suitable trainingemphasising the sustainable use of resourcesand highlighting natural products.

• Bord Fáilte, the Department of Tourism andTrade and the Department of Arts, Cultureand the Gaeltacht will develop, and widelypublicise, codes of conduct and practice to fos-ter a greater awareness of the potential impactof tourist behaviour on sensitive areas andsites.

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A Quality Environment: An Investmentin the Future

Water resources

• An integrated catchment management initia-tive will reverse deteriorating quality trends inselected catchments.

• New regulations will be made under the WasteManagement Act, 1996, to limit/prevent waterpollution from waste disposal practices.

• New water quality standards will guide EPAand local authorities in devising and imple-menting management strategies to deal withdiffuse pollution.

• The UN ECE Convention on Protection andUse of Transboundary Watercourses andInternational Lakes will be ratified in 1997.

• The Fisheries (Amendment) Bill, 1996, will beenacted to provide for the development of theaquaculture industry in accordance with highenvironmental standards.

• An updated methodology for the preparationof Water Quality Management Plans(WQMPs) will be developed by the EPA andwill be used to review all WQMPs over thenext five to ten years.

• EPA will, by end-1998, comprehensively reviewdischarges to waters to assess discharges ofnutrients and toxic/persistent substances.

• A national groundwater programme will beestablished under the coordination of the EPAto quantify resources, establish quality andmake recommendations for protection/sus-tainable use.

• There will be continued implementation of themajor programme of investment in water andsewage infrastructure to meet water qualitystandards and requirements, including nutri-ent reduction in the case of waste water dis-charges to waters subject to eutrophication.The programme will also ensure that Ireland's

excellent record under the Blue Flags forBeaches scheme is maintained.

• Government will fund phased implementa-tion of large-scale projects, including theDublin Water Strategy.

• The Department of the Environment and localauthorities will develop and implement a waterconservation programme, including "wateraudits" for water supply capital projects, capitalfunding for water conservation projects and acommitment to long-term active leakage control.

• Pricing policies will be developed to promoteconservation by major industrial and commer-cial water users.

The coastal zone

• A strategy document on coastal zone manage-ment will be published in 1997. Followingpublic consultation, a national policy oncoastal zone management will be determinedand published.

Landscape and nature

• An amending Bill is being prepared to updatethe Wildlife Act, 1976, and provide a statutorybasis for designated Natural Heritage Areas(NHAs).

• A National Parks and Heritage Bill will bepublished in 1997 to provide statutory recog-nition for national parks, national historicparks and national gardens.

• The National Biodiversity Plan will be pub-lished in 1997.

Waste management

• New Regulations under the Waste ManagementAct, 1996, will include:- EPA licensing of landfill sites, commencing

on 1 May 1997;- management of packaging wastes; and- establishment by EPA of a Toxics Release

Inventory.

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• There will be a rapid implementation ofimproved planning and organisationalarrangements under the Waste ManagementAct, 1996.

• Waste management policies will achieve: - stabilisation of municipal waste arisings by

1999, and their reduction by 20% by 2010;- diversion of 20% of municipal waste from

landfill, by recycling, by 1999; and- an increase from 27% by 2001 to at least 50%

in the recovery rate for packaging waste by2005.

• There will be a continued improvement in thecompilation of waste statistics to measurefuture performance.

• The use of economic instruments will beexplored to reduce waste, promotereuse/recycling and increase managementefficiency.

• A hazardous waste management plan will becompleted by the EPA in 1998.

• Capital funding aid (EU co-financed) will beprovided for hazardous waste facilities basedon recovery or other specialist treatment sys-tems.

Air quality

• Local air quality will be maintained andimproved particularly in urban areas.

• Ireland will actively support internationalaction on climate change, ozone depletion andtransboundary air pollution.

• Ireland will participate in international actionsto reduce low-level ozone precursor emissionsfrom transport and power generation, and todevelop acidification abatement strategies.

• Research will be undertaken on the impacts ofacidifying depositions, in particular sulphurdioxide and nitrogen oxides.

• Ireland will support the development ofstricter EU standards for air pollutants.

• EPA will prepare a national air quality moni-toring programme.

Spatial planning

• Planning and Development legislation will beamended to require planning authorities totake account of sustainable development con-siderations in the elaboration of developmentplans.

• The Department of the Environment will con-clude the current series of Land UseGuidelines.

• No State funding will be provided for infra-structure in the event of overzoning.

• Regional Authorities will be assigned a role(in line with Better Local Government) in set-ting out strategic planning guidelines fordevelopment planning by constituent localauthorities.

• The relationship between a development planand other forms of special designation, forexample, NHAs, Special Protection Areas(SPAs), will be clarified in the forthcoming Billto amend the Wildlife Act, 1976.

• Development exempted from developmentcontrol will be reviewed.

• The UN Convention on Environmental ImpactAssessment in a Transboundary Context willbe ratified.

• Developments in regard to StrategicEnvironmental Assessment will be monitored- Ireland will take a constructive position onnew EU proposals.

• There will be an ongoing review of the opera-tion of complementary planning andIntegrated Pollution Control procedures, with

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appropriate amendment, if required, to theEnvironmental Protection Agency Act, 1992.

• Planning authorities will be encouraged totake a more strategic view of settlement pat-terns, development needs and major infra-structural services, combining the statutoryfive-yearly review of the development planwith a coherent longer-term rolling plan.

Human Settlements are Shaped by theirEnvironment

Built environment

• More sustainable urban development will bepromoted by:- closer coordination between transport and

land use planning;- the promotion of higher residential densities

in appropriate locations;- emphasis in the proposed new Guidelines

on Development Plans on clear demarcationbetween urban and rural land use; and

- Local Agenda 21 initiatives by local authori-ties.

• Policies for achieving sustainable urban regen-eration will have as key elements:- integrated strategic economic and social

planning;- ecological principles;- improving accessibility;- environmental upgrading;- design flexibility; - open spaces;- mechanisms and resources to overcome crit-

ical barriers; and - a partnership approach.

• New legislation is being prepared along linesrecommended in Strengthening the Protection ofthe Architectural Heritage (published inSeptember 1996), and a package of administra-tive and financial measures will create a fullyeffective framework for protecting the builtheritage.

• Under the Building Regulations since 1992,insulation standards are estimated to haveincreased by up to 50%, with a reduction of20% in energy use in buildings. By 2000, thenew standards will result in a 2% reduction inCO2 emissions from buildings. Arising froma review of the Regulations, a further 5% sav-ing in energy use for heating will be achieved.

• A new Energy Rating System for new housesis being introduced.

• The Government is committed to ensuringthat its policies in relation to housing and theurban environment take full account of theprovisions of the HABITAT Agenda, and willalso work in this regard with EU partners toagree common approaches, where appropri-ate.

• Housing policies will continue to promote sus-tainable settlement formation, with greatersocial integration.

• The Guidelines on Residential Development in theDesignated Tax Incentive Areas will be reviewedin the light of experience.

• Investment under the Urban and VillageRenewal Sub-Programme of the Local Urbanand Rural Development Operational Programme,1994-1999, will continue to promote the reju-venation of towns and villages, rehabilitate thebuilt environment and restore and conserveimportant heritage buildings.

• The Department of the Environment will for-mally request the National StandardsAuthority of Ireland to revise the existing IrishStandard to make provision for a flush toiletwater cistern involving substantially lowerwater consumption. Following consultation atnational and EU level, the revised standardshould be operational by end-1999.

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Individual Action Counts....

• Government will ask the Director ofConsumer Affairs to make recommendationsfor providing full and authoritative environ-mental information to consumers.

• The Office of Consumer Affairs will also beasked, in consultation with the Department ofEnterprise and Employment and theDepartment of the Environment, to prepare aCode of Practice on green marketing.

• The Access to Information on the EnvironmentRegulations, 1996, will be reviewed in the con-text of Freedom of Information legislation, anda Code of Good Practice on IssuingEnvironmental Information will be preparedfor implementing authorities by theDepartment of the Environment.

• The detailed anti-litter provisions in the LitterPollution Bill will be vigorously implemented.

• The role of ENFO will be further developed.

• The Department of Education will promoteand improve the position of environmentaleducation within the formal education system.

Global Sustainability requires GlobalSolidarity

Trade

• Trade policy will be examined to ensure com-pliance with the objectives of Agenda 21 in rela-tion to promoting an open, non-discriminatoryand equitable trading system, taking particularaccount of the needs of developing countries.

• Ireland supports the EU consensus on theimportance of upholding the validity of multi-lateral agreements (MEAs) designed to protectthe environment and of ensuring the integra-tion of sustainable development into worldtrade policies and practices.

• The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will make any amendments to legis-lation which may be necessary to enableIreland to ratify the Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Species ofWild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1997.

International actions• Ireland will participate fully in UNGASS, the

UN review of Agenda 21.

• The Government is committed to increasingOfficial Development Assistance by 0.05%each year to meet the UN target of 0.7% ofGNP.

• Ireland will invite OECD environmental per-formance review for 1998.

• Ireland supports strengthening the Treaty onEuropean Union to make sustainable develop-ment an explicit objective of the Union.

Measuring Progress TowardsSustainability

• A series of environmental quality indicatorswill be prepared by 1998.

• Sustainability indicators will also be devel-oped and preparations advanced towardssatellite green accounts.

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PART 2 - STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK

2 Overview3 Overall Goals and Priorities4 Environment and Economic Development

IntroductionThe quality of Ireland's environment, and theavailability of abundant natural amenities, havetraditionally been relied upon as important ele-ments of the national resource base. Socio-eco-nomic progress, changed settlement patternsand changing lifestyles are however, in Irelandas elsewhere, leading to the transformation andtransportation of increasing quantities of energyand materials; this is altering the balancebetween environment and society. A newstrategic approach (together with policies andmeasures to realise it) is therefore necessary toestablish a sound relationship between Ireland'seconomy and environment.

The Policy Agreement for a Government of Renewal(December 1994), committed Government tothe preparation of a National SustainableDevelopment Strategy which

"will address all areas of Government policy whichimpact on the environment and will containdetailed targets and a commitment to an annualreview." 1

This Strategy responds to that commitment. Itaddresses all areas of Government policy, and ofeconomic and societal activity, which impact onthe environment. It seeks to re-orientate policiesas necessary to ensure that the strong growthIreland enjoys and seeks to maintain will beenvironmentally sustainable. There is alreadyevidence that traditional policies and controlshave been inadequate in this regard. Despiteimprovements in some areas (e.g. drinking waterquality), trends such as increasing water pollu-tion, intensifying consumption/depletion of nat-ural resources, growing waste production andenergy consumption, and erosion of landscapequality are all symptoms of an ongoing andstructural environmental deterioration. Somerelevant indicators are shown in Fig. 2.1.

Fig 2.1 Some Recent Environmental Trends and Pressures in Ireland

Water• there was a significant increase in 1991-1994

in slight to moderate water pollution, nowup to 28% of measured river channel length

• 39% of lake surface area examined in 1991-1994 was moderately to seriously enrichedNatural resources/landscape

• 18% of flowering plant species and 18% offauna are threatened with extinction

• important habitats for many upland birdspecies have been severely damaged byexcessive sheep stocking in hill and mountainareas

• the remaining area of raised bog of conserva-tion importance is now 6% of the originaltotal area of raised bog

Waste• overall waste generation in Ireland has been

growing by some 4% per annum for at least adecade

• at least 100,000 tonnes of hazardous wastenow arise each year

Energy• total primary energy requirement increased

by 24% between 1980 and 1993• energy consumption per capita is increasingTransport• vehicle kilometres travelled per capita

increased by 47% between 1986 and 1995

Source: DOE/Environmental Protection Agency2

Sustainable development policies focus oncauses rather than on symptoms. They also con-sider the balance of present and longer-termneeds - socio-economic and environmental - aswell as the totality of resources available to meetthose needs. Certain approaches essential toimplement sustainable development are alreadybeing adopted in Ireland:

Chapter 2Overview

• economic and environment policy integrationhas begun;

• policy instruments and management tools arebeing broadened; and

• public appreciation of the need for lifestylechanges is increasing.

But a more concerted approach must now beadopted, involving Government, economic andvoluntary organisations, and the public.

Meaning of Sustainable DevelopmentSustainable development is based on universalprinciples, relevant to all nations and peoples. Itseeks an acceptable quality of life for present andfuture generations, recognising that the actionsof the present affect the inheritance of futuregenerations. In a sustainable world, humanactivity must not undermine the long-term pro-ductivity of supporting ecosystems.

Sustainable development is increasingly recog-nised as the key to managing economic and envi-ronmental interdependence. It is neither a fixedconcept nor a narrowly defined process, but anapproach in which • the exploitation of resources, • the direction of investments, • the orientation of technological development,

and• institutional change are made consistent with

future as well as present needs. Of necessity,therefore, it involves difficult choices anddepends on decisive political action.

In setting out this strategic framework, theGovernment looks to sustainable development as:

• a dynamic concept which must be given bothpractical and concrete expression in the pre-sent to generate a new development model forthe future involving change in socio-economicand consumer behaviour;

• an inclusive concept bringing environment tothe heart of economic growth and quality oflife concerns, and requiring the active partici-pation of economic operators and the public,as well as all levels of Government; and

• a quality concept which recognises that aclean environment and a conscientiousapproach by business to environmental pro-tection are an advantage to, rather than a con-straint on, successful economic performance.

This Strategy aims at securing the transition,over time, to an environmentally sustainablesociety and economy. While many of the mea-sures and actions included will be undertaken inthe short to medium term, the overall timehorizon of the Strategy must, necessarily, be along-term one, recognising that sustainabledevelopment is a continuing process whichneeds ongoing assessment and refinement.

International Recognition of SustainableDevelopmentAgenda 214, the main product of the UNConference on Environment and Development(UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, theTreaty on European Union (the MaastrichtTreaty)5 and the EU's Fifth Environment ActionProgramme Towards Sustainability6 all endorsedthe concept of sustainable development. Theyunderlined the fact that traditional policies mustbe replaced by an integrated approach to envi-ronment and development issues, if growth is tobe achieved in parallel with, rather than at theexpense of, environmental quality.

Agenda 21 was elaborated as a dynamic pro-gramme which would evolve over time in thelight of changing needs and be carried out by

"the various actors according to the different situa-tions, capacities and priorities of countries andregions in respect of all the principles contained inthe Rio Declaration on Environment andDevelopment."7

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"Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable - to ensure that it

meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future gen-

erations to meet their own needs."

- World Commission on Environment and Development3

These principles recognise the rights of all Statesto exploit their own resources pursuant to theirown environmental and developmental policies,but require, inter alia, that • environmental protection should constitute an

integral part of the development process,• developed countries accept responsibility for

their disproportionate pressure on the globalenvironment,

• unsustainable patterns of production and con-sumption should be eliminated,

• effective environmental legislation should beenacted,

• access to environmental information andpublic awareness and participation in deci-sion-making should be facilitated,

• the precautionary approach should be applied,environmental impact assessment should beundertaken for activities likely to have a sig-nificant environmental impact, and internali-sation of environmental costs should be pro-moted, and

• the needs of the least developed countriesshould be given special priority.

The EU's Fifth Environment Action Programmewas adopted in 1993 following the inclusion, asa principal objective, in the Maastricht Treaty ofthe promotion of sustainable growth respectingthe environment.

The Programme• focused on the agents and activities

depleting natural resources and damaging theenvironment,

• sought to initiate changes in current detri-mental trends and practices,

• aimed at achieving changes in behaviourthrough shared responsibility for the environ-ment by all sectors of society, and

• proposed a significant broadening of the rangeof instruments to be used for environmentalprotection purposes.

In its 1995 report on the environment in theEuropean Union, for purposes of the review ofthe Fifth Action Programme8, the EuropeanEnvironment Agency (EEA) concluded thatprogress in reducing pressures on the environ-ment was not enough to improve general qualityand even less to progress towards sustainability.Without accelerated policies, the pressuresobserved would continue to lead to theexceedance of human health standards and envi-ronmental carrying capacity. Some successes,including the reduction of ozone depleting sub-stances and emissions of heavy metals and sul-phur dioxide, were noteworthy, but theEuropean Union as a whole has not moved suf-ficiently from concept to realisation.

Recognising the need to revitalise and accel-erate the Fifth Action Programme, the Councilof Environment Ministers in December, 1996,reached political agreement on a Commissionproposal for a co-decision by Council and theEuropean Parliament on an action plan tointensify the implementation of theProgramme.

Development of Irish Environment PolicyA high quality environment has been anassumed part of Irish national identity. Formuch of the 20th century, threats to the environ-ment were not perceived as significant in view ofIreland's low population density, traditionalagricultural practices and late industrialisation.But with economic growth in the 1960s came anew appreciation of the environment as a factorin development and a potential source of wealthcreation.

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Fig 2.2 Increased Environmental Pressures in the European Union

Ozone layer• the ozone layer over Europe has been

depleted by an average of 6-7% between1979 and 1994

• levels of chlorine in the atmosphere haveincreased six fold since 1950

Acidification• acid deposition exceeded critical loads for

eco-loads in 34% of the total European area(with an even higher proportion in the EU)

Waste production• municipal waste per capita has shown an

increase of about 20% between 1985 and1993; it will continue to grow, and is pro-jected to increase by 30% by 2000 comparedwith 1985 levels

Transport• over the period 1980-1990, passenger trans-

port by road increased by almost 40%; pro-jections for the period 1990-2010 are for afurther increase of over 40%

• between 1980 and 1990, car ownership roseby 37%

• congestion problems are now being experi-enced regularly on 10% of the major roadswithin the EU

Agriculture• while livestock trends indicate gradually

declining numbers of cattle, sheep and layinghens, numbers of pigs and poultry areincreasing

Energy• electricity consumption increased almost

continuously between 1974 and 1992, by anaverage of 2.7% per annum.

• an average growth in primary energy con-sumption of around 1.1% per annum isexpected for the period 1990-2010

Tourism• the number of tourist overnight stays in 1992

(840 million) represented an increase of 21.5%over 1980 levels

Source: European Environment Agency9

Environmental legislation distinct from thephysical planning code began to develop in the1970s, and in 1978 the Minister for theEnvironment was assigned general responsi-bility to promote the protection and improve-ment of the physical environment. OtherMinisters of the Government were in parallelassigned responsibility for assessing the envi-ronmental implications of their policies, pro-grammes and projects before taking decisions.But in practice, the need to achieve a balancebetween environment and development did notexert a strong influence on policy formation inmany sectors during the 1980s.

An Environment Action Programme10 was adoptedby Government in 1990 against the backgroundof growing world environmental concern. Goodprogress, reported on in 199111 and again in199512, was made in its implementation, notablyby:• the establishment of the Environmental

Protection Agency;• the development of ENFO - a new information

service of the Department of the Environment;and

• an increased investment programme in publicenvironmental infrastructure.

Subsequent policy documents, such as theCulliton Report13, and the GREEN 2000 AdvisoryGroup's Report14, clearly underscored the relation-ship between an unpolluted environment andsocial and economic well-being, and emphasisedthe importance of natural resource based eco-nomic activity linked to high environmentalquality and standards.

The reform of the EU Structural Funds from 1989provided a new growth opportunity for Ireland.By 1992 and 1993, the inflow of structuralfunds under Ireland's Community SupportFramework, 1989-93, amounted to some 3.5% ofGNP.15 Influenced by the EU Fifth EnvironmentAction Programme, the further reform of theStructural Funds in 1993 sought to promote sus-

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tainable development and better environmentalintegration in EU co-financing operations. Theestablishment of the Cohesion Fund16 gave fur-ther impetus to the environmental dimension ofEU policy and increased support to the promo-tion of sustainable development.

In addressing the new environmental require-ments which emerged from the reform of theStructural Funds, the National DevelopmentPlan, 1994-199917, sought, as a fundamentalstrategic consideration, the integration of envi-ronmental and economic objectives in theinterests of sustainable development. This wasseen to be necessary, not only for the sake of theenvironment, but also for the continued effi-ciency of economic sectors interacting with theenvironment. The environmental profile of theNational Development Plan was incorporatedin the agreed IRELAND - Community SupportFramework, 1994-9918 (CSF), and reflected asappropriate in the more detailed approaches of relevant Operational Programmes now beingimplemented.

Environmental Strengths and WeaknessesIn considering how to make Irish national poli-cies more sustainable, the following strengthsare evident in the Irish situation:

• Ireland has retained, and can build on, a clean,attractive, environmental image. This is a keycontributor to the quality of life, and a basis foreconomic advantage. Public concern about,and commitment to, environmental protectionis high. Recognition by business of the rangeof opportunities presented by a quality envi-ronment is growing. There is a high level ofinvestment in environmental protection byboth the public and private sectors;

• Good policy foundations are in place at inter-national and at national levels. A comprehen-sive, modern legislative code has been sub-stantially completed with the enactment of the

Waste Management Act, 1996. Managementand organisational arrangements have beenrationalised with the mobilisation of theEnvironmental Protection Agency;

• Regulatory arrangements for environmentalprotection enjoy wide public participation;both physical planning and environmentallegislation provide for public involvement indecision-making on projects. Environmentand development NGOs have been active andconstructive in their engagement with envi-ronmental issues. Industry and business shareresponsibility through voluntary action aswell as investment and legal compliance.There is a supportive environmental researchand development network in the academicsector; and

• Information systems continue to improve, forexample, through the activities of the EPA andENFO, and the operation of the Access toInformation on the Environment Regulations, 1996.

There are also significant weaknesses whichmust be addressed in formulating a frameworkfor sustainable development:• Structural conflicts still exist between environ-

ment and development objectives. This is aprimary reason why, despite substantialinvestment and increasingly stringent legisla-tive controls, environmental quality trendscontinue to disimprove in several respects;

• Although policy integration has been an objec-tive for nearly two decades, mechanisms toachieve the necessary degree of integrationhave not been sufficient. While this is interna-tionally recognised as a difficult issue, prac-tical steps are now only beginning to be taken,and must be strengthened;

• Not enough has been done to value environ-mental resources, so as to promote properinternalisation of environmental costs in eco-nomic activities and to prevent environmental

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resources being used inefficiently, as free orundervalued goods;

• Effective action is in some respects hamperedby administrative/organisational boundaries.In particular, there is a need to increase the implementation of catchment-based programmes for environmental protection;

• Although information systems are improving,substantial gaps remain. Overall, data collec-tion is not yet adequate to allow a full evalua-tion of materials use and energy flows in theIrish economy. Their limitations mean that thedefinition and measurement of sustainabledevelopment indicators will remain tentativein the short-term.

Need for a New ApproachOver the past two decades national environmentpolicy has developed in response to growingthreats to, and growing public concern about,the quality of the environment. Organisational,legislative and voluntary initiatives have beenundertaken. Information, awareness, public par-ticipation and investment in environmental pro-tection have all increased. Some progress hasbeen made in articulating an environmentaldimension within economic, and to a muchlesser extent fiscal, policy.

More is needed. The transition to sustainabledevelopment has been identified as the mostimportant global transformation since the agri-cultural and industrial revolutions. The growthmodel of the 20th century, characterised byincreases in the use of energy and raw materialsand leading to over-exploitation of scarce envi-ronmental resources, cannot be sustained indefi-nitely into the 21st century.

At a global level, the UN Commission onSustainable Development is seeking to developand realise the policies and programmes ofAgenda 21. Within the EU, the EuropeanCommission's 1994 White Paper on Growth,

Competitiveness, Employment19 proposed ideas fora new development model for the EuropeanUnion to reverse the negative relationshipsbetween environmental conditions, quality oflife and economic prosperity. This Strategy hasbeen framed to direct the impressive growth ofthe Irish economy, and the changes now beingexperienced in consumption and lifestyle pat-terns, towards a more sustainable course, havingregard to international experience, and tonational environmental, economic and socialimperatives.

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Strategic Aims and GoalsThe overall aim of this Strategy is

to ensure that economy and society inIreland can develop to their full potentialwithin a well protected environment,without compromising the quality of thatenvironment, and with responsibilitytowards present and future generations andthe wider international community.

Within this overall aim, the Government affirmsthat:• Ireland's environment must be protected for

its own intrinsic value;• a well managed environment sustains a

healthy economy and a good quality of life:environmental, economic and social policiesmust be mutually supportive;

• economic growth and social developmentcannot be to the detriment of environmentalquality and must be within the limits set bynature; in particular, this must involvechanges in production and consumption pat-terns;

• every person is entitled to enjoy a clean,healthy environment and shares withGovernment the duty to maintain that envi-ronment;

• environmentally sustainable developmentrequires, and can only succeed with, the par-ticipation of the whole of society;

• Government and other public authorities mustwork to improve and protect the environmentfor all generations, exercising leadership andfostering partnerships with economic andsocial groups;

• a quality environment is the natural heritageof the whole of Ireland; where appropriate,conservation action and development in theinterests of environmental excellence will bepursued in a coordinated manner North andSouth;

• meeting the needs of the present in a sustain-able way involves equity in the access to anduse of resources, as well as equitable opportu-nities to participate in decision-making and toachieve economic and social progress;

• responsibility towards future generationsinvolves sustainable use of renewableresources, optimised use of non-renewableresources, and the free transfer of natural cap-ital unburdened by pollution and waste; and

• the developed world bears a disproportionateresponsibility for the depletion and degrada-tion of the global environment and naturalresources, and must demonstrate leadership inthe implementation of sustainable develop-ment policies.

Concepts and PrinciplesConceptsThe concept of sustainability, which hasinformed Irish environmental policy over recentyears and which underpins this Strategy, requiresdevelopment to be within the capacity of theenvironment to support it without sufferinglasting damage or depletion. Carrying capacityhas provided the rationale for many environ-mental standards and land use planning anddevelopment controls. It may be expressed as• the ability of the environment to sustain a

particular form or intensity of development, or• the ability of the environment to support bio-

diversity or particular species, or• the critical load1 of a specified pollutant which

an environmental medium may toleratewithout lasting damage being experienced.

Where there is uncertainty in regard to the defi-nition of carrying capacity and the limits orthresholds which it should imply for sustainablehuman activities, the precautionary principlemust be applied; this has influenced globalaction, for example, in regard to the objective ofstabilising CO2 emissions to abate the threat ofglobal warming. A further development fromthis is the concept of appropriated carryingcapacity, which can be defined as the biophys-ical resource flows and waste assimilationcapacity appropriated from global totals by adefined economy or population.

Chapter 3Overall Goals and Priorities

There is an increasing recognition of unsustain-able development pressures on the earth'scarrying capacity. These include:• the intensive exploitation and depletion of nat-

ural resources;• the growth in consumption and production; • the unequal division of resources among the

world's population; and• the pressures on the developing world to

match the living standards of more developedcountries.

This recognition of unsustainable pressures hasled to the development of new forms of mea-surement and analysis which can make thesepressures more clearly understandable and com-municable.

Fig 3.1 Increased Pressureson the Global Environment

• world population has more than doubledsince 1950, from 2,510 million to 5,280 mil-lion in 1990

• world economic production has increased sixfold since 1950 - world GDP has increasedfrom 1,671 US$ per capita in 1950 to 3,971US$ in 1990 (1990 prices)

• primary energy consumption per capitadoubled between 1950 and 1990, from 30gigajoules to 61 gigajoules per capita - totalprimary energy consumption increased from76,459 petajoules to 320,563 petajoules inthe same period

• world fish catch has increased five fold since1950

• 80% of natural resources are consumed bythe OECD countries, which have only 16% of global population

• 17% of Earth's land area is soil degraded(23% in Europe) - this includes 10% of agricultural land world-wide

• human-made fixation of nitrate and sulphuris now as great as natural fixation

Sources: EEA2 & UNEP3

Society's ecological footprint, an indicatordeveloped to illustrate human impact on a finiteplanet, underlines the dilemma now facing theglobal community. A footprint represents

"the corresponding area of productive land andaquatic ecosystems required to produce theresources used, and to assimilate the wastes pro-duced, by a defined population at a specified mate-rial standard of living, wherever on Earth that landmay be located".4

Applying this concept shows that the earth'sresources have to a large extent already beenappropriated by the wealthier sectors of globalsociety, particularly in urban settlements. Theglobal ecological footprint clearly shows whysustainable development has become a globalimperative:

"At present, both the human population andaverage consumption are increasing while the totalarea of productive land and stocks of natural capitalare fixed or in decline ... The ecological footprint ofthe present world population/economy alreadyexceeds the total productive area (or "ecologicalspace") available on Earth."5

Ireland’s Ecological Footprint

Ireland’s Ecological Footprint is already 1.23 times the size of the land available

In preliminary calculations by the UCDEnvironmental Institute, based on a standardmethodology, the average size of Ireland’s eco-logical footprint is 2.38 hectares per person, or atotal of 86,325 km2 - some 1.23 times the size ofthe State (70,394 km2).

Features such as low population density and ahigh percentage of productive agricultural landhave allowed Ireland to retain a relatively smallfootprint for a developed country. However, asthis preliminary footprint measurement includesonly four categories of domestic consumption(i.e. fossil fuels, built-up land, food and forestry),

Chapter 3 Overall Goals and Priorities

page 26

the results may be regarded as presenting a con-servative illustration. Given that substantialsocio-economic development needs remain, eco-logical footprinting provides a means of demon-strating the importance of sustainable develop-ment considerations in relation to lifestyle andconsumption patterns.6

PrinciplesIn approaching the definition of policies andactions to achieve the aim of this Strategy, theGovernment remains committed to the princi-ples which have informed Irish environmentalpolicy in recent years.7 The transition to sustain-able development, however, requires these prin-ciples to be given fuller practical expression.

The precautionary principle requires thatemphasis should be placed on dealing with thecauses, rather than the results, of environmentaldamage and that, where significant evidence ofenvironmental risk exists, appropriate precau-tionary action should be taken even in theabsence of conclusive scientific proof of causes.This is more than simply giving the environmentthe benefit of the doubt. It is a spur to respon-sible action and a stimulus to scientific and tech-nological development. Reasonable action toavoid potentially serious risks to the environ-ment and human health maintains choice, con-trol and quality.

Integration (of environmental considerationsinto other policies) is a leading mechanism forsustainable development. At Government level,integration is important to ensure consistencyacross the range of policies contributing to sus-tainable development; it also encourages mutu-ally supporting policy formation and delivery,and enables environmental concerns to beaddressed in an effective and comprehensivemanner. At sectoral level, integration is funda-mental to the decoupling of economic growthand environmental degradation; it promoteseconomic and environmental efficiency throughreduced materials and energy use, waste preven-

tion and minimisation, re-use and recycling, andit assists the realisation of economic advantagefounded on environmental quality.

National policy, in line with EU policy, has up tonow emphasised the integration of environ-mental considerations in energy, agriculture,industry, transport and tourism policies. Theconcept is also relevant in other sectors, notablythose which are based on natural resource use,such as fishing, forestry and mining, and it isincreasingly important in a trade context.

Integration must also be pursued at macro-eco-nomic and fiscal policy levels, to reflect thevalue of natural as well as human-made capital,to account for natural resource use and deple-tion, to internalise environmental costs and toprovide a more balanced and full measurementof national growth and prosperity.

Principle 1 of the Rio Declaration on Environmentand Development states that "human beings are atthe centre of concerns for sustainable development".8

Integration of environmental considerations intosocial policy envisages:• fair access to a clean, healthy environment;• maintenance of public health and elimination,

as far as practicable, of environmental risks;• equity in the use of environmental resources;• full access to education and information

concerning the environment; and• sustainable planning, development (including

urban development), and human settlementpolicies.

Effective environmental policies require theactive participation of society, so that lifestylechanges compatible with sustainable living canbecome established.

The polluter pays principle regarding cost allo-cation and action by public authorities has influ-enced public policies at OECD and EU levels forover twenty years9, and has been incorporated in all recent Irish environmental legislation. Its

Chapter 3 Overall Goals and Priorities

page 27

objective is to allocate correctly the costs of pol-lution, consumption of energy and environ-mental resources, and production and disposalof waste to the responsible polluters and con-sumers, rather than to society at large or futuregenerations; in turn, this provides an incentive toreduce pollution and consumption. Cost inter-nalisation through the use of market based eco-nomic and fiscal instruments, in line with thepolluter pays principle, is now widely perceivedas a flexible and efficient means of addressingsustainable development objectives. While someenvironmental charges and taxes are in place inIreland which lean on polluters and users ofresources, use of these instruments is not yetwidespread; policy objectives in this area areoutlined in Chapter 19.

The principle of shared responsibility for theenvironment requires a broadly based involve-ment of public bodies, private enterprise and thegeneral public so as to achieve environmentalpolicy objectives. Public participation in envi-ronmental protection is already encouraged inIreland through, for example, the provision ofinformation, awareness raising, statutory con-sultation and reporting mechanisms, support fornon-governmental organisation (NGO) initia-tives and the development of Local Agenda 21measures. Shared responsibility aims at engen-dering commitment throughout society, whichin turn fosters a sense of public ownership of theenvironment. Voluntary action by individuals,through lifestyle choices, as well as by economicand social operators, are essential to realise theaims of this Strategy.

Priorities for ActionSustaining the environment while securingdevelopment requires:• a balance between the conservation and utili-

sation of resources;• concrete action on the basis of practical pro-

grammes and clear targets; and• an ability to measure and monitor sustainable

development performance.

Accordingly, the Government's priorities withinthe framework of this Strategy are to:• maintain the quality, quantity and diversity of

natural endowments;• undertake a high level of environmental pro-

tection so that renewable resources are con-served and not depleted beyond their renewalrates; ensure that non-renewable resources areused prudently and efficiently with a strongemphasis on the use of substitute resources,where practicable, on the concentration of crit-ical natural capital, and on the needs of thefuture;

• ensure that the creation of wastes, and inputsof substances and emissions, are minimised totake account of the carrying capacity of theenvironment;

• ensure that spatial planning policies supportsustainable development;

• set out sustainability objectives for agriculture,forestry, the marine, energy, industry, trans-port, tourism and trade so as to encouragelong-term growth and competitiveness withina quality environment;

• accelerate progress towards a more environ-mentally sustainable society based, inter alia,on sustainable settlement and housing poli-cies, promotion of sustainable consumptionand lifestyle, and greater individual and com-munity participation in protecting the envi-ronment;

• move towards the development of economicinstruments and pricing mechanisms to inter-nalise environmental costs in economicactivity, as well as towards green accountingmethods;

• promote information, increased awarenessand education as means of supporting partici-pation and shared responsibility;

• pursue the development of indicators to mea-sure progress towards sustainability; and

• establish arrangements for implementing theStrategy, with particular reference to the rolesand responsibilities of central, regional andlocal government, and the need for broadlybased participation of the social partners, thevoluntary sector and the public.

Chapter 3 Overall Goals and Priorities

page 28

Current Development TrendsAlthough Ireland's environment has not gener-ally suffered from intensive development pres-sures in the past, trends are now changing, withsignificant implications for environmentalquality:

Population1

• The population increased by 21.6%, to 3.62million, between 1971 and 1996.

• The decline in the number of births annuallysince 1980 has been an important demographicdynamic. However, the population is rela-tively young, with 26.7% in 1991 being lessthan 15 years old and 11.4% more than 65years old.

• In the period to 2006, the CSO has predicted anincrease in the labour force in the order of 0.7%to 1% per annum depending on outwardmigration assumptions.2

• In the longer-term, to 2026, the CSO also pre-dicted a marked decline in the young popula-tion and a strong increase in the populationaged 65 and over.

Settlement patterns3

• Average population density is low, at 51 per-sons/km2, but varies from over 100 per-sons/km2 in eastern and southern areas to lessthan 25 persons/km2 in many western areas.

• There is an increasing trend towards urbanisa-tion, and especially suburbanisation, charac-terised by low density, residential, businessand commercial development at the outskirtsof towns and cities.

• Over half of the population (57% approx.) livein urban settlements greater than 1,500 in pop-ulation. While over a third of the nationalpopulation live in the general Dublin area andits environs, the inner city accounts for onlyone fourteenth of the Dublin region popula-tion.

• Around 70% of the urban population lives ator near the coastal area.

Land use4

• Agricultural use accounts for 68% of landcover. Intensification of agriculture hasbrought change, including specialisation,mechanisation, increased animal numbers andneed for housing for overwintering of animals.Reforms of the EU Common AgriculturalPolicy have seen the emergence of other formsof land use such as organic farming, forestry,wind energy and agri-tourism.

• Wetlands and bogs account for 14% of landcover. Raised bogs of conservation impor-tance now amount to 99 sites covering 17,790hectares, from an original area of 311,300hectares. Some 112,300 hectares of blanket bogof conservation importance now remains froman area of 774,990 hectares.

• Forest cover, at 8% of the land area, is thelowest in the EU. The proportion of broadleafspecies in Irish forests, at 16%, is also very low.Forest cover is increasing at a rate of around0.33% a year, making it one of the significantlychanging aspects of the terrestrial environ-ment.

• While land loss due to urbanisation is not assignificant in Ireland as in much of Europe, thedemand for urban generated low density resi-dential development on the outskirts of citiesis a noticeable trend. New forms of commer-cial and business development, such as busi-ness parks and out of town retail centres, seekto locate at points of high accessibility on theperiphery of cities, creating their own sphereof influence, but also potentially threateningthe viability of town centres.

Chapter 4Environment and EconomicDevelopment

"Urbanisation has created new demands on the countryside as avisual amenity, a place for recreation, a location for secondhomes and a repository of cultural, historical and other values."

- Environmental Protection Agency5

Chapter 4 Environment and Economic Development

page 30

Fig 4.1 Land Cover Statistics for Ireland (excluding Northern Ireland)

Percentage AreaArtificial Surfaces 1.2%Agricultural Areas 68.1%Forest and Semi-natural Areas 14.0%Wetlands (including Bogs) 14.3%Water 2.4%

Source: CORINE6

Economy7

• Irish economic performance is buoyant.Average GNP growth of 0.2% per annum inthe early 1980s has increased to rates of 4.4%per annum on average in the years 1992-5,with growth of 7.3% in 1995 and an estimated6.25% in 1996. GNP growth of 5.5% is forecastin 1997.

• In 1996, consumer prices remained subduedwith an annual average increase in theConsumer Price Index (CPI) of 1.6%, outputgrew by an estimated 7.25% (measured byGDP) compared to an OECD average of 2.5%.Manufacturing output growth is estimated tohave been about 9%, while high-technologysectors again expanded strongly, albeit at amore moderate pace than in 1995, with partic-ular significant production increases beingrecorded in computers and pharmaceuticals.

• Unemployment still remains a major nationalproblem. The results of the 1996 Labour ForceSurvey indicate that employment grew by46,000 in the twelve months to mid-April.This growth is a feature of most economic sec-tors other than agriculture. The labour forcecontinued to expand in 1996, however,reflecting demographic factors and an unusu-ally large increase in female participationrates. Unemployment, as measured by theLabour Force Survey, fell by only 1,000 in theyear to mid-April 1996 but has fallen by 40,000since mid-April 1993. In 1996 as a whole, it isestimated that unemployment fell by 10,000.

Despite the strong economy the Live Registerhas remained stubbornly high: the averageLive Register for 1996 was 279,000, up from278,000 in 1995.

Growth and SustainabilityThe relationship between economic develop-ment and environmental quality has sometimesbeen perceived as adversarial. Traditional eco-nomic activity, with increasing production andconsumption, was seen to intensify the use anddepletion of natural resources, impact adverselyon the quality of environmental media, and gen-erate growing volumes of wastes and emissions.On the other hand, strict environmental require-ments have sometimes been regarded asimpeding growth, for example, by delaying newprojects, increasing capital investment needs,raising production costs or threatening the lossor relocation of industry.

It is now acknowledged9, however, that the rela-tionship between economic growth and pressureon the environment is not straightforward.Emissions of some pollutants increase in linewith economic activity, but many pressures onthe environment (for example, sulphur dioxideemissions, untreated waste water) appear todecrease as economies prosper. This is partlyattributed to the increasing economic sharetaken by service activities, which are generallycharacterised by low pollution levels per unit ofproduction. In Ireland, as in most developedcountries, the services sector has been a keydirect source of employment growth over thepast decade.10 As economies grow, technologieschange, and more efficient methods of produc-tion may reduce natural resource use and pollu-tion levels per unit of production. Willingness to

"... Ireland should replace the traditional adversarialapproach that presents industrial development and envi-ronmental protection as opposites. The new approachshould simultaneously maintain high environmental qualityand promote a competitive enterprise sector."

- Forfás, Shaping our Future8

pay for environmental quality appears also toincrease with income. In effect, growth increasespublic preference for a clean environment, andcontributes financial resources for effectiveaction.

On the other hand, it is clear that economicgrowth has in practice up to now increasedenergy, transport and materials use, as well asgeneration of waste and emissions. Even wheregreater production efficiencies are achieved,these can be offset by volume increases (a partic-ular feature in the transport sector) and byincreased demand for luxury goods and ser-vices. Reliance on regulatory controls alone,which do not capture externalities, may alsoreduce incentives to increased efficiency andtechnological innovation.

All development impacts on the environment.Sustainable development cannot eliminate sucheffects altogether. It aspires, however, to changethe balance of impacts from negative to positive,pursuing policy choices which promote eco-nomic efficiency with less intensive naturalresource use and less environmental stress. Thefollowing chapters of this Strategy consider theissues arising for key economic sectors. In manyinstances, concerns about the trade-offs involvedcentre on employment and competitivenessissues. These are now addressed in their rela-tionship to sustainable development.

EmploymentDevelopment meets social and economic needs.Despite the strong performance of the Irisheconomy unemployment remains unacceptablyhigh; the average Live Register for 1996 was279,000, up from 278,000 in 1995.11 Job creationcontinues to be the highest priority of nationaleconomic policy. Sustainable development poli-cies do not conflict with the objective of job cre-ation, and can encourage diversity in employ-ment opportunities. Long-term employment willbe underpinned by sustainable developmentpolicies which guarantee a high standard of envi-

ronmental protection and an environmentalquality approach throughout productive sectors.

An estimated 155,000 jobs, outside farming, aredependent to a significant degree on a qualityenvironment.12 Many potential areas of employ-ment growth also depend on the preservation ofa high quality environment. Over the pastdecade, employment across the EU appears tohave increased at a much higher rate in the envi-ronment-related sectors (including recycling,water and waste water services, instrumentengineering) than in the rest of the economy. InIreland, increased employment in environmentalsectors, particularly instrument engineering andwater technology, has developed at some fourtimes the rate of employment growth else-where.13

High environmental standards are an incentive,rather than a deterrent, to the location of highperformance industry in Ireland. They are alsoguarantors of product quality and acceptabilityfor export markets - critical to an open economyin an era of globalisation. Lower standards placeboth the environment and employment at risk,as any short-term gains are offset by, forexample, cost and resource inefficiencies, lack ofincentive to innovate, potentially greater healthand safety risks, and future difficulties withmarket acceptability and adjustment costs.

Sustainable development requires policies thatmaximise efficiency and broaden the base ofemployment. The extent of employment whichcan be generated by sustainable developmentpolicies, however, depends on:• the nature of the policies devised;• the efficiency with which they are pursued;• the ability of business and industry to capi-

talise on them; and• the receptiveness of consumers and trading

partners.Under this Strategy, employment maintenanceand generation will remain a priority.

Chapter 4 Environment and Economic Development

page 31

Competitiveness and InnovationIt is a commonly-quoted perception, arisingfrom a debate which has continued for overtwenty years, that the costs of environmentalrequirements can have a negative impact oncompetitiveness. Yet there is much internationalevidence to support the counter-argument thatenvironmental protection promotes long-termcompetitiveness and encourages innovation.15

Environmental standards are only one of a rangeof determinants of competitive advantage,including:• tax regimes;• factor conditions (e.g. transportation and edu-

cation systems, availability of infrastructure,and specialised factors such as the presence ofa specific world class research institute);

• demand conditions (including market share,consumer preferences, behaviour of multina-tional companies);

• relationships with supporting industry (e.g.expansion, diversification and sophisticationof the supply industry); and

• domestic rivalry.

The relative position of environmental require-ments within this range is suggested by esti-mates made by the International LabourOrganisation (ILO) which attribute only 1% ofplant closures world-wide to environmental reg-ulation.16

Research carried out in a number of OECD coun-tries into the impact of environmental pro-grammes on the economy has generally con-cluded that any negative macro-economic effectsof environmental policies are quite small.17 Atthe micro-level, issues of local and short-termcompetitiveness are often a matter of debate.Small firms, which are usually more susceptible

to any competitive force, generally have greaterfears in this regard than large industry. This wasalso borne out in the study Cleaner ManufacturingTechnologies in Ireland18, carried out in 1993 for theDepartment of the Environment. Overall,stricter environmental policies do not appear tohave had much long-term negative impact oneither micro- or macro-economic competitive-ness in OECD countries, and the perceived neg-ative impact of environmental policies on eco-nomic competitiveness may be overstated.

National industrial policy has for some timerecognised that it is in Ireland's best interests toadvance ahead of other countries in environ-mental protection, anticipating trends, andleading rather than following. The CullitonReport (1992)19 singled out the food industry as asector where a proactive approach to environ-mental protection, building on the market oppor-tunities of the "green", wholesome image ofIreland and its food products, could be a majorfactor in international competitiveness andindustrial development. More recently, both theForfás Report, Shaping Our Future20 and the WhitePaper on Science, Technology and Innovation21 recog-nise that the environment has become a keyfactor in promoting knowledge-based highvalue-added projects in Ireland, with a demandfor qualified employees.

This approach is now reinforced by the report ofthe Joint Oireachtas Committee on SustainableDevelopment, published in March 1997, whichconcluded, inter alia, that “Ireland has a definitecompetitive advantage in terms of its Green Imagethat must be exploited to its full by not only the foodsector but other economic sectors such as tourism, thegeneral green consumer industry and the fledglingenvironment protection industry“.22 The Committeefocused on highlighting market niches andopportunities which can be exploited by Irishindustry in the growing global environmentalmarket, and identified business opportunitiesfor Irish enterprises in the areas of tourism, food,consumer products and environmental protec-tion goods and services.

Chapter 4 Environment and Economic Development

page 32

"A progressive environmental policy that ensures achievable and realistic stan-

dards for environmental protection ... would have a positive impact on enter-

prise and employment while encouraging investment and growth in Irish

industry."

- IBEC, Prosperity through Competitiveness14

The economic sectors themselves must meet thecompetitive forces of the market-place and thechallenges of consumer demand. Ability to inno-vate - achieving cleaner production, improvingprocess technology, providing eco-friendly prod-ucts and services - is critical to competitive suc-cess. The 1995 report of the Science, Technologyand Innovation Advisory Council23 pointed outthat, contrary to the general trend, employment ininnovative companies and industries increasedinternationally over the past two decades.

The Government will support enterprise inachieving environmentally responsible growthand employment.

• High planning and environmental standardswill remain a precondition for development.Government has recognised, in Partnership200024, the need to consider further stream-lining of the planning system to minimisedelays and uncertainties, and is committed tothe introduction of accelerated procedures formajor projects involving significant employ-ment and added value.

• Greater flexibility of approach, comple-menting regulatory measures with marketmechanisms, will be developed to allow eco-nomic sectors to achieve environmental objec-tives and realise environmental advantage inthe most cost-effective manner.

• The Government supports the generalapproach of the EU White Paper Growth,Competitiveness, Employment25, in advocating ashift in the tax burden away from labour andtowards polluters. Such a shift would providea means of implementing the “polluter paysprinciple” and underpinning the internalisa-tion of environmental costs. It will also redressthe balance between different industrial inputsand support labour-intensive, non-pollutingindustries. Appropriate measures will be developed for the 1998 and subsequentbudgets.

• Environmental industry is a growth area,which offers many opportunities for exploita-tion by Irish industry. These include pollutioncontrol technology and equipment, biotech-nology development and applications, andenvironmental consultancy services. Theopportunities for Irish industry will beexplored in a coordinated way and supportedby Forbairt and An Bord Tráchtála (whichalready has a promotion unit for this purpose).

• Substantial investment in environmental infra-structure will be maintained, with a three-yearly review, to support construction, man-agement, maintenance and supply jobs, andsupport sustainable growth.

• Active labour-market policies for improvedvocational guidance, education and trainingwill be put in place. These will support thetransition to cleaner production and technolo-gies, and the wider uptake of environmentalmanagement, auditing and reporting.

Chapter 4 Environment and Economic Development

page 33

Chapter 4 Environment and Economic Development

page 34

PART 3 - STRATEGIC SECTORS

5 Agriculture6 Forestry7 Marine Resources8 Energy9 Industry10 Transport11 Tourism 12 Trade

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

• provides high quality food froma high quality environment

• maintains the character of thecountryside and its landscapes, habitats and species

• secures an acceptable qualityof life for the rural community

5

Chapter 5 Agriculture

page 38

Agriculture inextricably links the environment,the economy and social development. Althoughsignificant environmental impacts and someunsustainable trends may now be associatedwith the agriculture sector, much of today's land-scape is the result of beneficial interactionbetween the farming community and natureover long periods of time. There is a widelyshared appreciation that agricultural activitymust be undertaken in an environmentally sus-tainable manner if it is to be economically viablein the long-term. Substantial action is alreadybeing taken to integrate environmental consider-ations more fully into agriculture. This Strategydefines an agenda to reinforce that action.

• The Government will extend environmentalcross-compliance as a standard considerationin respect of agricultural support generally orin selected schemes.

• The Code of Good Agricultural Practice to ProtectWaters from Pollution by Nitrates, launched inJuly 1996, and including recommendednitrogen application rates, will be promotedby local authorities, Teagasc and farmer repre-sentative associations. The implementation ofthe Code will be closely monitored. Efforts toprevent build-up of nitrates in waters willmaintain and, where necessary, improve onthe quality of drinking water.

• The use of revised recommended applicationrates for phosphorus fertilisers for grassland(launched by Teagasc in December 1996) will beencouraged and promoted so as to reduce soil Plevels, where excessive to crop requirements atpresent, down to the recommended levels overa period of five years. In particular, this Strategytargets a reduction of 10% per annum in artificialP fertiliser usage over the next five years.

• Appropriate adjustments will be made by theDepartment of Agriculture, Food and Forestryto the specification for the Rural EnvironmentProtection Scheme (REPS) to reduce phosphoruslosses from agriculture which contribute toeutrophication of rivers and lakes.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will produce comprehensive guid-ance and advice on agricultural practices forthe purpose of protecting all environmentalmedia and the ecosystems they support, andpromoting sustainable agriculture.

• Nutrient Management Planning (as now statu-torily provided for in the Waste ManagementAct, 1996), will be promoted mandatorily bylocal authorities in areas where EPA waterquality data identify agriculture as a signifi-cant contributor to eutrophication of riversand lakes. Emphasis will be placed on suchplanning on an individual farms basis and incatchment and regional areas.

• Teagasc will continue to provide advice and edu-cational services to farmers, including the pro-motion of awareness of the nutrient value of farmwastes and the achievement of a more sustain-able balance between soil inputs and outputs.The services will be reviewed to allow greater tar-geting, in consultation with EPA, towards thecatchments of eutrophic rivers and lakes.

• Intensive agriculture is a scheduled activity forthe purposes of Integrated Pollution Control(IPC) licensing under the EnvironmentalProtection Agency Act, 1992. IPC requirementsfor new activities were introduced inSeptember 1996 and IPC requirements forexisting activities will be phased in from 1998.

• To assist in maintaining an environmentally-sound farming sector, the Government is intro-ducing, for a three-year period to 1999,improved capital allowances for targeted invest-ment by farmers in pollution control measures.

• A system of environmental management offarming in proposed Natural Heritage Areas,including sustainable stocking densities, willbe elaborated between the Department ofAgriculture, Food and Forestry, theDepartment of Arts, Culture and the Gaeltacht,Teagasc and REPS planning agencies, as well asenvironmental and farm organisations.

An action programme towardssustainable agriculture

Agreed conditions in this regard, correctlyapplied, will provide for sustainable farmingsystems in such areas, as well as placing restric-tions on environmentally-damaging activities.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry is seeking the approval of the EuropeanCommission to extend the application of REPSin overgrazed areas from 5 to 15 years. Measureswill also be put in place to ensure that the envi-ronmental benefits achieved under REPS in des-ignated commonage areas are not diminishedby non-participants in the scheme.

• An uptake of 30% of farmers in REPS will beachieved by the year 1999.

• The National Biodiversity Plan, to be com-pleted by end 1997, will identify the actionsnecessary to preserve biodiversity, includingspecies and habitats, from human activities,including the pressures of agriculture.

• The Department of the Environment will reviewthe regulatory thresholds for environmentalimpact assessment of drainage works in 1997.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will coordinate action to improveinformation on the use of pesticides, and toreduce the environmental risks associatedwith their storage, use and disposal.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will continue its support for organicfarming, including financial support for measuresto improve marketing and public awareness ofthe environmental benefits of organic products.

• A farm plastic films recovery scheme, a volun-tary initiative involving industry and farmingoperations, is commencing operation in 1997,and will contribute to national recycling targets.

• The need for precaution in the use of geneticallymodified organisms (GMOs) in food productionis recognised. The new Food Safety Authoritywill be established in 1997, and will haveresponsibility for novel food. Better labelling

provisions in Community legislation are beingsought for products containing GMOs.

Fig 5.1 Key Trends in Irish Agriculture

Changing agricultural practices• production of silage

- increased from 0.3 million tonnes in 1960to over 20 million tonnes in 1990

- number of farms using baled silage increasedfrom 2-3% in 1990 to 56% in 1994

• change from manures and dungsteads to slurries- 28 million tonnes of winter slurries must

be stored and spread on land each year• enlargement of fields to facilitate mechanisationIntensification• increase in livestock numbers

- sheep flock grew by over 5 million animalsfrom 3.3 million in 1980 to 8.5 million in1990; the sheep flock peaked in 1992 at 8.9million and was 7.9 million in 1996

- national poultry flock which fluctuatedbetween 9.3 million and 9.9 million in the1980 to 1987 period grew to a high pointof 13.7 million in 1994 and was 13.2 millionin 1996

- pig numbers have increased from 1.19 mil-lion in 1990 to 1.62 million in 1996

Extensification• reduced tillage (decrease of nearly 25% in area

under arable crops between 1980 and 1990)• set-aside and Rural Environment Protection

Scheme• organic farmingEnvironmental impacts• soil erosion from overgrazing, particularly by

sheep• eutrophication of inland waters by phos-

phorus from organic (animal wastes) andanthropogenic (chemical fertiliser) sources

• loss of habitats and species, leading to reduc-tion in biodiversity

Waste Management• organic farm wastes

- increased amounts of animal slurries utilised by spreading on agricultural land

• non-organic wastes- increased use of plastic sheeting for baled

silage• silage effluent

- approximately 1.4 million tonnes per annum,usually combined with slurry for disposal

Chapter 5 Agriculture

page 39

Chapter 5 Agriculture

page 40

Introduction/OverviewAgriculture is the primary land use in Ireland,accounting for 4.9 million hectares (includingupland pasture and commonage areas) out of atotal land area of 6.9 million hectares. It repre-sents around 7% of GDP and 10.6% of employ-ment; these proportions are significantly higherthan the respective comparisons for the EU as awhole. If the food sector is included, overallemployment amounts to some 14% of thenational total. The economy relies heavily onagriculture and its associated industries.Around 18% of total exports come from thissector, together with in the region of 40% of netforeign exchange earnings.1

Major changes have taken place since Irelandjoined the EEC in 1973. Under the influence ofthe Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), thesechanges have resulted in substantial increases inanimal and farm productivity and in farmincomes. There is now a greater degree of spe-cialisation, which in some cases has involved agreater concentration of intensive agriculturalpractices, notably in the pigs, poultry, mushroomand cereals sectors. These concentrations,together with• a reduction in the outwintering of cattle, in

favour of more animal housing,• the replacement of hay bedding and dung by

slatted floors and slurry,• increased fertilisation of land, and• a switch from hay to silage feed,have impacted on the environment to asignificant degree.

The environmental impacts of agriculture havebeen most evident in the increasing incidence ofwater pollution and the effects of overgrazing onsoil and biodiversity. Potentially unsustainabletrends are also identifiable, for example, in thearea of waste management. Nonetheless, Irishagriculture, with its predominantly grass-basedproduction systems, remains the most extensiveand environmentally-friendly in Europe in itsuse of land resources. The majority of Irish live-

stock producers qualify for EU extensificationpremia, which require a relatively low stockingrate of less than 1.4 livestock units per hectare,and the value of production per hectare, at£731.39, is half that of the European average.2

Substantial EU co-financed investment in envi-ronmental protection measures continues to beundertaken by the agriculture sector under theControl of Farm Pollution Scheme3 (CFP) and theFarm Improvement Programme4 (FIP). A total ofsome 1 million cattle and 800,000 sheep havebeen housed, with effluent storage of 6.1 millioncubic metres and fodder storage of 2.6 milliontonnes. Some 26,000 applicants were grant-aided to a total of £121 million between 1986 and1995 under the FIP. A further £145 million wasallocated in grant aid to some 25,800 applicantsunder the CFP Scheme between 1989-93 and underfunds agreed for the period 1994-99.5

Agriculture is undergoing a process of majorstructural, social and economic change. This isprimarily a consequence of external factors,modifications in the CAP and changes under theGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).With the introduction of CAP reform, agriculturepolicy is now based on lower support levels,greater market orientation and more environ-mentally-friendly farming practices which arepromoted under the Rural Environment ProtectionScheme6 (REPS), introduced under the CAPReform Accompanying Measures.

CAP reform has resulted in a move towardsdirect payments to farmers with some bias infavour of extensive production. This will havesome sustainability benefits, in terms of a

"By end February 1997, approximately 23,200 farmershad been approved under REPS, and, as a result, some772,000 hectares of agricultural land (c. 16% of the total)are being farmed in an environmentally-friendly manner.It is envisaged that there will be 43,000 REPS participantsand spending of £350 million by 1999."

- Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry7

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slowing down in the intensification of farmingand correcting imbalances between productionand the carrying capacity of the soil. However,extensification may also lead to larger farms andfield sizes, lower labour inputs and conse-quently less attention to hedgerow maintenance,soil conservation and other positive aspects ofcurrent agricultural practices.

Agricultural Interactions with theEnvironmentFarmers have traditionally been the guardians ofthe countryside and its heritage. They are awareof the importance of protecting the natural envi-ronment, both in its own right and as theresource base for their livelihood, and they havemade substantial investments to these ends. Therich rural landscape of Ireland is to a very signif-icant extent a creation of agriculture.

Modern agriculture places pressure on the envi-ronment. The EPA has indicated that the "totalorganic load generated from agricultural activities inIreland is equivalent to that generated by about 68million people".8 Agricultural production andprocesses give rise to numerous and variedimpacts affecting air, water, soil and landscape.Many of these impacts are intensifying in Irelandand, if unchecked, will seriously erode anddestroy environmental assets. Apart from theimmediate impact on the local environment andits resources, the long-term damage and destruc-tion involved could also have serious implica-tions for the wider economy and society.

Environmental requirements and standardsmust inform the operation of the agriculturalsector. REPS and the CFP Scheme haveincreased the extent to which agricultural sup-port is being made conditional on compliancewith good environmental management andpractice. The general issue of eco-responsibility,or cross-compliance, under which environ-mental requirements are imposed on farmers asa condition of receiving support payments, isreceiving increasing attention in the EU. The

Government will extend environmental cross-compliance as a standard consideration inrespect of agricultural support generally or inrespect of further selected schemes.

Intensive livestock farmingIrish agriculture is primarily based on livestockrather than tillage farming, with pasture, hayand silage accounting for some 70% of land useand total crops, fruit and horticulture accountingfor 8%. Trends since 1970 show that while thearea under grass has remained more or lessunchanged, the proportion of arable land hasdecreased and the area under forest hasincreased. The emphasis on livestock andrelated products is highlighted in the analysis ofGross Agricultural Output for 1995 (see Fig 5.2).Livestock related agriculture, includingdairying, meat production, poultry and relatedcommodities accounts for nearly 87% of theGross Agricultural Output in that year.9

Fig 5.2 Agricultural Output for 1995

Commodity Value (IR£m)

Cattle & calves 1,323.7

Milk 1,204.2

Pigs 233.2

Sheep & lambs 155.3

Poultry & eggs 137.4

Cereals* 137.5

Other crops** 312.1

Source: Central Statistics Office10

* wheat, oats, barley** potatoes & sugar beet, fruit, vegetables and

other crops

The intensification of livestock farming has ledto a rapid and significant growth in numbers.

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Except for a reduction in sheep numbers since1992, the general trend continues to rise, asshown in Fig 5.3. Poultry numbers alsoincreased dramatically; the national flock, whichfluctuated between 9.3 million and 9.9 million inthe 1980 to 1987 period, grew to a high point of13.7 million in 1994 and was 13.2 million in 1996.

Fig 5.3 Livestock Numbers, 1991-1996

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996(000s) (000s) (000s) (000s) (000s) (000s)

Cattle*

6,912.0 6,975.7 7,026.6 7,064.5 7,122.1 7,422.8

Sheep

8,888.2 8,908.5 8,647.3 8,433.4 8,369.5 7,934.0

Pigs

1,303.7 1,385.8 1,521.6 1,530.4 1,550.4 1,620.8

Poultry

12,052.8 12,039.2 12,900.0 13,725.8 13,248.4 13,170.5

Source: Central Statistics Office11

* includes cows and heifers-in-calf in the dairy sector

as follows:

1991 - 1,460.5; 1992 - 1,462.4; 1993 - 1,471.3;

1994 - 1,494.4; 1995 - 1,520.1; 1996 - 1,548.4.

This growth has involved major developmentsin farm management practices, such as fertiliserusage, mechanisation, use of winter housing andinvestment in pollution control. Widespread dis-semination of information on best managementpractices, advice and the application of researchby Teagasc, have also had the effect of increasingland productivity. However, growth hasincreased pressures on the environment particu-larly as regards waste management (mainlyrelating to cattle and pigs) and overgrazing(mainly involving sheep). In addition to effectson soil and water, intensive livestock productionalso gives rise to increased emissions ofammonia, which contribute to acid rain, and ofmethane and nitrous oxide (N2O), which aregreenhouse gases.

Methane and N2O emissions combined are sub-stantial contributors to Ireland’s total green-house gas emissions; measured on the basis ofgreenhouse warming potential, they account for46% of Ireland's emissions of primary green-house gases, compared to an EU average of 20%.Methane and N2O emissions were 811 kt and29.4 kt respectively in 1990, with about 80% ineach case resulting from agriculture. Provisionalfigures for 1995 indicate no change in methane(812 kt) and a decrease in N2O (26 kt).Agriculture remains the principal source in thecase of both gases, but the proportion of N2Ofrom this source has fallen to 73%.12 Both of thesegreenhouse gases are under consideration aspart of the negotiations to strengthen the com-mitments under the UN Framework Convention onClimate Change (see Chapter 8). Gaseous emis-sions of ammonia from the agriculture sectoramounted to 123 kt in 1994, of which almost100% results from agriculture.13 Ammonia emis-sions are under investigation in the developmentof policy within the EU to combat acidificationand eutrophication. Control of emissions ofthese three gases will require new and contin-uing attention at national level in the implemen-tation of this Strategy.

Organic waste managementThe management of wastes arising from agricul-ture has particular implications for the mainte-nance of water quality. Grazing animals pro-duce some 28 million tonnes of manure duringthe indoor winter period, which must be storedand land-spread. Pig and poultry manureoutput is over 2 million tonnes. In addition,about 1.4 million tonnes of silage effluent arealso produced. Farm wastes have a high pol-luting potential relative to domestic sewage orindustrial wastes, as indicated in Fig 5.4.

Fig 5.4 Polluting Potential of Various Wastes

Wastes BOD Phosphorus content (mg/l) content (mg/l)

Cattle manure slurry 17,000 630

Silage effluent 65,000 560

Domestic sewage 450 15

Brewing 600 20

Source: Environmental Research Unit14

The potential of agricultural wastes to causewater pollution should be qualified to takeaccount of the relatively low pollution potentialof manures produced by cattle and sheep at pas-ture. After allowing for these, however, the agri-cultural waste volume is calculated at six timesthe levels from domestic sewage and industrialwastes.15

Compared to traditional manures and dung-steads, the large quantities of animal manuresproduced on dairy and beef farms using slattedsheds (and accounting for 85% of total animaloutput) require different disposal practices tominimise the potential for pollution. Disposalby land-spreading has a significant potential fornutrient enrichment of waters in the agriculturecontext, particularly if disposal takes place out-

side the growing season or when weather orground conditions are unsuitable. The problemis exacerbated in some parts of the country byheavy rainfall and areas of poorly draining soils,and also by the concentration of intensivefarming, especially pigs and poultry, in certaingeographic areas (e.g. almost 50% of the totalpoultry flock is located in Co. Monaghan).16

Careful management is required to minimise thelosses of nutrients from land spread wastes toadjacent waters. The housing and feeding ofhigher numbers of livestock for extendedperiods in the farmyard greatly increase thethreat of pollution from "dirty water" due toimproper storage of waste and drainage of roofsand yards. The widespread use of silage as themain cattle fodder, replacing hay, introducesanother potential pollutant of water courses, i.e.run-off from silage pits.

It is an objective of this Strategy to continue toimprove the management of farm wastes. Itmust be accepted that there are finite limits to thecapacity of soil to absorb organic wastes, andthat appropriate arrangements are essential tostay within these limits.

• Positive steps are being taken through REPS,which requires all participants to draw up awaste management, liming and fertilisationplan, with the objective of minimising nutrientlosses.

• A more intensive focus is now being placed onnutrient management planning (see below).

• Updated guidance on farm pollution controlfrom the Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will focus, inter alia, on waste storageand treatment.

• Intensive pig and poultry rearing activitieswill progressively become subject toIntegrated Pollution Control licensing over theremainder of this decade.

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• While recognising that anaerobic digestion onits own does not solve all the problems ofnutrient pollution, the agricultural sector willbe encouraged by Government to explore thetechnical and economic feasibility of agri-waste digestion in association with otherwaste producing sectors.

Nutrients: Phosphorus and eutrophication Monitoring of national water resources has estab-lished that eutrophication of rivers and lakes isthe most significant threat to the maintenance ofhigh water quality. (In this regard see alsoChapter 13). Eutrophication involves nutrientenrichment of the water leading to acceleratedplant and algae growth, lowering of water qualityand interference with fisheries and other uses ofthe water. The primary cause of eutrophication inIreland is phosphorus (P), although nitrates canbe a contributor in certain circumstances.

A number of sources, including sewage andindustrial wastes, contribute to phosphorusloadings. However, losses from agriculture,both organic farm wastes (from farmyardswhere waste management practices are inade-quate and from leaching and run-off from land)and mineral fertilisers, are a significant factor.Case studies on Lough Conn and Lough Derghave attributed 50-60% of the P loading to agri-culture, while studies in the Lee catchmentattributed 80% of P loading to this source.17

Phosphorus is required for both plant andanimal growth, but its application in the form ofmineral fertilisers and as manures/slurries canhave important consequences for water quality.National trends show a steady increase in soil Plevels between 1950 and 1991, when the averageP level increased from 0.8 mg/l to 9.3 mg/l.Since 1991, the average P appears to havedropped to about 8 mg/l and to have stabilisedaround that level.19 Teagasc has reported

increasing evidence from research that there ispotential to reduce P inputs to grassland withoutreducing yields. Phosphorus balance studiesalso indicate significant P inputs in excess of Premovals, resulting in the build-up of excessive Plevels in the soil in some areas. P inputs in 1988,for example, were estimated to be more thandouble the outputs, and this excess had beencontinuing for years.20 Current excess of P inputhas been estimated at about 46,000 tonnes ayear.21 A recent project22 on eutrophication in theInniscarra Reservoir on the River Lee, Co. Corkbears out the findings on P levels. Excess phos-phorus in the soil increases the risk of losses towaters, with consequent implications foreutrophication.

Apart from the environmental costs of excessivesoil enrichment, there is also an economic costwhere money is being expended unnecessarilyon mineral fertilisers. Approximately 60,000tonnes from a total P input of some 140,000tonnes a year is artificial. While in Europe thelevel of application of artificial P has steadilydeclined by about 2% per annum for the last tenyears, it has remained fairly constant in Irelandover the same period. In order to seek a balancein the inputs and removal rates of P, effortsshould be focused on reducing artificial P levels.Teagasc has estimated that savings in excess of£25 million nationally could be achieved annu-ally if fertiliser applications were tailored moreclosely to crop requirements.23

Nutrients: Nitrates and water qualityThe European experience shows that excessivenitrate levels in waters contribute to eutrophica-tion and to the contamination of drinking watersources. While there is limited evidence to dateof problems arising from the use of nitrogenousfertilisers in Ireland, the concentration of nitratesin waters in some areas has increased signifi-cantly compared with normal background levels.Consumption of nitrogenous fertilisers has beenincreasing fairly steadily, from 275,000 tonnes in1980 to just over 400,000 tonnes in 199324, and

"On a national basis, much more phosphorus than is required for optimalproduction is being used in intensive agriculture."

- Environmental Protection Agency18

EPA has referred to evidence that the efficiency ofthe utilisation of nitrogen in fertiliser isdecreasing as the quantity used increases.25

Elevated nitrate levels are found in some rivers,particularly in the South-East, and in certaingroundwaters in areas where tillage farming iscarried on.26 Existing efforts to prevent the build-up of nitrates in waters will maintain and, wherenecessary, improve on the quality of drinkingwater with important public health benefits.Drinking water quality analyses for 1995 indi-cate that only 0.8% of samples exceeded thestatutory quality standard of 50 mg/l NO3.27

Between 20% and 25% of drinking water sup-plies nationally come from groundwater sources.In certain areas, the proportion of drinking waterobtained from groundwater is much higher thanthe national average (e.g. 90% in North Cork,86% in Co. Roscommon)28, and groundwater isoften the only source of supply in rural areasunserved by public or group water schemes.These resources are vulnerable to human activi-ties, including the use of chemical fertilisers andthe growing volume of agricultural and otherwastes disposed of by land-spreading. As reme-diation of contaminated water supplies is ofteneither technically impracticable or prohibitivelyexpensive, a preventive approach is essential.

Nutrients: Management responsesGood management can prevent water pollutionfrom agricultural sources. Action, supported byenhanced legislative provisions, is already underway. The emphasis of this Strategy will be toensure that management action is well planned,concerted, effective and backed up where appro-priate by stringent legislative controls. The envi-ronmental objective of management action is toreduce and prevent the pollution of surfacewaters and groundwaters by nutrients fromagriculture. The range of actions being, and tobe, pursued includes the following.

• In December 1996, revised recommended appli-cation rates for phosphorus fertilisers for grass-

land were launched by Teagasc29; these tookaccount of levels already in the soil. Use of thenew application rates will be encouraged andpromoted in the agriculture sector, so as toreduce soil P levels, where excessive to croprequirements at present, down to the recom-mended levels over a period of five years. In par-ticular, this Strategy will seek to achieve a greaterbalance in the P budget, and towards this endtargets a reduction of 10% per annum in artificialP fertiliser usage over the next five years.

• Appropriate adjustments will be made by theDepartment of Agriculture, Food and Forestryto the specification for REPS to reduce phos-phorus losses from agriculture which con-tribute to eutrophication of rivers and lakes.

• The Code of Good Agricultural Practice to ProtectWaters from Pollution by Nitrates,30 launched inJuly 1996, which includes recommendednitrogen application rates, will be promoted bylocal authorities, Teagasc and farmer represen-tative associations. A Code of Good Practicefor Phosphorus will also be developed by 1998.

• Nutrient Management Plans provide anopportunity both to minimise adverse envi-ronmental effects and to make the most effi-cient use of economic resources. More atten-tion, accordingly, is now being given tonutrient management planning, both on anindividual farm basis where there is anincreasing awareness and interest amongfarmers, but also in catchment and regionalareas. This is particularly important where theorganic wastes produced by intensive live-stock farming exceed the soil nutrient require-ments of the area. Nutrient managementplans are a feature of REPS. The ErneCatchment Nutrient Management Scheme,launched in 1996 and being funded by the EUPeace Fund, offers a Nutrient ManagementPlanning service to intensive farmers on bothsides of the Border for the Bunnoe andDromore sub-catchments of the River Erne inCounties Cavan, Monaghan and Fermanagh.

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This pilot scheme will serve as a model forfuture services of this kind.

• Nutrient Management Planning has beengiven a statutory basis by the WasteManagement Act, 1996. The Act provides that alocal authority may, on foot of water qualityanalyses carried out by the authority or theEPA, serve notice on landowners/farmers tofurnish a nutrient management plan, based onsoil analysis of the holding, setting nutrientapplication rates so as to prevent or limitwater pollution, and requiring records to bekept on production, treatment and applicationof farm wastes and the use of mineral fer-tilisers. The Department of the Environmentwill request local authorities to use thesepowers in areas where EPA water quality dataidentify agriculture as a significant contributorto eutrophication of rivers and lakes.

• To assist in maintaining an environmentallysound farming sector, the Government isintroducing, for a three-year period to 1999,improved capital allowances for targetedinvestment by farmers in pollution controlmeasures.

• Teagasc will continue to provide advice andeducational services to farmers, including thepromotion of awareness on the nutrient valueof farm wastes and the achievement of a moresustainable balance between soil inputs andoutputs. The services will be reviewed to allowgreater targeting, in consultation with EPA, ofthe catchments of eutrophic rivers and lakes.

Management action will be supported andinformed by appropriate research by Teagascand EPA. Current projects commissioned by thelatter, under the Operational Programme forEnvironmental Services, 1994-9931, include:

• an investigation, headed by the ZoologyDepartment of UCG, of eutrophicationprocesses in the littoral zones of western lakes,including Lough Corrib; and

• a study by Teagasc/TCD on agricultural soilphosphorus losses to water. The aim is todevelop a model to predict soil P losses givensoil type, soil P level and precipitationamounts so as to facilitate better targeting ofpollution control resources.

Overgrazing

Overstocking and overgrazing by sheep are par-ticular problems in western and upland areas.Headage payments contributed to a significantexpansion in the numbers of sheep in thecountry. Between 1980 and 1990, the size of theIrish sheep flock grew by over 5 million animals,with total sheep numbers reaching a high pointof 8.9 million in 1992 (see Fig 5.3). Large num-bers of grazing animals remove vegetative coverand compact the soil, resulting in faster run-offof water and consequent soil erosion. Theproblem is most acute on lands held in commonownership in Counties Donegal, Kerry, Galway,Leitrim, Mayo, Sligo and Wicklow, whereblanket peat soils in areas of high rainfall areparticularly vulnerable. Despite their low car-rying capacity, these are also the areas of highestsheep density. In June 1995, there were almost1.1 million sheep in Co. Galway, with a further0.65 million in Co. Mayo; sheep numbers in Co.Wicklow were over 0.5 million, just under 0.55million in Co. Kerry and 0.73 million in Co.Donegal.33

Average stocking rates, originated by Teagasc,are also a factor in the equation. Irish rates aresignificantly higher in some respects than thoseoperating in Britain - 1.7 sheep per hectare onblanket bog (year round grazing) compared tobetween 0.25 and 0.37 sheep per hectare(summer grazing only) in Britain.34

Other environmental problems arising fromoverstocking and overgrazing include the degra-

"Soil genesis is a long process - the formation of a layerof 30 cm of soil takes from 1,000 to 10,000 years. It isformed so slowly that soil can be considered as a non-renewable resource."

- Europe's Environment: The Dobris Assessment32

dation of blanket bog and heather moor - impor-tant natural habitats - with consequent effects onplant and animal species, and the siltation ofstreams and lakes by soil and peat released byerosion. Siltation can damage fisheries, particu-larly at the spawning/fry stage, with conse-quences for both species protection and com-mercial uses. There are also economic conse-quences for the agriculture industry itself. Landdegraded by overgrazing may no longer be ableto support livestock, or other uses. The loss ofthis land for agricultural use, combined with itslack of potential for other use as a result of itsdegraded state, reduces the overall productiveland resource. This has implications for thewider economy and, in particular, the destruc-tive effect on landscape may adversely affect thetourism industry.

It is essential to the sustainability of agricultureand its natural resource base to ease pressures insensitive areas by reducing sheep numbers. It isrecognised, however, that the socio-economicimplications of overgrazing make it difficult toarrive at a simple solution to the problem.

• A partial response has already been madeunder REPS, whereby a special allowance ispaid to farmers to remove their sheep fromsensitive uplands for six months of the year.The practice of commonage is an additionalfactor in the equation, which requires controland management to ensure equitable sharingand sustainable use.

• Since 1994, it has no longer been possible tomove sheep quota rights from non-disadvan-taged into disadvantaged areas. This restric-tion is now helping to reduce the concentra-tion of sheep stocks on the mountains anduplands of disadvantaged areas which couldbe adversely affected by overgrazing.

• A system of environmental management offarming in proposed Natural Heritage Areas,including sustainable stocking densities, isbeing agreed between the Department of

Agriculture, Food and Forestry, theDepartment of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht, Teagasc and REPS planning agen-cies, as well as environmental and farm organ-isations. The Department of Agriculture, Foodand Forestry is seeking the approval of theEuropean Commission to extend the applica-tion of REPS in overgrazed areas from 5 to 15years, and is putting in place measures toensure that the environmental benefitsachieved under REPS in designated com-monage areas are not diminished by non-REPSparticipants.

Pesticide usePesticide use in Ireland, while low by Europeanstandards (see Fig 5.5), nonetheless presentspotential problems, particularly if pesticides aremisused. Improper storage, handling, use anddisposal methods can result in pollution ofwaters and soil, and may affect biodiversity bythreatening insect, bird and animal life, anddamaging flora. Sheep-dip is a prime exampleof the risks involved, given its highly toxicnature and the usual siting of sheep dippingclose to watercourses.

Trends in the use of pesticides are difficult toidentify, because of the limited availability ofdata. In 1996, EPA published the results of acountrywide survey of pesticide residues inwater supplies.35 From over 3,300 analyticalresults on water samples, spread over 26 coun-ties and serving 1.8 million consumers, only 5were above the statutory drinking water qualitystandards. On re-testing, the supplies with pos-itive results were shown to be clear.

The regulatory system introduced to give effectto Council Directive 91/414/EEC on pesticideuse36 is designed to ensure that no unacceptableinfluence on the environment occurs in terms ofcontamination of soil, water and air and effectson flora and fauna. Improvements in the regula-tory regime for plant protection products involvemore in-depth examination in regard to operatorsafety, the fate and behaviour of individual plant

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protection products in soil, water and air, and theimpact on non-target species (terrestrial verte-brates, aquatic species, arthropod species, soilmacro- and micro-organisms).

To ensure continued sustainable practice in regardto pesticides, the Department of Agriculture, Foodand Forestry will coordinate action to:

• improve statistics relating to the use of pesticides;

• replace older less environmentally-friendlypesticides with newer more environmentally-benign products;

• improve standards of storage, handling useand disposal; and

• achieve a quantitative reduction in the level ofrisk associated with use.

Non-organic farm wastesIt is estimated that some 12,000 tonnes of wasteplastic sheeting arise in the agricultural and horti-cultural sectors each year.40 This represents about35% of the total non-domestic polyethylene filmwaste generated in Ireland. While the generationof this waste is quite evenly divided between var-ious uses, including fertiliser bags, silage coversand bale wraps, the significant increase in the useof baled silage, from 2-3% of all farms in 1990 to56% in 199441, suggests that further growth in thequantity of plastic waste may be expected. Properdisposal of these wastes is essential to protect theenvironment from the hazards of plastic, whichinclude threats to wildlife, disruption of drainagesystems and water flows, and visual intrusion onthe landscape.

In 1996, the Farm Films Producers Group(Ireland) (IFFPG) was formed by manufacturers,importers and distributors, with the support ofthe IFA, to increase the collection and recyclingof plastic films from agriculture. It is intendedthat IFFPG will apply to be designated an

Fig 5.5 Consumption of Pesticides in Selected Countries

Country Total Tonnes 37 Agricultural Area 38 Pesticide Use in Ratio to Agricultural Area(active ingredients) (000 ha.) (tonne/ha.)

Austria (b) 3,565 3,449 1.03

Belgium (1) 9,885 1,380 7.16

Denmark 4,103 2,740 1.50

France (b) 84,709 30,220 2.80

Germany 28,930 17,160 1.69

Greece 8,583 5,740 1.50

Ireland (c) 2,761 4,900 0.56

Italy (a) 91,671 17,220 5.32

Netherlands 11,551 1,980 5.83

Spain 80,760 29,760 2.71

Sweden (3) 1,464 3,359 0.44

United Kingdom (b) (2) 27,748 15,880 1.75

EU Average 2.69

1993 figures, except (a) 1990, (b) 1992, (c) 1994 Source: OECD/Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry39

(1) includes Luxembourg, (2) Great Britain only(3) special sales tax has been applied to pesticides in Sweden since 1987

approved body for the purposes of the WasteManagement (Farm Plastics) Regulations, 1997,under the Waste Management Act, 1996. TheRegulations afford plastics producers the optionof complying with requirements based on amandatory deposit/refund system, or of partici-pating in an approved recovery scheme. In 1997,IFFPG will start operating an approved IrishFarm Films Recovery Scheme for the recovery ofplastic films from farms where it is economicallyfeasible to do so. The scheme is a significant vol-untary initiative by the industry and IFAtowards meeting national waste recovery andrecycling objectives.

Landscape, habitats and speciesAgricultural land use and practices can con-tribute to the loss of habitats and species, leadingto a reduction in biodiversity. In historical terms,the introduction of agriculture into what waspreviously almost entirely natural forest broad-ened the range of plant species. Due to thelargely extensive nature of Irish agriculture,landscape quality has been, with some excep-tions, well conserved, and a high percentage ofnatural and semi-natural habitats has beenretained. However, there has been some loss ofbiodiversity with, for example, the drainage ofwetlands and the removal of hedgerows.

A system of environmental management offarming in proposed Natural Heritage Areas,including sustainable stocking densities, will beelaborated between the Department ofAgriculture, Food and Forestry, the Departmentof Arts, Culture and the Gaeltacht, Teagasc andREPS planning agencies, as well as environ-mental and farm organisations. Agreed condi-tions in this regard, correctly applied, will pro-vide for sustainable farming systems in suchareas, as well as placing restrictions on environ-mentally-damaging activities.

Priority habitats will be designated as SpecialAreas of Conservation (SACs) under theEuropean Communities (Natural Habitats)

Regulations, 1997 (see also Chapter 13). The effectof these designations, which will be compulsory,will be to further address any unsustainablefarming or developmental practices in theseareas, and to give additional support to thatalready available under REPS to environmen-tally-friendly farming.

As indicated in Chapter 13 also, a nationalBiodiversity Plan will be completed in 1997.Ireland supplied a "Country Report"42 in 1995 tothe UN Food and Agriculture Organisation cov-ering measures to protect and conserve agricul-tural plant genetic resources. A complementaryEU initiative (under Council Regulation1467/9443) is co-funding, over a five-year period,research on the conservation, characterisation,collection and utilisation of genetic resources inagriculture. The Department of Agriculture,Food and Forestry recognises the need to developmore fully national policy in these areas, and willdo so within the framework of this Strategy.

The general exemption of the development ofland for agricultural and forestry use, includingland reclamation and animal housing, fromplanning regulation means that such develop-ments could potentially have an adverse impacton the environment, and affect the long-termsustainability of other uses such as tourism andamenity. However, even exempted developmentis subject to a number of conditions designed tolimit its impact on the landscape, while largedevelopments of forestry, land reclamation andpeat extraction are now subject to planning per-mission requirements and environmental impactassessment procedures.

Drainage, frequently undertaken for agriculturalpurposes but also for flood relief, has caused sig-nificant damage to aquatic habitats and wetlands,including turloughs, wetland systems for whichIreland has particular international responsibili-ties. In the future all proposals to undertakedrainage, whether for agriculture related, urbanflood relief, or other reasons, will include careful

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consideration of the potential effects on biodiver-sity and the environment generally. TheDepartment of the Environment will review theregulatory thresholds for environmental impactassessment of drainage works in 1997.

Organic farmingThe organic farming sector supports sustainableagricultural development through the produc-tion of environmentally-friendly goods and ser-vices. It is desirable that lands in conversion toorganic farming should reach full organic status,and that a greater market share, implying anincreased availability to consumers, should beachieved for organic produce. Subsidisation ofhigh-intensity agriculture, however, provides acomparative market advantage over low-inten-sity or organic farming. Correct pricing andongoing support are needed to level the playingfield between high and low intensity products.

The Operational Programme for Agriculture, RuralDevelopment and Forestry, 1994-99, providesinvestment aid (an indicative amount of £0.8million) for the marketing, promotion and distri-bution of organic produce over the period 1994-1999. In addition, the organic farming supple-mentary measure to REPS offers financial incen-tives to farmers who farm organically in accor-dance with a five-year REPS plan.

The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will continue its support for organicfarming, including financial support for measuresto improve marketing and public awareness ofthe environmental benefits of organic products.

Agricultural researchResearch is ongoing, funded by the Departmentof Agriculture, Food and Forestry, in the area ofsustainable agriculture. As part of the TeagascEnvironment Protection Programme under theAgriculture, Rural Development and Forestry OP,research is focused on the following priorityareas:

• the development of viable nutrient and wastemanagement strategies designed to minimisethe impact on the environment of agricultureand other developments in rural areas; and

• the development of strategies for the enhance-ment of rural landscapes and the ecologicalmanagement of set-aside areas, includinghabitat re-establishment studies.

Sub-programmes covered by this research pro-gramme include:• sustainable farming systems;• the environmental impact of phosphorous;• the environmental impact of nitrogen;• waste management;• land use management; and• soil fertility.The projects involved scientifically underpin theimplementation of EU and national legislationconcerning agriculture and the environment.

Food safety

Of all industrial sectors, the food sector is themost highly, if not uniquely, dependent on a goodenvironmental image as the key to good qualityfood. The food and drink industry contributessignificantly to the national economy, accountingin 1994 for 29% of GNP, 21% of total exports andalmost 20% of the total industrial workforce.45

Both the Culliton Report and the 1996 ForfásReport, Shaping Our Future, recognised the needfor a high quality environment to secure the posi-tion of the agri-food industry and realise itsdevelopment potential. More and more, nationalenvironmental quality is seen as underwritingthe quality of food products directly derivedfrom that environment. Growing concern amongconsumers, both in Ireland and in export mar-kets, about food quality and safety, highlights theneed to protect the environment and maintainhigh environmental standards.

"Ireland has many environmental advantages which areimportant in meeting the increasing consumer demandsfor good quality, nutritional and safely produced food."

- Forfás, Shaping Our Future44

The agri-food sector must achieve and maintainhigh environmental standards in its operation inorder to respond to consumer concerns andrealise its economic and employment potential.Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) licensing isbeing progressively applied in the sector, and thephasing in of IPC requirements for existingactivities, which has already commenced, will becompleted by the end of the decade. In addition,substantial voluntary action demonstrating thesector's own environmental responsibility, isopen to the agri-food sector, in common withindustry generally, by means of initiativesincluding the new approaches identified inChapter 9.

Genetic modificationThe use of genetically modified organisms(GMOs) in food production is an issue of signif-icant current concern to consumers.

Biotechnology has emerged as one of the mostpromising technologies for sustainable develop-ment into the next century, with potential both toimprove environmental protection and to trans-form the competitiveness and growth base of arange of economic activities. BioResearchIreland was formed in 1987 to develop biotech-nology expertise and facilities, and to commer-cialise the results of biotechnology R&D.

While modern biotechnology can have a positiveeffect on health, food safety and the environ-ment, there has nonetheless been growing publicconcern about the long-term health and environ-mental impacts of genetic modification. Equally,with increasing use of genetic modification tech-

niques in food production, concern has grownabout the extent of consumer information madeavailable, notably through labelling of productscontaining or consisting of GMOs.

Ireland's environmental regulatory controls inthe area of biotechnology are based on EUDirectives; the Environmental Protection Agencyimplements the Genetically Modified OrganismsRegulations, 1994, which give effect to CouncilDirectives 90/219/EEC on the contained use ofgenetically modified micro-organisms46 and90/220/EEC on the deliberate release into theenvironment of genetically modified organ-isms.47 In 1996, the Government decided that theMinister for Health would assume responsibilityfor the implementation of Council Regulation(EC) No. 258/97 concerning novel foods andnovel food ingredients.48 Regulatory control willbe undertaken in this regard by the proposedFood Safety Authority of Ireland, which will beestablished in 1997.

EPA operates on a precautionary basis in the dis-charge of its regulatory functions under theDirectives and the Regulations. Improved safetymeasures in respect of contained uses (i.e. withinlaboratories) were agreed by the EnvironmentCouncil during the Irish Presidency. It is recog-nised that the provisions of Directive90/220/EEC are deficient in respect of thelabelling of products containing or consisting ofGMOs, and Ireland is actively supporting thedevelopment of transparent labelling provisionsto be brought forward by the Commission in1997 as part of proposals to revise the Directive.

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Chapter 5 Agriculture

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forestry

SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY

• enhances the natural environ-ment, including natural systemssuch as the carbon cycle

• harmonises with landscape andincorporates ecological issuesincluding protection of sensi-tive areas, biodiversity andwater quality

• supports the quality of rurallife by providing employmentand amenities

• provides timber on a sustainedyield basis

6

National forestry policy, as evidenced in theOperational Programme for Agriculture, RuralDevelopment and Forestry, 1994-99 and the StrategicPlan for the Development of the Forestry Sector inIreland, already takes account of many sustainabledevelopment issues and considerations. Thisintegration will be further developed under theforthcoming National Sustainable Forestry Plan.Specific actions arising out of existing policy, ornew initiatives which will be developed in addi-tion to it, are summarised below.

• The threshold at which planning permissionand environmental impact assessment (EIA) isrequired for afforestation has been reducedwith effect from 1 October, 1996, from 200hectares to 70 hectares. In addition, planningpermission and EIA will now be required forcumulative afforestation which results in atotal area planted exceeding 70 hectares.

• The Minister for the Environment will takenew powers in relation to forestry control inthe next Local Government (Planning andDevelopment) Bill to enable planning permis-sion to be required for plantations whichwould not warrant EIA.

• Forestry legislation will be reviewed to reflectthe principles of sustainable forestry develop-ment, as set out under the Helsinki process.As part of this process, Ireland will alsodevelop a national sustainable forestry planand national criteria and indicators by whichprogress can be measured, and theDepartment of Agriculture, Food and Forestrywill develop a Code of Practice for sustainableforest management over the full forestry rota-tion period.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will implement a strategic plan forthe forestry sector in Ireland, which willtake account of sustainable developmentrequirements.

• The Department of the Environment hasissued draft consultation guidelines for plan-ning authorities in relation to forestry and theneed to protect views and scenic areas, land-scape and water quality, and the natural andarchaeological heritage, and to avoid rural iso-lation. These guidelines will be finalised in1997. In accordance with the guidelines, plan-ning authorities will be entitled to designateareas which they consider to be sensitive toforestry development, and the Forest Servicewill notify these authorities of all proposedforestry developments, regardless of size,within such designated areas.

• The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will regularly review its existing envi-ronmental controls, including its existingguidelines in relation to the landscape, fish-eries and archaeology, and will introduce newguidelines on wildlife and habitat diversity,harvesting and clearfelling, use of chemicalsand herbicides, and amenity and recreation.Particular attention will be paid to the plantingof broadleaf trees on the margins of largeconiferous plantations.

Introduction/Overview

Approximately 8% of Ireland is currently underforest which compares to the EU average of over30%. The low Irish figure, however, masks sub-stantial increases in afforestation which havetaken place in recent decades (see Figs 6.1 and6.2). The degree of afforestation must be seen inthe context of a baseline of approximately 1% offorest cover at the turn of this century. The cur-rent afforestation policy will increase this pro-portion to 10% by the end of the century and to17% (almost 1.2 million hectares) by the year2030.1 An estate of this size is considered to bethe minimum necessary to produce the annualvolume of timber needed to support the requiredrange and level of timber processing industries.

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An action programme towardssustainable forestry

Chapter 6 Forestry

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Fig 6.1 Issues in Irish Forestry

Increase in area afforested• the total area under forest has increased in

this century from 1% to 8%• forest cover is increasing at a rate of about

0.33% per annum• the current rate of afforestation is the

highest in the EU• the area afforested is still the lowest in the

EU

The predominance of coniferous species in the past isnow changing• 84% of Irish forests comprise conifers,

mostly Sitka spruce• the emphasis in forestry guidelines and con-

ditions for grants is now on greater diversityand preference for native and broadleavedtrees

• broadleaved species accounted for almost20% of planting in 1995, compared to 2-3%in the mid-1980s

Increase in private afforestation• privately-owned forests account for just over

30% of all forests• annual planting by private operators

(including farmers) reached 73% of totalplanting in 1995

• in 1995, 85% of all private afforestation wasundertaken by farmers

The primary objective of forestry in Ireland is theproduction of timber for a variety of end uses.The growing forestry industry and trade inwood products have significant economic value.An estimated 16,000 people are currentlyemployed in the sector, of which 7,000 aredirectly employed in forestry. Annual timberproduction in 1996 was 2.32 million cubicmetres, and supported some 100 sawmills andthree panel board mills. The value of the contri-bution of the sawn wood and panel board pro-cessing sectors to the national economy was esti-mated in 1993 at £87 million. The value added toindustrial input timber and wooden furniture

was estimated at £166 million. Irish forestssupply around 60% of domestic requirements forstructural and construction grade timber, whileexports, comprising some 250,000 cubic metres,consist mainly of palletwood destined for theUK market.2

Fig 6.2 Forest cover in EU Member States

Country Area Under Forest%

Austria 46Belgium 22Denmark 10Finland 69France 30Germany 30Greece 44Ireland 8Italy 29Netherlands 9Portugal 35Spain 27Sweden 62United Kingdom 10EU (15) Average >30

Source: Department of Agriculture,Food and Forestry3

Forestry is a valuable element of regional devel-opment. It offers an alternative land use, therebycreating diversification in rural areas; it providesfarmers with an alternative agricultural activity,a long-term asset and new income opportunities;it benefits the rural economy by the provision ofadditional and alternative local employment,both in primary afforestation and in the indus-trial sector. This helps to maintain the rural pop-ulation, especially in areas where other landbased activities do not generate adequateincomes. Current policy focuses on farmforestry, which is now the largest single compo-nent of the forestry programme; farmers accountfor over 80% of private afforestation (which rep-resented 18,627 of the 25,627 hectares afforestedin 1996). A total of 1,300 farmers undertookafforestation projects in 1995, and afforestation

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grants totalling £19 million and forestry pre-miums amounting to over £4 million were paidin that year.

The long cycle of forestry development (40 yearsfor Sitka spruce) means that the forests of todayare the result of decisions made and actionstaken decades ago. A range of controls (dis-cussed in this chapter) has been introduced inrecent years and the Department of Agriculture,Food and Forestry is committed to their regularreview and improvement.

Forestry Interactions with theEnvironmentForestry provides a number of environmentalbenefits. Forests play an important part in thecarbon cycle. The National Climate Change/CO2

Abatement Strategy4 (1993) recognised the role offorestry as a carbon sink, which can make a sig-nificant contribution to meeting the challenge ofclimate change.

Forests also act as an atmospheric filter, removingpollutants from the atmosphere. Developedforestry reduces soil erosion by wind and waterand controls land slips. Forestry is both a valuableand renewable resource and a sustainable balancebetween timber production and harvesting hasbeen standard practice in well-managed forests fordecades. Forestry can also add to the amenity ofurban and rural landscape where developed in asensitive manner. It provides opportunities forrecreation and tourism and form a part of our nat-ural heritage; as well as providing pleasure andamenity to citizens and tourists alike, there is aspin-off benefit in employment in these sectors.

The benefits of forestry, however, have to beweighed against possible adverse environmentaleffects, in particular areas at the afforestationand forest operation stages, including:

• visual intrusion;• the impact of monocultural coniferous

plantations;• impacts on water courses and water ecology;• the loss of, or damage to, sites of archaeo-

logical or of scientific interest;

• reduction in the range of flora and fauna;• isolation of rural dwellings; and• damage to rural roads during planting and

harvesting.

Planning and landscape implications arise notonly in the location of the forestry but also in theprovision of access roads, bridging/fording ofstreams, and other works necessary for its com-mercial operation. These considerations willincrease in importance under the planned majorafforestation programme, and must be taken intoaccount in its implementation.

Land use

Ireland has the lowest level of forestry cover in theEU. Government strategy in recent years, how-ever, has been to increase significantly the landarea under afforestation with planting targets of25,000 hectares per annum set down under the pre-sent afforestation programme. The planting ratein Ireland - an average 19,000 hectares per annumthroughout the 1990s - is now the highest per capitaforest planting programme of any developedcountry. Forest cover as a percentage of total landarea is increasing at a rate of about a third of onepercent every year and is probably the most sig-nificant change in land use that has taken place inrecent times in Ireland. This planting programmeis being supported by the under the EUOperational Programme for Agriculture, RuralDevelopment and Forestry, 1994-1999.

A sustainable forestry sector is of paramountimportance from a land use perspective. A rangeof controls already exists with a view toachieving the necessary balance. These includethe need for planning permission and environ-mental impact assessment in certain circum-stances. The Department of Agriculture, Foodand Forestry requires applications for forestrygrants to comply with guidelines on the protec-tion of habitats, fisheries, archaeological sites andlandscapes of high amenity value6 (which arebeing reviewed in 1997). Where environmental

"(Increasing afforestation is) ... perhaps the most rapidlychanging feature of land use in Ireland."

- Environmental Protection Agency6

considerations are identified in these regards, rel-evant State agencies and local authorities are con-sulted. The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will review the management of archae-ological monuments within forested areas, inparticular with reference to the potential impactof afforestation on as yet unidentified archaeo-logical monuments, the management of monu-ments within existing forests, and the enforce-ment of conditions placed on afforestation grantsto protect known monuments.

The experience has been that problems can arisein relation to specific afforestation projects. Someproblems arise from the conflict between devel-opment and non-development which is notunique to forestry. However, the fact that in mostcases there was no statutory process whichallowed structured input from the general publicinto the forestry consent process contributed tosome problems. In order to address some of theseissues, the Department of the Environment, inconjunction with the Department of Agriculture,Food and Forestry, has introduced a revisedregime of control on forestry development.

An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)threshold of 70 hectares (ha) for both initialafforestation, and contiguous afforestation by asingle developer over a three year period, hasbeen introduced. This reduced EIA threshold(originally 200 ha) applies to planting com-mencing on 1 October, 1996, and will bereviewed after 3 years. In this context afforesta-tion will be deemed contiguous if it is within 500metres of another plantation being developed bythe same person. The Department ofAgriculture, Food and Forestry has introduced asystem of notification of local authorities for allprojects over 25 hectares in respect of whichgrant applications were received on or after 1April, 1996. Local authorities have a month inwhich to make observations on the proposedprojects. Where the local authority responds, itsviews will be taken into account by the ForestService.

The draft Guidelines for Planning Authorities onForestry Development7, issued by the Departmentof the Environment in January 1997 for consulta-tion purposes, set out the proposed procedureunder which local authorities may designateareas which they consider to be sensitive toforestry development. The draft Guidelines arebased on factors such as the need to protectviews and scenic areas, landscape quality, pro-tection of the natural and archaeological heritageand the avoidance of rural isolation. In thesesensitive areas, it is proposed that local authori-ties will be notified of all proposals for afforesta-tion regardless of threshold and the ForestService will have regard to any observationsmade by the authorities. The Guidelines alsosuggest that planning authorities considerpreparing local indicative forest strategies toform the basis for decisions on planning applica-tions and consultations on forestry applications.In issuing the draft, the Department of theEnvironment is facilitating the widest possibleconsideration of all the issues involved. TheGuidelines will be finalised in 1997.

The Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry will regularly review its existing envi-ronmental controls, including its existing guide-lines in relation to the landscape, fisheries andarchaeology, and will introduce new guidelineson wildlife and habitat diversity, harvesting andclearfelling, use of chemicals and herbicides, andamenity and recreation. Particular attention willbe paid to the planting of broadleaf trees on themargins of large coniferous plantations.

It is also intended to take new powers in relation toforestry control in the next Local Government(Planning and Development) Bill to enable plan-ning permission to be required for plantationswhich would not warrant EIA. The appropriatelevels for such controls will be judged in the lightof the experience gained through the new localauthority notification system. These changes willassist in ensuring that the afforestation programmecontinues to contribute to Ireland's sustainable

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development while at the same time minimisingproblems which may arise in specific cases.

Predominance of coniferous speciesA trend in past afforestation has been the pre-dominant planting of coniferous rather thannative and broadleaved species, to the extentthat 84% of forests comprise coniferous species.The 16% of the Irish forest estate which is madeup of broadleaves is considerably less than inpractically all other EU Member States, wherethe average proportion of broadleaved forestryis 40% of the total (see Fig 6.3). The emphasis onquick-growing softwoods reflected the excep-tionally suitable conditions of the Irish climatefor such species, supporting rapid growth andproviding quick returns on investment.

Fig 6.3 Percentage of Broadleaves and Conifers in EU National Forests

Country Broadleaves Conifers% %

Austria 24 76Belgium 51 49Denmark 32 68Finland 10 90France 64 36Germany 31 69Greece 82 18Ireland 16 84Italy 75 25Luxembourg 64 36Netherlands 40 60Portugal 56 44Spain 58 42Sweden 7 93United Kingdom 33 67

Source: Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry8

Forestry plantations change some wildlife habi-tats and biodiversity. Coniferous woods, how-ever, can support a high density of wildlife andhigh species richness, but they are more vulner-

able to disease and pest infestation, and maytherefore require higher use of pesticides andfungicides. Although disease and infestationhave not been major problems in Irish forests todate, greater diversification would reduce therisk. Diverse forestry also increases the amenityvalue for tourism and recreation.

Current forestry policy places greater emphasison the planting of broadleaved species,including native species, with the target forannual broadleaf afforestation set at 20% of totalannual afforestation. This has particular value interms of landscape, heritage, amenity, and habi-tats. In economic terms, it also offers long-termopportunities for the production of hardwoodtimber, allowing a greater diversity of associatedindustries and products. However, this policyrequires the use of better quality land, which canraise issues of potential conflict with other usescompeting for the same land.

Impacts on soil and water

While forests can be beneficial in preventing soilerosion, felling and harvesting operations in pro-ductive forests can introduce pressures whichincrease the threat of erosion. This has conse-quences not only for the forest itself, but also fornearby waterways and any fish stocks therein.Care must be taken that all forestry operations,including felling and harvesting, cause the min-imum of disruption to soil stability and conserveits productivity for as long as possible.

Forestry plantations on peatland, which representover 40% of Irish plantations, may pose particularproblems arising from the nature of the soil. Theoxidation of carbon from the peat caused byforestry development depletes the soil, threat-ening its sustainability. It also releases additionalcarbon into the carbon cycle, which may offset thecarbon sequestration effect of the forestry.

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"Ultimately, the sustainability of plantation forestry inIreland depends on the sustainability of the soil resource"

- E.P. Farrell9

Peatlands formed a significant component offorestry from the 1960s to the 1980s, but now com-prise a very minor percentage of planting.

Coniferous plantations, particularly on poorlybuffered soils, contribute to acidification, whichleads to a depletion of nutrients and a reductionof soil productivity. Poor drainage design cancause problems of sediment and flash flooding,which in turn can increase aluminium strippingand leaching on poor soils. A survey10 carriedout by the ERU in the late 1980s found evidenceof acidification in rivers feeding Loughs Doo andNaminna, Co. Clare, and the Lugduff Riverwhich flows into the Upper Lake atGlendalough, Co. Wicklow. Common featureswere poor buffering and coniferous afforestedcatchments, particularly in the Glendalough areawhere there are mature forests. The adjoiningLugduff river was more acidic than the GlenealoRiver, which drains the adjoining non-afforestedcatchment. Historical data are, however, sparse.

Arising from concerns in relation to water acidifi-cation, the EPA established a Working Group inJanuary 1997, including representatives from cen-tral and local government and forestry, agricul-ture and fisheries interests, to review researchfindings to date on the impact which afforestationon different soil types may have on water quality,and to consider the effectiveness of existingguidelines in protecting sensitive surface watersagainst increased acidification and enrichment. Itswork will lead to recommendations to theDepartment of Agriculture, Food and Forestry forinclusion in revised guidelines on afforestation.

Impacts on landscape and biodiversityIt is important that any potential adverseimpacts of increasing afforestation on naturallandscapes and habitats are addressed and min-imised. The recent emphasis on broadleavedspecies and greater diversity within plantations,and the requirement for compliance with theguidelines on the protection of habitats, fish-eries, archaeological sites and landscapes of highamenity value as a condition of grant-aid, help toensure that this afforestation is carried out in a

sensitive fashion which enhances and benefitsthe natural environment.

Certain areas, such as boglands of national orinternational conservation importance, andareas which are protected or qualify for protec-tion under EU Directives 79/409/EEC on theProtection of Wild Birds11 and 92/43/EEC on theProtection of Habitats12, are explicitly excludedfrom the afforestation programme. TheDepartment of Agriculture, Food and Forestry iscommitted to introducing new guidelines cov-ering wildlife and habitat diversity in forests.

Ireland has a relatively small area of indige-nous forest, much of which is protected byconservation measures. About 5,200 hectaresof semi-natural forests are protected innational parks and nature reserves, while theproposed Natural Heritage Areas includeother important woodland ecosystems.

Forestry management

Fig 6.4 Criteria for Sustainable Forest Management

• Maintenance and appropriate enhancementof forest resources and their contribution toglobal carbon cycles

• Maintenance of forest ecosystem health andvitality

• Maintenance and encouragement of productivefunctions of forests (wood and non-wood)

• Maintenance, conservation and appropriateenhancement of biological diversity in forestecosystems

• Maintenance and appropriate enhancementof protective functions in forest management

• Maintenance of other socio-economic func-tions and conditions

Source: Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry 13

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At the 1993 Ministerial Conference on theProtection of Forests, held in Helsinki, Irelandand 44 other countries signed a Resolution onGeneral Guidelines for the SustainableManagement of Forests in Europe. TheResolution defines sustainable management as:

"the stewardship and use of forests and forest landsin a way and at a rate that maintains their biodi-versity, productivity, regeneration capacity,vitality and their potential to fulfil, now and in thefuture, relevant ecological, economic and socialfunctions, at local, national and global levels, andthat does not cause damage to other ecosystems".14

In 1994, as part of the Helsinki follow-upprocess, a draft list of six criteria and twentyindicators for sustainable forest management,agreed by the participating countries, wasissued. The intention is that the list will berefined as the process continues. In line with itscommitments in this area, and in accordancewith the Rio Forest Principles15, a national sus-tainable forestry plan (following on from thestrategic plan for the forestry sector) is being pre-pared by the Department of Agriculture, Foodand Forestry for publication later this year. ThePlan will include, inter alia, matters of nationalcriteria and indicators, and address the issue oftimber certification/eco-labelling. The relatedissue of tropical timber certification is addressedin Chapter 12.

Sustainable forestry practices require attention atall stages, from the initial preparation of groundfor planting (where sustainability may require,for example, natural or less toxic alternatives tothe use of herbicides and pesticides), to the con-struction and use of access routes, to plannedfelling and replanting operations. Guidelines onthe use of chemicals and pesticides, and on har-vesting and clearfelling, will be issued by theDepartment of Agriculture, Food and Forestry aspart of its strategic plan for the forestry sector.

The loading and haulage of timber from forestshas significant implications for non-national

roads in some areas. This will require appro-priate investment as forestry expands andmatures (just over 50% of the productive forestestate is under 25 years of age at present). Theimpact of heavy vehicles related to initial landdevelopment, drainage and planting is also con-siderable.

Coillte is already statutorily required to takeaccount of the environmental effects of itsforestry developments and practices. TheDepartment of Agriculture, Food and Forestrywill continue to ensure through cross-compli-ance (in relation to grants, subsidies and othersupports) that private forestry operators do like-wise.

Forestry based industryProductive forestry provides the raw materialsand resources for economic development whichis often focused on areas where alternativeindustries are unavailable. The location offorestry and downstream production operationsin disadvantaged rural areas helps to maintainthe local economy and society. The strict imple-mentation of planning requirements (includingenvironmental impact assessment) and, whereapplicable, of Integrated Pollution Controllicensing under the Environmental ProtectionAgency Act, 1992, will be essential to ensure thatsuch operations are established and carried outin accordance with the principles of sustainabledevelopment.

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resourcesSUSTAINABLE USE OF MARINE

RESOURCES

• protects and enhances themarine environment

• uses renewable resources in asustainable fashion, while pre-serving biodiversity

• provides economic and socialsupport for coastal and islandcommunities, while conservingthe natural resource on whichthey depend

7

• Ireland will continue to support efforts, underthe EU Common Fisheries Policy (CFP), tooptimise the management and conservation ofsea fisheries in the interests of sustainable andrenewable use.

• In this context, Ireland will support the devel-opment within the CFP of further measures toreduce the catching of juvenile fish, throughimprovements in the selectivity of fishing gearand other technical conservation measures,and monitor and quantify the by-catch ofcetacea in fishing gear, as required by theHabitats Directive.

• National measures will be maintained to con-serve inshore fish-stocks of salmon, sea-troutand bass. A new salmon management strategyis being implemented on a phased basis.

• The Minister for the Marine has introducedproposed legislation to establish a newlicensing and regulatory system for aquacul-ture. The new system will include an indepen-dent Appeals Board.

• The Dumping at Sea Act, 1996, will be imple-mented to prohibit waste dumping in themajority of situations and ensure rigorous con-trol of residual disposals.

• Existing regulations for preventing pollutionfrom port operations and ships in harbourswill be reinforced by the express duty of portcompanies established by the Harbour Act,1996, to have due regard to the consequencesof their activities on the environment.

• Ireland will ratify the Convention for theProtection of the Marine Environment of theNorth-East Atlantic (OSPAR) in 1997.

• A Quality Status Report, required by the OSPARConvention, is being prepared for the Irish andCeltic Sea and areas west of Ireland andScotland in cooperation with the UK authorities.

• Cooperation with UK authorities on manage-ment and monitoring of the Beaufort’s Dyke

munitions dumpsite will be continued, and aninventory of other dumpsites will be devel-oped in preparing the Quality Status Reportunder the OSPAR Convention.

• The Minister for the Environment will formu-late a policy directive to planning authorities,An Bord Pleanála and the EnvironmentalProtection Agency indicating that there shouldbe a presumption against the location of newlandfills adjacent to coasts or estuaries.

• The Framework Strategy for the development ofthe marine sector, to be published shortly by theDepartment of the Marine, will take full accountof the requirements of sustainable development.

• The Department of the Marine, in consultationwith the Department of Transport, Energy andCommunications, is devising an updated andcomprehensive strategy to ensure that offshoreoil and gas exploration and development donot adversely affect the marine environment.

• The Government will continue to press, in theappropriate international fora, for the implemen-tation of a strict new code governing the ship-ment of nuclear materials, and will seek to havethe existing Code on the Safe Carriage of IrradiatedNuclear Fuel, Plutonium and High- Level RadioactiveWastes in Flasks on Board Ships made mandatory.

Introduction/OverviewThe marine sector, which includes naturalresource based industries such as sea fishing,aquaculture and related processing, tourism/leisure and offshore gas and oil exploitation, isimportant to an island economy like Ireland.Sustainable use of marine resources, which ifproperly managed can be considered renewableresources, offers significant economic andemployment benefits and opportunities. Thereis concern worldwide, however, about theincreasing unsustainable use of marineresources: such use can arise from over-fishing,pollution by ships and offshore installations,sewage and industrial effluents, radioactivesubstances, tourism and recreation, and otheractivities.

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An action programme towardssustainable use of marine resources

Fig 7.1 Key trends in the Irish Marine Sector

Growing aquaculture industry• 25% of all fish production now comes from

fish farming• value of production from the sector doubled

between 1989 and 1994Declining fish stocks• significant fish stocks are depleted or overex-

ploited• downward trend in stocks of demersal fish

(cod, whiting, plaice, sole)• salmon catches peaked in the early 1970sEmployment• some 16,000 persons are employed in the

fisheries sector, including 2,500 in aquacultureMarine transport• 76% of Irish trade (by volume) is carried by sea• 35% of passenger traffic to other countries is

by seaEnergy production• marine exploitation of natural gas provides

some 20% of the Irish energy requirementWaste discharges• 80% of our municipal waste water discharges

into Irish seas• an estimated 80% of marine litter originates

from land

Growing awareness of these threats to the marineenvironment has led to a number of initiatives ininternational cooperation in recent years:• the entry into force of the UN Convention on

the Law of the Sea (1994);• the Washington Global Programme of Action

for the Protection of the Marine Environmentfrom Land-based Activities (UNEP, 1995);

• the UN Agreement on Straddling and HighlyMigratory Fish Stocks (1995); and

• the FAO Code of Conduct for ResponsibleFisheries (1995).

The UN has also designated 1998 as theInternational Year of the Oceans.

A major review of policy in relation to themarine sector generally is now under way inIreland; a synthesis of views expressed duringextensive public consultation has already beenpublished by the Marine Institute in 1996.1 AFramework Strategy for the development of thesector will be published shortly. The Strategywill focus on policies to maximise the returnfrom existing activities and develop new uses ofthe marine resource, and will take full account ofthe need to ensure that the development of thesector is in accordance with the principles ofsustainability.

Marine Activities' Interactionwith the EnvironmentCommercial sea-fishing

Fisheries are an important renewable resource,provided that they are used sustainably. Whilethe global fish catch increased five-foldbetween 1950 and 1990 it has not increasedsince then. Maintaining catch levels nowrequires ever greater effort and technology, aswell as an expanded range of operations. Inaddition to unsustainable levels of catches, fishstocks and marine biodiversity are alsodepleted through by-catches of immature fishand by depletion of other species which serveas food for commercial stocks.

It is now internationally recognised that thelong-term preservation and improvement of fishstocks, through careful management and respon-sible fishing, is vital for the future of theindustry. For example, the UN Commission onSustainable Development, at its fourth session in1996, agreed that significant fish stocks at globallevel are depleted or overexploited, and notedthat urgent corrective action is needed both torebuild depleted stocks and to ensure the sus-tainable use of all fish stocks.

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“It is essential for continued harvesting that the limits which nature imposes onthe quantities of fish that can be taken from the sea be respected.”

- UN Food and Agriculture Organisation2

At EU level, the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP)already takes account of sustainability require-ments in respect of fish stocks, and imposesquotas on certain traditionally fished key eco-nomic species. These quotas are based on TotalAllowable Catches for major fish stocks, whichare determined annually on the basis of scientificadvice on the state of these stocks. The CFP alsoprovides for longer-term conservation objectivesto be set, where these are appropriate. Thesemeasures are supported by technical require-ments in relation to permitted net configurationsand mesh sizes, minimum landing sizes for fishto protect immature stocks, and a programme ofbalancing overall fleet structures and activitieswith fish stocks.

Ireland has been generally supportive of effortsat EU and international level to optimise themanagement and conservation of the sea fish-eries resource in the interests of its sustainableutilisation, and will maintain a progressivestance on these issues. Conservation and man-agement policies and regulations must be under-pinned by strict monitoring and enforcement, ifthe long-term future of the fishing industry is tobe ensured. In Irish waters, strong enforcementof regulations under the CFP will be continued,and prosecutions will be taken in cases of illegalfishing, including the use of illegal nets andfishing methods. National measures will also bemaintained to conserve inshore fish stocks, suchas salmon, sea-trout, bass, lobster, crabs andwhelks, which are not controlled by the CFP.

A new salmon management strategy is beingimplemented on a phased basis. Conservationregulations have been introduced for 1997 as thefirst phase of the implementation of the newmanagement regime, and the key elements of thesecond phase of the strategy are in preparation.The strategy is based on ensuring that sufficientsalmon return to their native rivers to spawn,and that the surplus is shared equitably betweenlegitimate interests in the fishery.

The Irish fishing fleet, at some 1,400 vessels, con-sists mainly of inshore and mid-water boats.Over half of the fleet consists of vessels of lessthan 12 metres in length, which are generallyrestricted to inshore fishing and are heavilyweather dependent. The pelagic fleet, on theother hand, has been renewed in recent years andis now technically sophisticated and capable ofavailing of a wide range of fishing opportunities,hundreds of miles from the Irish coast. The devel-opment of the Irish fishing fleet takes place withinthe framework of EU fleet policy, which aims atensuring that the overall fleet remains in balancewith the available fishing opportunities. Withinthis framework, Ireland will continue to seek tostrengthen the ability of its fishing fleet to avail ofnational fish quotas and to develop opportunitiesin new areas and non-quota species.

It is important that fish stocks are allowed toreplenish themselves, and are not overfished, ifthe Irish fishing industry is to have a future. Themarine research measure under the OperationalProgramme for Fisheries, 1994-99 (the FisheriesOP), supervised by the Marine Institute, willsupport focused research on sea fisheries issuesand will, inter alia, help to bring about a greaterunderstanding of fish stock dynamics and thusto achieve maximum sustainable yield fromfishing effort.

AquacultureAquaculture, including finfish and shellfishfarming, is a growing sector of the Irish marineindustry (see Fig 7.2). It now accounts for 25% ofIreland's fish production, and provides employ-ment for over 2,500 people, mainly in remotecoastal communities. The estimated value of theoutput from the sector in 1995 was £49 million.3

This represents a doubling of the value of aqua-culture production since 1989. The Fisheries OPtargets aquaculture as a key growth area, andGovernment policy is committed to supportingthe sustainable development of the industry as asource of jobs and economic activity, particularlyfor remote coastal communities.

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Fig 7.2 Growth in Aquaculture Production

1989 1992 1999 (projected)

Tonnes IR£m Tonnes IR£m Tonnes IR£m

Farmed salmon

5,800 21.8 9,700 30.4 19,000 62.7

Farmed sea trout

300 0.8 430 1.1 5,000 17.9

Freshwater trout

650 1.3 970 1.8 1,250 3.1

Rope cultured mussels

2,800 1.0 5,100 2.3 10,000 3.9

Bottom cultured mussels

10,760 1.3 8,730 1.4 26,000 3.1

Native oysters

400 1.1 300 0.8 660 2.2

Pacific oysters

380 0.4 1,750 2.4 6,000 6.7

Clams & other shellfish

0 0.0 80 0.2 1,230 3.5

Total

21,090 27.7 27,060 40.4 69,140 103.1

Source: Operational Programme forFisheries,1994-994

Aquaculture, as a natural resource basedindustry, requires a clean, high quality environ-ment in which to develop. Maintenance of highwater quality standards is therefore essential forthe industry. However, aquaculture develop-ment itself raises a number of environmental andsustainability concerns, including:

• potential adverse effects on wild fisheries;• fish health problems (disease and parasites);• usage of medicines and chemicals;• localised water pollution and nutrient enrich-

ment; and• diminution of rights of access to State fore-

shore, visual impacts on scenic landscapes andimpacts on the archaeological heritage - theseconcerns also have implications for tourismand recreation.

Sustainable aquaculture must therefore reconcileeconomic and social benefits with environmentalimpacts. This underlines the importance of envi-ronmentally-sensitive site selection, effectivemanagement and training, and improved fishhusbandry and production strategies includingfallowing.

The industry itself accepts the need to maintainthe highest possible environmental standards inits fish husbandry and management practices,and codes of practice have been introduced vol-untarily to ensure this. In order to address localconcerns and differences, the Department of theMarine, with the participation of shellfishgrowers and fish farmers and other interests, isadvancing a system of single bay managementthroughout the coastal zone. In addition, imple-mentation of the Sea Trout Task Force Report isbeing supervised by the Sea Trout Monitoringand Advisory Group, and the Department of theMarine's action programme to conserve andrehabilitate sea trout stocks has been augmentedto give full effect to the practical framework ofaction recommended by the Task Force.

Licensing of aquaculture already takes account ofenvironmental and related considerations andmakes provision for formal EnvironmentalImpact Assessment in specified cases. Fundingof development under the Fisheries OP is alsosubject to full compliance with EU Directives onthe conservation of wildlife (including wild fishpopulations) and habitats (including coastal wet-lands). To provide better regulation and to takeaccount of developments in planning and envi-

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Chapter 7 Marine Resources

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ronmental thinking since the existing legislationwas passed, the Fisheries (Amendment) Bill, cur-rently progressing through the Oireachtas, willestablish a new licensing system for fish farming.New Ministerial powers will be provided toamend or revoke licences where conditions arebreached. An Aquaculture Licence AppealsBoard will be established, to which applicants orthird parties can take their case. The new legisla-tion will strike the necessary balance between theessential development needs of the industry andthe acknowledged concerns of other interests,while ensuring that development is planned andregulated in a sustainable way.

SeaweedAlthough the seaweed sector is comparativelymodest at present, with an economic value ofapproximately £3 million per annum, the poten-tial for future development of this naturalresource is increasingly recognised. Researchsupported through the Marine ResearchMeasure of the Fisheries OP is oriented towardsthe sustainable development of the resource, andwill provide a basis for building on existingactivities in the sector.

The OSPAR ConventionThe Convention for the Protection of the MarineEnvironment of the North-East Atlantic (theOSPAR Convention) provides a stricter andmore comprehensive environmental protectionregime for the North-East Atlantic, including allIrish coastal waters, than is currently availableunder the Oslo and Paris Conventions, and willreplace these Conventions on its entry into forcein 1997. The Convention requires ContractingParties to take all possible steps to prevent andeliminate pollution of the marine environment,including necessary protection measures againstthe adverse effects of human activities.Obligations are specified in this regard in respectof each of the main potential sources of marinepollution, i.e. land-based activities, dumping orincineration of waste at sea, and pollution fromoffshore installations and pipelines. Ireland willratify the OSPAR Convention in 1997.

Offshore Energy InstallationsThe marine environment can be rich in fossilfuels and is at present, through natural gas pro-duction, providing some 20% of total Irishenergy requirement. It is important that the sub-stantial investment involved in marine naturalresource exploitation should be mobilised andoperated in a manner which respects the envi-ronment.

The Department of the Marine, in consultationwith the Department of Transport, Energy andCommunications, is devising an updated andcomprehensive strategy to ensure that offshoreoil and gas exploration and development do notadversely affect the marine environment. Thiswill also ensure that international obligations,such as those under the OSPAR Convention, arefully respected. The necessary powers tounderpin this approach, insofar as both loca-tional and operational considerations are con-cerned, are available under the Energy(Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1995, and are com-plemented and reinforced by other statutoryprovisions for protection of the marine environ-ment, including the Dumping at Sea Act, 1996.

Marine Transport/ShippingIt has been estimated that some 80% of all goodsproduced in the world are transported by sea.Ireland's geographical location at the apex ofmajor shipping routes increases the risk ofimpacts from maritime casualties, including oilspillages. The Irish Sea, as a semi-enclosed sea,is particularly vulnerable to these impacts and tothe effects of the disposal of garbage from ships.

The Sea Pollution Act, 1991, the Merchant Shipping(Salvage and Wreck) Act, 1993, and the OilPollution of the Sea (Civil Liability andCompensation) Act, 1988, establish the legalframework for prevention of and response topollution discharges (accidental or operational)from ships. This framework also supportsIreland's participation in the MARPOLConvention for the Prevention of Pollution fromShips.5 It also provides a liability regime for the

payment of compensation for damage to themarine environment and remedial action thatmay be required. The emphasis will, however,continue to be on prevention of pollution,through enforcement of operating and safetyrequirements.

The existing legal framework for protection ofthe marine environment has been reinforced bythe Dumping at Sea Act, 1996. This Act has con-siderably wider application than the Dumping atSea Act, 1981, which it supersedes; it will extendIrish control in relation to dumping from 12miles to 200 miles and in some areas to 350 miles(depending on the extent of the Irish ContinentalShelf). The 1996 Act strictly regulates dumpingat sea and gives effect in Ireland to the dumpingat sea provisions of the OSPAR Convention.

Plans are in train also for accession to the OilPollution Preparedness, Response andCooperation Convention (which is to beexpanded in the near future to include emergen-cies involving hazardous and noxious sub-stances). The Convention is designed to facili-tate international cooperation and mutual assis-tance in preparing for and responding to majorpollution incidents.

Eight new port companies were established formajor commercial ports under the Harbours Act,1996, with effect from 3 March 1997; these com-panies will be required to have due regard to theconsequences of their activities on the environ-ment. Improvements in waste reception facili-ties in ports, which are being undertaken on aprogressive basis by harbour authorities, willcontribute to the practical implementation of thisrequirement. Investment in reducing pollutionand improving environmental protection in fish-eries harbours will continue under the FisheriesOP. Controls under the Foreshore Acts in rela-tion to development proposed on the foreshorewill address pollution issues/concerns posed bysuch development.

Shipment of Nuclear MaterialsThe shipment of irradiated nuclear materials hasincreasingly become a matter of concern, in par-

ticular in relation to traffic in such materialsthrough the Irish Sea. This traffic will increasewhen the THORP facility in north-west Englandgoes into full operation, and a proposed mixedoxide fuel fabrication plant is commissioned.Ireland has already initiated international actionin this regard, leading to agreement at the 1995Assembly of the International MaritimeOrganisation (IMO) on a Resolution on the ship-ment of nuclear materials and the strengtheningof the Code on the Safe Carriage of IrradiatedNuclear Fuel, Plutonium and High-Level RadioactiveWastes in Flasks on Board Ships (the INF Code).6

Following a special consultative meeting con-vened by the Secretary-General of the IMO inMarch 1996, the IMO's Marine Safety andMarine Environment Protection Committees arenow examining the question of extending theINF Code.

Ireland will continue to press for the implemen-tation of a strict new code governing the ship-ment of nuclear materials. In particular Ireland isseeking to:• have the INF Code made mandatory;• have an evaluation of INF cargo flasks under-

taken by the IMO. Such evaluation shouldtake account of the specific hazards associ-ated with marine transportation;

• have a notification structure put in placewhereby coastal states would be informed ofthe passage of INF cargoes past their coast;and

• have a liability regime established to dealspecifically with marine transportation of INFmaterials.

The European Commission brought forward aproposal to extend the EU Directive on the car-riage of hazardous materials to include sub-stances covered by the INF code. This matterwas given priority during the Irish Presidency ofthe EU and political agreement was reached inDecember 1996.

Chemical Munitions DumpsThe existence, off Irish shores, of a number ofmunitions dumpsites is also an area of concern.Arising from concerns about its environmental

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and safety implications, a survey of theBeaufort's Dyke munitions dumpsite was com-pleted, in cooperation between Irish and UKauthorities, late in 1996. The survey provides asound basis for the future management andmonitoring of the site, and a high level of coop-eration between Irish and UK authorities andscientists will be continued. An inventory ofother dumpsites around the Irish coast will becompiled in the preparation of the Quality StatusReport under the OSPAR Convention.

Land-based Activities

Sustainable management of the marine environ-ment involves reducing the many pollutinginputs from land-based activities; for example,sewage, industrial effluents (containing heavymetals and/or persistent organic pollutants),radioactive substances and litter. Policies andmeasures to eliminate or reduce these inputs atsource, or to control them by the application ofappropriate discharge limits, are set out inChapters 9, 10, 13 and 16.

In addition, the Minister for the Environmentwill formulate a policy directive to planningauthorities, An Bord Pleanála and the EPA indi-cating that there should be a presumptionagainst the location of new landfills adjacent tocoasts or estuaries.

Bilateral Cooperation with the UK

Good cooperation exists between Ireland and theUK on a range of issues relating to the marineenvironment, notably the important sharedresource of the Irish Sea. The work of the IrishSea Science Coordination Group laid importantfoundations in this regard, which will be built on

in the preparation of the Quality Status Reportrequired under the OSPAR Convention. Irelandand the UK will be responsible for the prepara-tion of this Report in respect of the Irish andCeltic Seas and areas to the west of Ireland andScotland. The Report, which will comprehen-sively assess the health of those areas, will con-stitute an important input into formulation offuture policy for the sustainable development ofthe marine resource.

Marine BiodiversityIn 1991, Irish waters, extending 200 miles from thecoast, were declared a sanctuary within which allwhales, dolphins and porpoises are protected, andsubject to a total ban on hunting. This was the firstEuropean sanctuary for whales and dolphins to becreated within the exclusive fishery limits of anentire country. These animals, together with seals,otters and marine turtles, are among the speciesspecifically protected under the Wildlife Act, 1976.Ireland has also ratified the InternationalConvention for the Regulation of Whaling.9

Conflicts can arise between marine wildlife(including birds, seals and otters) and commer-cial marine enterprises (including sea-fishing andaquaculture). These include both damage causedto fish stocks and fish farms by wildlife, andthreats to wildlife from fishing practices andships' wastes. Studies currently underway willhelp to quantify the impacts of seal populationson fish stocks. As required by the EU HabitatsDirective, by-catch of cetacea in fishing gear willbe monitored and quantified.

Steps taken to ban waste incineration and thedumping of hazardous noxious substances at sea,together with measures to prevent pollution fromships, will help to decrease the threat to wildlifefrom these sources. The expansion of fishing oper-ations to include new species of fish must takeaccount of the impact on biodiversity, includingdisturbance of seabed-dwelling species and theeffects on the food chain, including that of seabirds and mammals.

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"While international action has been taken to prevent the discharge of plasticsand other persistent wastes from vessels, it has been estimated that approxi-mately 80% of persistent wastes originate from land."

- Global Action Programme8

"Domestic waste water discharges are considered as one of the most signifi-cant threats to coastal environments worldwide."

- Global Action Programme7

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY POLICY

• ensures security of energysupply in order to supporteconomic and social develop-ment while protecting theenvironment

• maximises efficiency of genera-tion and emphasises the use of renewable resources

• promotes energy conservationby users

• minimises emissions of green-house gases and other pollu-tants, both by clean generationand by sustainable consump-tion levels in all sectors

• maintains local air quality andlimits and reduces the Irishcontribution to regional andglobal environmental problems

8

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• Energy conservation and demand side manage-ment programmes will be encouraged and mon-itored. The Irish Energy Centre will continue todevelop its energy conservation programme,including the promotion of energy efficiency inindustry, provision of technical advice, informa-tion campaigns and support measures.

• Under the Department of Transport, Energyand Communication's Renewable EnergyStrategy, installed electricity generatingcapacity from renewables will reach 10% oftotal installed capacity by the end of 1999; fur-ther growth under the Strategy will increasethis to 14% by 2010.

• The Minister for Finance, in consultation withthe Minister for Transport, Energy andCommunications, will introduce new incentivesto encourage investment in renewable energies.

• For purposes of the UN climate negotiations,Ireland has adopted an indicative nationalobjective of limiting the growth in total emis-sions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrousoxide up to the year 2010 to 15% above their1990 levels.

• A study has been commissioned to evaluatethe scope for intensifying (or introducing new)policies and measures to limit greenhouse gasemissions.

• Action will be continued to reduce emissionsof sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (NOx)from power generation; these actions includefuel substitution, energy conservation andinstallation of low-NOx burners in somepower stations, supported as necessary by vol-untary agreements with energy producers.

• Ireland will ratify the Second Sulphur Protocol(Oslo Protocol) in 1997.

• In relation to emissions of NOx, Ireland willwork towards achievement of the more strin-gent emission ceilings now being developed atUN ECE and EU level.

• Energy is a scheduled activity for the purposesof Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) licensingunder the Environmental Protection Agency Act,1992, and IPC licensing requirements willcome into operation for the sector by the endof the decade.

• The threshold at which peat extractionbecomes liable to Environmental ImpactAssessment will be reduced.

• The Government will continue to oppose anyexpansion of the international nuclear industry,and to avail of all opportunities at bilateral, EUand wider international level to advance itsconcerns in this regard. Closure of the Sellafieldoperations remains an objective, and will bepursued through legal action should sufficientevidence of pollution or public health impact beobtained. Possibilities in this regard are beingpursued in particular under the provisions ofthe Paris and OSPAR Conventions. Ireland hasratified the Nuclear Safety Convention, and isactively promoting a new Global Conventionon Radioactive Waste Management, which isexpected to be finalised in 1997.

Introduction/OverviewEnergy consumption is unavoidable. It is both asector in its own right and fundamental to all othersectors of the economy. Ireland suffers a number ofmarked disadvantages insofar as energy is con-cerned due to its small size and island location.Ireland's isolation from the European energy infra-structure accentuates the need for security ofenergy supplies, efficient energy infrastructure,and for development of indigenous resources tothe maximum possible. The nuclear energy optionis not a part of Irish energy policies because of con-cerns about safety. Current high economic growthand the expectation that this will continue willhave energy demand consequences. Using energymore efficiently, cleaning up energy production,using energy sources which minimise damage tothe environment are sustainable energy policyobjectives. It should be recognised, however, thatthere may be high costs involved in managing theobjectives of strong economic growth, competitiveenergy costs and environmental quality.

An action programme towardssustainable energy

The concept of sustainability in the energy sectormust be managed in a manner that secures theinternational competitiveness of Irish energyprices and ensures that economic dislocation isavoided. These objectives are vital in a periph-eral economy like Ireland’s, which is still on theeconomic development path.

Energy is a significant sector in the Irish economy.The annual final energy demand bill of approxi-mately £2.5 billion is equivalent to about 10% ofGNP.1 Investment by the State in the energy sectortotals some £5 billion. Thousands of jobs are pro-vided in such diverse operations as peat extractionand milling, electricity generation and transmis-sion, and the natural gas network, while the avail-ability of energy to power industry and enterprisesupports a far greater number of other jobs.

Fig 8.1 Key Sustainability Issues in Irish Energy

Increasing total consumption of energy• total primary energy requirement increased

by 24% between 1980 and 1993• increased energy consumption arose in the

transport, domestic, commercial and servicessectors in particular

• per capita consumption of energy is alsoincreasing

High degree of dependence on imported fuels• it is estimated that imported energy will

account for 93% of total supply by 2010

High degree of dependence on fossil fuels for elec-tricity generation• fossil fuels (oil, coal, peat, natural gas) make

up well over 90% of total fuels used

Increasing emissions of CO2 from burning of fossil fuels• emissions of CO2 increased from 30.7 mil-

lion tonnes (MT) in 1990 to an estimated33.9 MT in 1995

Low use of renewable energy resources• renewable resources (primarily hydropower

and biomass/wood) currently provide only2% of electricity generation capacity

Energy useThe use of energy in Ireland is growing. Between1980 and 1993, the total primary energy require-ment (TPER), which is a measure of all energyconsumed, grew by 24%.2 The amount of energyconsumed per capita is also increasing, in contrastwith the European average which has remainedsteady since 1980. It is projected that Irish energyconsumption per capita will continue to increase.3

Energy consumption in Ireland is lower than theInternational Energy Agency (IEA) Europeanaverage when measured in Total FinalConsumption (TFC) per capita. Per head of popu-lation, Ireland has a rating of 2.23, compared to theaverage of 2.37. However, in terms of energyintensity (i.e. relationship between energy con-sumption and economic output), Ireland (0.16 in1993) is on a par with IEA Europe. Ireland's ratinghas been improving over recent years. In theperiod from 1980 to 1993, while the annual growthin GDP averaged almost 3.6%, the average annualgrowth in TPER was only 1.7%. However, in thefive years from 1988 to 1993, TPER grew relativelymore quickly (at approximately 70% the rate ofGDP), probably because the stimulus of the hugeprice rises of 1973 and 1979 had worn off. Overall,this is a welcome development, indicating a movetowards the decoupling of economic growth fromincreased energy usage. The IEA, in its 1994review of Irish energy policy, noted that energyintensity in relation to GDP will continue toimprove, decreasing to 0.11 by 2010.4

Growing energy consumption has been drivenprincipally by marked increases in energy use inthe transport and commercial sectors. Theindustrial sector, on the other hand, hasdecreased its energy consumption by 19% since1980. This is due to a number of factorsincluding energy efficiency and fuel switching,as well as changes in the structure of industrialactivity over the period. The relative position ofeach sector in 1980 and 1993 is shown in Fig 8.2.As in other developed countries, electricity con-tinues to take a greater share of final energy con-sumption as the economy becomes more sophis-ticated technically and more wealthy.

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Fig 8.2 Energy Consumption in Ireland (by Sector)

1980 1993

Industry 31% 22%

Transport 28% 31%

Residential 31% 28%

Commercial 10% 15%

Agricultural* --- 4%

Source: Department of Transport, Energy and Communications5

* Agriculture was not identified separately until 1990; before thatyear it was included within the domestic and commercial sectors.

Energy supplyIndigenous natural resources - primarily gas andpeat, but also, to a lesser extent, renewableresources such as hydro, wind and biomass -supply some 32% of the energy Ireland requires.Other resources such as coal and oil, and increas-ingly, as indigenous supplies run out, natural gas,must be imported. As an island nation, security ofsupply has been, and will continue to be, a majorissue for Irish energy policy and a constraint onfuel mix choices and environmental options. Toensure continued supply of gas when indigenoussupplies are depleted, Bord Gáis Éireann (BGÉ),with EU assistance, constructed a natural gasinterconnector linking Ireland with the UK. Thecost of this project was £253 million. Further, forsecurity of supply reasons among others, a feasi-bility study into an interconnector linking theNorthern Ireland gas grid with the BGÉ grid isbeing carried out, also with EU assistance.

Imported sources account for approximatelytwo-thirds of domestic energy requirements6, at

a cost of some 2-3% of GNP. As indigenousreserves of peat and natural gas are finite, alter-native indigenous resources are being developedand exploited in order to avoid complete depen-dence on imported energy supplies. It is vitalthat Ireland vigorously promote its offshore oiland gas exploration programme. Increasingemphasis is also being placed on the develop-ment of renewable resources (e.g. wind, hydro,wave/tidal, biomass, etc.), and expanding theirpenetration of the market, although it will besome decades before these can offer a substantialalternative to current sources. The role of fossilfuels will continue heavily to influence the worldand Ireland's energy mix for many decades.Nuclear energy provides a non-carbon energyoption in many countries.

The breakdown of Irish energy supply from dif-ferent sources shows a greater dependence onfossil fuels, particularly peat, and the absence ofnuclear power, compared to the overall figuresfor IEA Europe, as in Fig 8.3. This degree ofdependence on fossil fuels has implications inrelation to greenhouse gas emissions and acidifi-cation, which will be dealt with later.

Fig 8.3 Energy Supply in Ireland relative toIEA Europe, 1993

Ireland IEA Europe

Oil 48% 43%

Hydro 1% 3%

Natural Gas 20% 18%

Nuclear - 15%

Geothermal - 0%

Coal 20% 18%

Other solid fuels 11% 3%

Source: International Energy Agency7

Ireland is dependent on imports for approxi-mately 70% of its oil product needs, with the bal-ance being supplied from INPC Whitegate. TheGovernment recently reiterated its commitmentto retaining a domestic refining capability onsecurity of supply grounds. It is recognised thatemerging standards on fuel quality will imposeadditional costs at refinery level in meeting newstandards as they are adopted. Options in rela-tion to financing the necessary investments arecurrently being examined.

Interactions with the EnvironmentEnergy affects the environment at many stagesduring its production, distribution and use.While total energy consumption by all sectors isa major source of atmospheric pollution, energyproduction accounts for 37% of carbon dioxide(CO2), 54% of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and 39% ofnitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions.8

Air pollutionAir pollutant emissions from the use of fossilfuels consist primarily of CO2, SO2 and NOx.

Carbon dioxide (CO2)CO2, the main gas generated by human activitywhich contributes to climate change, arises in themain from the burning of fossil fuels. CO2 emis-sions in Ireland increased from 30.7 milliontonnes (MT) in 1990 to 31.9 MT in 1993, 33.3 MTin 1994 and 33.9 MT (provisional) in 1995.9 Whilethis rate of increase is less than might have beensuggested by the economic growth over theperiod, a continuation of the trend would givecause for concern. The national ClimateChange/CO2 Abatement Strategy (1993) set theobjective of limiting the growth in CO2 emis-sions over the period 1990-2000 to 20% abovetheir 1990 levels (a net increase of 11% when theestimated growth in carbon fixation byexpanded afforestation is taken into account). Itis now projected that CO2 emissions in the year2000 will be well within this target.

Substantial improvements in environmental per-formance can be expected to arise in step withthe normal timing of investments to replaceinfrastructure and equipment as it wears out orbecomes obsolete.

In Ireland, the electricity system has certainstructural disadvantages compared to most EUpartners regarding control of CO2 emissions,notably lack of interconnection with other sys-tems, high fossil fuel dependency, and alreadyrelatively high gas-based generation whichlimits the potential for fuel switching withoutsignificant strategic risks regarding energysupply security. In addition, nuclear power isnot an option for the Government and thepublic. It is important that all sectors contributeto CO2 abatement.

Climate change is universally recognised as oneof the greatest challenges to the global environ-ment. The Inter-Governmental Panel on ClimateChange has concluded that “The balance of evi-dence suggests that there is a discernible humaninfluence on global climate“.10 Average global tem-peratures have increased by between 0.3°C and0.6°C in the past 100 years. In the absence of mit-igating measures global average temperature isprojected to increase by between 1°C and 3°C inthe next 100 years. Increases in temperatures ofthis order are projected to significantly affectglobal food production, sea levels and weatherpatterns.

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Fig 8.4 Emissions of Primary Pollutants (000 tonnes)

Year Power Residential/ Industrial Agriculture Transport Other Totalplants Commercial combustion & Forestry sources

combustion

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

1980 101.5 34.7 78.6 ... 5.4 2.2 222.4(a)1985 39.34 39.73 57.14 ... 4.38 0.6 141.19(b)1990 103.03 29.475 38.0 1.215 5.355 0.825 177.91991 104.935 35.495 31.35 1.305 6.99 1.365 181.441992 96.59 33.785 32.705 1.33 7.645 0.95 173.0051993 87.255 31.02 33.89 1.33 7.695 0.97 162.161994 95.515 30.94 39.63 1.515 8.22 0.76 176.581995 91.625 29.095 32.825 1.435 8.72 1.16 164.86(c)

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

1980 27.3 4.1 8.2 ... 34.8 2.4 76.8(a)1985 29.04 6.71 8.18 ... 35.45 5.71 85.09(b)1990 46.37 6.4 11.26 2.92 45.26 2.4 114.611991 46.19 7.41 9.315 5.665 49.04 2.24 119.861992 53.065 7.385 9.24 5.86 49.79 2.36 127.71993 46.945 7.195 9.34 5.86 45.48 1.47 116.291994 45.115 7.595 9.845 4.64 47.73 0.645 115.571995 41.39 7.555 9.55 4.425 50.83 0.985 114.735(c)

Volatile organic compounds (VOC)

1980 0.1 12.4 0.2 ... 34.8 31.8 79.3(a)1985 0.08 16.54 0.57 ... 24.3 22.24 63.73(b)1990 0.25 7.95 0.34 83.2 62.58 25.65 179.971991 0.24 8.88 0.26 78.43 64.15 25.68 177.641992 0.265 7.69 0.19 79.56 65.38 26.0 179.0851993 0.25 6.58 0.185 81.61 56.695 25.9 171.221994 0.255 5.62 0.15 82.87 58.705 26.8 174.41995 0.26 5.005 0.145 84.06 55.22 24.97 169.66(c)

Carbon dioxide (CO2)(million tonnes)

1980 7.983 6.045 5.09 ... 4.501 1.549 25.1681985 8.255 6.534 4.114 ... 4.479 1.651 25.0331990 10.863 7.199 5.431 0.66 4.885 1.681 30.7191991 11.362 8.762 3.73 0.684 5.124 1.981 31.6431992 12.027 8.542 3.538 0.696 5.556 2.014 32.3731993 12.047 8.239 3.481 0.696 5.543 1.931 31.9371994 12.368 8.624 3.64 0.794 5.811 2.087 33.3241995 13.051 8.514 3.442 0.751 6.209 1.964 33.931(c)

Methane (CH4)

1990 0 3.58 0.2 660.13 1.2 146.21 811.321991 0 3.935 1.11 645.795 1.24 145.79 797.871992 0 3.47 0.74 650.145 1.24 146.28 801.8751993 0 3.02 0.74 653.83 1.19 146.69 805.471994 0 2.645 0.13 656.45 1.25 146.71 807.1851995 0 2.415 0.12 661.265 1.32 147.12 812.24(c)

Carbon monoxide (CO)

1990 3.3 79.42 0.89 39.47 305.3 0.6 428.98(d)1991 3.32 82.555 1.56 1.825 312.3 0.62 402.181992 3.46 75.465 1.55 1.885 303.38 0.83 386.571993 3.375 66.535 1.5 1.885 252.9 0.61 326.8051994 3.43 60.21 1.635 1.49 262.26 0.615 329.641995 3.565 56.475 1.52 1.425 231.81 0.635 295.43(c)

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

1990 1.38 0.745 0.435 24.01 0.18 2.62 29.371991 1.51 0.875 0.33 19.515 0.44 2.62 25.291992 1.62 0.83 0.33 19.58 0.45 2.62 25.431993 1.55 0.79 0.33 19.92 0.44 2.62 25.651994 1.635 0.83 0.38 20.05 0.46 2.62 25.9751995 1.68 0.82 0.36 20.075 0.49 2.62 26.045(c)

Ammonia (NH3)

1990 0 0 0 121.585 0.25 0 121.8351991 0 0 0 120.215 0.25 0 120.4651992 0 0 0 121.36 0.25 0 121.611993 0 0 0 122.435 0.27 0 122.7051994 0 0 0 123.145 0.29 0 123.4351995 0 0 0 123.665 0.3 0 123.965(c)

Source: Environmental Protection Agency11

(a) Bailey, (1988), natural emissions excluded(b) McGettigan, (1989), natural emissions excluded(c) Provisional estimates only for 1995(d) Includes agricultural waste burning which is excluded in the other yearsFigures in this table are based on most recent EPA estimates of emissions of primary pollutants in Ireland. Insofar as they may differ from pre-vious published figures, this is attributable to the use of an improved methodology for the years 1990-1995 and of updated background data.Figures for 1980 and 1985 have not been revised to date using the updated methodology.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)Emissions of SO2 and NOx in Ireland are set outin Fig 8.4. Emissions of SO2 decreased by 25%between 1980 and 1995; emissions of NOx, on theother hand, increased by 49% between 1980 and1995.12

International agreement has already beenreached on the first of a series of Protocols basedon a critical loads approach and thus intended toachieve sustainability in the realms of acidifica-tion, eutrophication and photochemical pollu-tion. Under the Second Sulphur Protocol to theConvention on Long Range Transboundary AirPollution, which Ireland has signed, nationalemissions of SO2 should be reduced to 157,000tonnes from the year 2000 onwards (i.e. a reduc-tion of 30% on 1980 levels).13 Ireland will ratifythis Protocol in 1997. Under the 1988 SofiaProtocol to the same Convention, NOx emissionsmust be held at a level of 105,400 tonnes from1994 onwards. A revised protocol based on thecritical loads approach is under negotiation andwill require further NOx reductions after theyear 2000. Ireland will work towards theachievement of the emission standards nowbeing developed at UN ECE and EU levels, withdue regard to the technical and economic feasi-bility in the Irish context and the need to cater fora growing economy.

The electricity sector is highly capital intensive.There is likely to be upward pressure on Irishelectricity prices in the years ahead because ofthe need to undertake planned capital invest-ment in electricity infrastructure, particularlyupgrading the rural electricity networks andnew generating capacity.

Peat extractionPeatlands are unique ecosystems, and Irelandhas the best remaining raised bogs in Europe. In1987, the Government set a target of conserving10,000 hectares of raised bog (primarily found inthe Midlands) and 40,000 hectares of blanketbog, in recognition of the importance of this nat-

ural landscape and habitat. Many peatlandareas have been selected for conservation asNatural Heritage Areas (NHAs). Peat extractionby definition irrevocably changes the landscapeand habitat characteristics; it also risks waterpollution by peat silt washed off the cutawaybog, which can harm aquatic life; and it canimpact on the archaeological heritage.

Peat has been used as a fuel in Ireland for cen-turies. Bord na Móna owns and works 88,000hectares of peatland, mainly in the Midlands.These are estimated to have a remainingworking life of some thirty years, based on pre-sent rates of extraction. Bord na Móna is notacquiring or developing any new areas of virginbog. Extraction of peat by private sector opera-tors, however, has expanded significantly, from300,000 tonnes in 1982 to a current level ofaround 1.3 million tonnes. This is puttingincreasing pressure on blanket bogs, and therecent introduction of mechanised extraction inupland areas has increased the rate and capacityof extraction. However, the Private BogDevelopment Grants Scheme has now been ter-minated.

New bog developmentPeat extraction, if not subject to the requirementsof Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), isan exempted development under the Planningand Development Acts. It is recognised that thecurrent threshold of 50 hectares at which peatextraction development must undergo EIA is toohigh; the Department of the Environment willshortly reduce this threshold to a more sustain-able level. Since 1994, all new peat extractionsgreater than 50 hectares in area are also subject toIPC licensing under the Environmental ProtectionAgency Act, 1992.

The rehabilitation of cutaway bog can be carriedout in an environmentally-appropriate fashion ifalternative, sustainable uses are catered for;these can include locations for wind energyinstallations and the creation of wetlands, which

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can provide high quality wildlife habitats.However, it is important that the suitability ofthese alternative uses for particular areas of cut-away bog is carefully assessed so as to avoid cre-ating further environmental problems oraffecting the archaeological heritage.

A measure has been included in the OperationalProgramme for Economic Infrastructure, 1994-99 (theEconomic Infrastructure OP), which involvesstudies into the regeneration of certain cutawaypeatlands. Cutaway developments will also beestablished involving the creation of 1,000 acres ofnew wetlands and around 500 acres of wildlifehabitats. The total cost of the measure, which willbe managed by Bord na Móna, will be approxi-mately £2.2 million of which 50% will be grantaided by the EU. The completion of this projectshould add immeasurably to our knowledgeregarding the principles underpinning the plan-ning and development of amenity and wildlifeareas and will form the basis for future develop-ment of Bord na Móna's cutaway peatlands.

Decoupling Economic Growth andEnergy ConsumptionAs a developing economy, Ireland must maintainpotential for, and realise, economic growth. Giveninternational commitments to reduce the environ-mental impact of energy use, the challenge is todecouple economic growth from increased energyusage. Greater emphasis on demand side man-agement and energy efficiency can reconcile theneed for economic growth with the necessity tomaximise energy intensity. Reduced and moreefficient use of energy and the greater use ofrenewable energy sources can significantly reduceenvironmental degradation and contribute to mit-igating global problems such as climate change.Combined with increased emphasis on renewablesources, fuel switching and environmental controltechniques, energy efficiency enables more sus-tainable energy development. Enhanced energyefficiency is also of benefit in terms of reducedinvestment in generating plant, reduced depen-dence on imports, reduced strains on balance ofpayments, delayed depletion of scarce energy

reserves, and stimulation of indigenous technicalcompetence and industrial capacity.

The degree of penetration of these policies iscontingent, however, on the level of investmentin efficiency, take up of technology, consumerbehaviour and awareness.

Emissions from the energy sector depend on thestructure and efficiencies of energy production,supply and end use. Emission reductions can beachieved by efficiency improvements in produc-tion and end use, fuel switching tocleaner/lower emission fuels and by emissionregulations and standards to reduce pollutingemissions from energy use. Policies and mea-sures in these areas are outlined below.

Climate Change StrategyNegotiations are currently taking place underthe auspices of the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change to strengthen theconvention commitments in terms of estab-lishing legally binding quantified emission limi-tation and reduction objectives for greenhousegases (including CO2) in the post-2000 period,and agreeing policies and measures to meetthese targets. These negotiations are expected tobe completed by the end of 1997.

The EU position on these negotiations is to seek a15% reduction in developed country 2010 emis-sions of CO2, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide(N2O) taken together below 1990 levels. Irelandhas indicated that it will contribute to the achieve-ment of the overall EU reduction objectiveresulting from the protocol negotiations by meansof an indicative national objective of limiting thegrowth in the period up to 2010 in its total emis-sions of CO2, CH4 and N2O (measured on a GlobalWarming basis) to 15% above their 1990 levels.

A major study has been commissioned jointly bythe Department of the Environment and theDepartment of Transport, Energy andCommunications to contribute towards thereview and updating of the national CO2 abate-

ment strategy (1993). This study will identify andevaluate the scope for intensifying existing poli-cies and measures and undertaking additionalmeasures to limit and/or reduce greenhouse gasemissions. It will also make recommendations forthe ongoing development of Ireland's greenhousegas emissions abatement strategy.

The national CO2 abatement strategy will beupdated, in the light of the outcome of the nego-tiations currently taking place at EU and UNlevels, to cover not only CO2 but other green-house gas emissions. It will be based, inter alia,on the outcome of the study referred to above.As a cross sectoral strategy, it will draw on thepolicies and measures outlined below.

Energy Efficiency and Conservation

Energy conservation is a specific objective ofIrish energy policy; it will play a major role ininfluencing the growth in demand whileallowing for economic development.Depending on the level of investment and take-up, there is potential for significant savings inoverall Irish energy consumption. The environ-mental benefits of such savings would make asignificant contribution to meeting internationalcommitments, including the targets set out in thenational Climate Change/CO2 Abatement Strategy.But there are also economic benefits; a more effi-cient use of energy resources has significantimplications for cost-saving in the economy as awhole, as well as in individual industries andbusinesses, and in household budgets.

Measures have already been taken to pursue thisobjective. A national energy conservation pro-gramme, in place since 1994, included institu-tional changes, such as the creation of the IrishEnergy Centre and the appointment of anEnergy Advisory Board to advise the Ministerfor Transport, Energy and Communications onpolicy related to energy efficiency, renewableenergy and associated research. An energy effi-

ciency sub-programme was included in theEconomic Infrastructure OP, involving the expen-diture of £34 million during the period of theprogramme. The Irish Energy Centre has a cen-tral role in this programme and is pursuing anumber of avenues, including the promotion ofenergy efficiency in industry, technical advice,information campaigns and various other pro-grammes.

Efforts towards energy conservation and effi-ciency must be aimed at different sectors. Theindustrial sector has already decreased itsenergy consumption significantly, withoutadversely affecting its economic performance; itmay be possible to make some further contribu-tions to energy saving by emphasising energyconservation criteria in the design and produc-tion stages, in greater promotion of energy-effi-cient goods and in the development of inte-grated CHP units. In the commercial, servicesand domestic sectors, where consumption isincreasing, concerted efforts are required toreverse this trend without impairing the eco-nomic potential or quality of life. The activitiesof the Irish Energy Centre will help to educateconsumers not only to save on energy use butalso to focus on energy-efficient goods andprocesses. The further expansion of energy-effi-ciency labelling of domestic appliances will sup-port this work. An increase in the market shareheld by energy-efficient appliances will indicategrowing public awareness and acceptance of theneed for energy efficiency.

Increased emphasis on energy efficiency inbuildings is also important. The BuildingRegulations, discussed in Chapter 15, providefor thermal insulation standards for domesticand non-domestic buildings, in the interests offuel and energy conservation. Action in thetransport sector, where energy consumption isgrowing, is also vital; this issue is addressed inChapter 10.

The overall objective is to limit growth in consumption through maximum efficiency/increased energy efficiency of the Irish economy.

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"... sustainability requires a clear focus on con-ser ving and efficiently using energy."

- The World Commission on Environment andDevelopment14

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To this end, energy conservation programmes willbe encouraged and monitored. In particular, thedownward trend in energy consumption per unitof GDP, which has already been noted as a wel-come development, must be reinforced.Indicators of progress towards this objective willinclude measures of Total Final Consumption(TFC) per unit of GDP or TFC per capita; the overalllevel of demand for energy will also be relevant.

In addition to efficiency in end use energy con-sumption, it is also necessary to address theenergy production sector. In particular, it is nec-essary to maximise the efficiency of conversionof primary energy to electricity through use ofthe most efficient technologies and lower emis-sion fuels.

Fuel switching involves a shift from emission-intensive fuels to cleaner/lower emission fuels.For example, switching from coal to natural gasreduces CO2 emissions while reducing emis-sions of particulates and SO2.

Fig 8.3 set out the relative energy fuel mix.Consideration will be given as appropriate to theuse of fuels with lower levels of emissions and tothe achievement of higher penetration levels forsuch fuels, including natural gas. Fuel qualitystandards to control a range of pollutants will beestablished in the implementation of the pro-posed Fuel Quality Directive under the EU AutoOil programme.15 Fuel quality standards in rela-tion to emissions from stationary sources areexpected to be developed at EU level at a laterstage.

Renewable Energy SourcesThe energy system is currently dominated, andwill be for some decades, by fossil fuels. Movingfrom this towards carbon-free energy sourcessuch as wind, hydro, wave/tidal, solar, etc., ortowards sources that are carbon neutral such asbiomass, has been hampered by factors such ashigh costs, availability of finance and tech-nology, problems related to market access andother barriers. Nevertheless, progress is beingmade.

Renewable Energy - A Strategy for the Future out-lines the advantages of renewable energy sourcesfor strategic, environmental and sustainabilitypurposes. Given that indigenous supplies of nat-ural gas are expected to deplete by the year 2003,and also that peat use for electricity production isexpected to peak around the year 2000, it isimportant, in order to retain some security ofsupply, to develop alternative native supplies ofenergy. In the longer term, renewable energiesare the only fuel source whose continued use canbe sustained. On balance, each megawatt (MW)of energy produced from renewable energyinstead of from conventional generation reducesCO2 emissions by an average of 1,000 tonnes perannum16; it also reduces oil import requirementsfor power generation by £100,000 per annum.

To date, renewable sources have provided onlyabout 2% of the Irish energy requirement, mainlyfrom hydropower and biomass (primarilywood); the first wind farm is in operation sincelate-1992. However, there have been recent sig-nificant moves towards increased emphasis onand investment in renewable sources of energy.The Department of Transport, Energy andCommunication's first Alternative EnergyRequirement (AER1) was completed in 1995.This competition was designed to secure up to75 MW of electricity generation capacity fromalternative energy systems. The positiveresponse to the scheme resulted in 34 contractoffers to independent producers of electricity,amounting to a total electricity generationcapacity of 111 MW17 (see Fig 8.5).

Fig 8.5 Power Purchase Agreements under the Alternative Energy Competition

No. of Category Projected TargetProjects

10 Wind Farms 73 MW

8 Combined Heat and Power 22 MW

6 Landfill Gas and Waste 12 MW

10 Small-scale Hydro 4 MW

In an effort to support the development ofenergy from biomass and waste, a secondAlternative Energy Requirement competition(AER2) was launched in December 1995. Thissought tenders for the building and operation ofan electricity generation facility of between 10MW and 30 MW, and offered a grant of up to £7million payable to the successful bidder. Thewinning tender has recently been announced,and will involve a 30 MW waste to energyfacility capable of treating some 490,000 tonnesof non-hazardous municipal solid waste perannum.

In April 1996, and following a major review ofrenewable energy policies and programmes, theDepartment of Transport, Energy andCommunications launched Renewable Energy - AStrategy for the Future which sets out the long-term development of renewable energy. Thestrategy identifies a current practicable resourceof up to 800 MW of renewable energy sources,and sets out measures to exploit this resource.Short and medium-term targets for electricitygeneration from renewable energy sources areestablished and set out in Fig 8.6. These will besecured through the third Alternative EnergyRequirement (AER3) competition. The overallobjective of the Renewable Energy Strategy is toincrease the proportion of electricity producedfrom renewable energy sources. Subject to allthe strategy targets being met, the renewableenergy electricity generation capacity will be10% of the total installed capacity by the end of1999 and approximately 14% of total installedcapacity by the year 2010.

Capital grant aid is available from the EconomicInfrastructure OP, for projects which can deliveron these targets up to 1999. In addition, ERDFfunding of up to £1 million will be made avail-able subject to EU approval, for a pilot waveenergy electricity generating plant to be built bythe end of 1999.

Fig 8.6 Short and Medium-term Targets for Electricity Generation from Renewable Energy Sources

Wind• an additional 90 MW of installed capacity

by the end of 1999• a further 30 MW each year for the period

2000-2010

Hydro• an additional 3 MW of installed electricity

generation capacity to be secured by the endof 1999

• a further 1 MW each year for the period2000-2010

Biomass/Waste to Energy• 7 MW of installed capacity by the end of 1999• further developments to be decided in the

light of the outcome of AER2

Source: Department of Transport, Energy and Communications18

The achievement of the AER3 targets will result ininvestment in renewable energy of £100 millionby the end of the century. When coupled withAER1 and AER2, this represents a total invest-ment in the order of £320 million in renewableenergy between 1995 and 1999. Further fiscalincentives are being pursued by the Departmentof Transport, Energy and Communications whichis represented on an inter-departmental com-mittee established by the Minister for Finance toexamine the potential of using the tax system tofurther environmental objectives.

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Emission Regulations and StandardsLarge point sources such as electricity gener-ating plant are already subject to controls onemissions of SO2 and NOx. New generatingplant and large users of fossil fuels are subject toIPC licensing. IPC licensing requirements willbe extended to existing electricity generatingplant by the end of the decade. In accordancewith the EU Directive on Integrated PollutionPrevention and Control19 (1996), energy effi-ciency will become a more explicit considerationin the IPC licensing system.

Energy Pricing/Taxation/CostInternalisationLow energy prices can act as a disincentive toreduce demand or adopt energy efficiency mea-sures. From an environmental viewpoint,pricing should reflect the external costs of energyproduction and use - such as the costs of remedi-ating energy-related pollution. The Governmentis examining this matter in the context of bothenergy pricing and environmental taxation,having regard to the need to integrate environ-mental and sustainability considerations intoenergy policies, the requirements of the "PolluterPays" Principle, and the economic and socialimplications of increased prices. Costs which areat present reflected in environmental threats anddegradation should be internalised.

While pricing can play a role in influencingenergy demand, competitively priced electricityhas been one of the fundamental planks of Irishenergy policy, because of implications for indus-trial competitiveness and export performanceshould energy prices increase relative to othercountries. However, developed economies haveshown that high energy prices do not underminecompetitiveness. Current energy prices inIreland are low; electricity prices had not beenincreased for nearly ten years until 1996, andnotwithstanding the increases approved for theperiod 1996-1998, electricity prices in Ireland stillcompare favourably with those in otherEuropean countries. Low energy prices do not

encourage reduced demand or increased effi-ciency. However, there is likely to be upwardpressure on electricity prices in the years aheadbecause of the need to undertake planned capitalinvestment in electricity infrastructure.

In addition to pricing, other tools must also beused to achieve the objective of demand reductionand greater efficiency, including incentives, regu-lations, technical advice and awareness. Therewill be an increasing role for market-based instru-ments, designed to sensitise both producers andconsumers towards responsible use of naturalresources, and avoidance of pollution and waste.

Nuclear safetyIreland's objectives on nuclear matters place aheavy emphasis on safety, environment and publichealth protection, and radiological protection.

The White Paper on Foreign Policy (1996) com-mits the Government to ensuring that "environ-mental, health and safety issues associated with thenuclear industry (are) effectively addressed"20 in allrelevant fora. To this end, the Government isactively pursuing a series of actions to addressand resolve these issues, and has availed of allopportunities to raise its concerns on nuclear mat-ters at bilateral, EU and wider international level,including within the International Atomic EnergyAgency (IAEA) and the OECD. Ireland supportsthe key role of the IAEA as the global forum forthe promotion of internationally acceptable safetystandards in the nuclear industry.

The Government acknowledges the serious andcontinuing threat posed to the health and safetyof the Irish public and Ireland's environment by:• the operation of Sellafield;• ageing nuclear reactors in Europe and in

Britain; and• the increased traffic on the Irish Sea involving

irradiated materials (see Chapter 7).

A Ministerial Group on Sellafield and the IrishSea was established under the Chairmanship of

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the Minister for the Environment in April 1995 tocoordinate action on foot of measures containedin the Policy Agreement for a Government of Renewal.As a result, nuclear matters are receiving anunprecedented level of attention. Closure of theSellafield operations remains an objective andwill be pursued through legal action should suffi-cient evidence of pollution or public healthimpact be obtained. The Government's compre-hensive policy incorporates a series of practicalmeasures which will afford lasting benefits to theIrish public and environment, viz.:

• the successful opposition to the NIREX pro-posal for the construction of a rock characteri-sation facility at Sellafield as a precursor to thedevelopment of an underground structure forpermanent storage of UK and foreign radioac-tive waste;

• ongoing examination of the possibilities forlegal action against the Sellafield/THORPfacilities, having regard in particular to theprovisions of the Paris and OSPARConventions (see Chapter 7);

• high-level diplomatic approaches to theGovernments of countries having or contem-plating radioactive waste reprocessing agree-ments with the THORP facility at Sellafield,highlighting the Irish Government's concernsand opposition to the plant;

• opposition to a new mixed oxide fuel manu-facturing facility at Sellafield;

• requests to the Oslo/Paris Commissions andthe Nuclear Energy Agency of the OECD toundertake a thorough technical review andassessment of both the reprocessing and non-reprocessing options for spent nuclear fuelmanagement, as well as their impact onradioactive discharges into the marine environ-ment. Work is underway on these matters;

• presentation of a proposal to the ParisCommission seeking measures to tackle dis-charges of the radioactive isotope technetium-99from Sellafield which are leading to increasedconcentrations of the substance in seawater, sea-weed and lobster, particularly close to the dis-charge point off the Cumbria coast;

• advancing proposals within the InternationalMaritime Organisation (see Chapter 7) whichwill substantially strengthen the safeguardsand other controls applied to the transport ofirradiated nuclear fuels at sea;

• an initiative within the context of the Inter-Governmental Conference to amend theEURATOM Treaty so as to place greateremphasis on public health and environmentalprotection considerations;

• the ratification of the Nuclear SafetyConvention in July 1996 and Governmentefforts to have all Member States of the EU andthe IAEA do so as soon as possible;

• the active promotion by Ireland of a new GlobalConvention on Radioactive Waste Management,which is expected to be finalised in 1997;

• the offer of State financial assistance and othersupport to the County Louth residents (STAD)taking court action against British NuclearFuels Limited. The assistance will apply tospecific items of scientific investigation,research and other work relevant to the case;and

• by way of further support to the STAD action,extensive information on documentation heldby the Departments of Transport, Energy andCommunications, Environment, Health andMarine and the Radiological ProtectionInstitute of Ireland has been made available.The Government has also offered medical andstatistical expertise to assist the Louth residentswith the interpretation of health-related data.

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industryIn a highly competitive world, Ireland'shigh quality environment offers a price-less advantage to natural resource-based products and manufacturedgoods and services generally.

SUSTAINABLE INDUSTRIAL DEVEL-OPMENT

should recognise and respond to thisunique opportunity by pursuing

• responsible growth, maintainingnatural capital,

• eco-efficient, clean production,lowering input costs and addingvalue to output,

• eco-friendliness, addressing con-sumer concerns and preferences.

9

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Because Ireland has retained a largely unspoiltenvironment, there is a strong consensus on theneed to maintain high environmental standardsfor industry. There is also a growing acknowl-edgment from industry that adherence to thesehigh standards is in its own best interests andthat industry should also act voluntarily to pro-mote environmental excellence. Reflecting thistwin-track approach of strict environmental reg-ulation combined with pro-active voluntarymeasures, the following are some of the specificactions to these ends which will be taken underthis Strategy:

• While legislation and regulation will continueto be important instruments for managingindustrial impacts on the environment, abroader mix of instruments will be appliedwhere environmental benefits are achievableas efficiently or more cost-effectively. This willinclude increasing the use of market-basedinstruments over time and using voluntaryagreements with industry where appropriate.

• Integrated Pollution Control licensing is beingextended on a phased basis by 1998, to mostindustries covered by the EnvironmentalProtection Agency Act, 1992.

• The Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1992,will be amended to give effect to the provi-sions of Council Directive 96/61/EC onIntegrated Pollution Prevention and Control(IPPC).

• The Waste Management Act, 1996, will berapidly implemented. This will increase thefocus on waste prevention and minimisationand on recovering, rather than disposing of,the by-products and wastes arising fromindustrial processes, and of products them-selves and their packaging.

• Producer responsibility initiatives (such as theREPAK scheme already mobilised) will beencouraged to increase re-use and recycling of

wastes, with regulatory support to ensure faircompetitive conditions for participatoryindustries.

• A Pollution Emissions Register will be pub-lished by the EPA in 1997. Regulations will beintroduced subsequently to establish by 1998 amore complete Toxics Release Inventory.

• The EPA will complete a national hazardouswaste management plan by 1998.

• Ireland will support international efforts todevelop legally binding instruments for thereduction and/or elimination of emissions ofpersistent organic pollutants to the environ-ment.

• The Department of Enterprise andEmployment will review the coordination ofcleaner production mechanisms to ensuremaximum efficiency and value in the uptakeand replication of initiatives, and as a basis forfuture targeting of supports to the SME sector.

• The extension of the EU Eco-Management andAudit Scheme (EMAS) to all major industrialsites will be actively promoted.

• Grant assistance for industrial developmentwill remain conditional on compliance withenvironmental regulatory requirements.

• Government will develop suitable economicinstruments to improve the internalisation ofexternal costs. This will include:- resource pricing, including a charging

system for water and waste water services toindustry;

- possible green taxation measures, with par-ticular emphasis on the removal of environ-mentally-unfriendly subsidies; and

- exploration of market-based instruments,such as emissions trading, offering flexi-bility to industry to achieve environmentalimprovements.

An action programme towardssustainable industry

• The EPA, in cooperation with the CentralStatistics Office (CSO) and the Department ofTransport, Energy and Communications, willdevelop a materials and energy balance forindustry to determine the full extent ofindustry's environmental/natural resourceimpacts and advise on targets for greater eco-efficiency.

• Forbairt and An Bord Tráchtála, with the sup-port and assistance of the Marine Institute asappropriate, will explore the opportunities forIrish industry in the growth area of environ-mental industry, including pollution controltechnology and equipment and environmentalconsultancy services.

• The Government has undertaken and willpursue a rapid mobilisation of new initiativesin the Science and Technology area, in linewith the 1996 White Paper on Science, Technologyand Innovation.

• Greater policy coordination at Departmentallevel in the areas of industry, environment andsustainability will be ensured through thedevelopment of the Green Network ofGovernment Departments (see Chapter 19).

Introduction/OverviewThe quality of raw materials is an increasinglyimportant factor for industrial development andproduction. Irish products must compete onEuropean and world markets on the basis ofquality and price, and with the assistance ofbrand marketing underlining a distinctiveimage. Ireland is marketed as an attractive loca-tion, both in economic and environmental terms,for high performance multi-national industry. IfIreland's natural advantages are to continue tosupport socio-economic development, con-tinued effort is necessary to ensure that this envi-ronmental image has real substance.

Fig 9.1 Sustainability Issues in relation to Industry

Land use and impact on landscape

Consumption of raw materials• initial extraction (e.g. mining)• growth in road freight transportation (also

for finished goods) • processing• use of hazardous substances

Energy consumption• improved energy efficiency• use of fossil fuels

Emissions to air• NOx, VOC, CO2, SO2, odours, metals

Emissions to water• waste water, chemicals, heavy metals

Production of waste • industry is the largest producer of solid

wastes, at 17.5% of total national waste • industrial hazardous waste is estimated at

nearly 1/4 million tonnes per annum• on-site incineration is the main method of

disposing of hazardous waste

Industry in Ireland grew significantly from the1960s, and now accounts for 27% of totalemployment and 38% of GDP. It is stronglyexport-oriented; manufactured goods -including quality-branded foods and drinks,fashion, high technology electronics, engi-neering and pharmaceutical products - make upover 70% of Irish exports, while some 68% ofmanufacturing jobs are dependent on exports.1

The range of manufacturing industry is wide.Relatively recent industrial development meansthat few of the traditional heavy industries, suchas steel making, oil refining and oil-based petro-

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chemicals, established here. Labour-intensivetextiles, clothing and footwear sectors have beenin decline in recent years. However, this declinehas been balanced to some extent by significantgrowth in other sectors such as metals, engi-neering, minerals, electronics and chemicals.The food industry continues to develop,building largely on indigenous agriculturaloutput, and industrial development policieshave promoted a substantial growth in the elec-tronic and computer industries. Modern indus-tries, although in general more environmentally-friendly than those of the past, can still bringpressures to bear on the environment.

Multi-national companies now represent a con-siderable proportion of the Irish industrial base;over 1,000 overseas companies are located inIreland, employing some 100,000 people, whichrepresents well over 40% of total manufacturingemployment. Many of these companies are inthe fine chemical and electronics sectors, and arerequired, and accustomed, to operate to highenvironmental standards.

Small and medium-sized indigenous enterpriseshave a different profile. These enterprises repre-sent a significant portion of the Irish economy;the Task Force on Small Business2 estimated in1994 that 98% of some 160,000 non-farm busi-nesses fell within their definition of "small"(under 50 employees, turnover of under £3 mil-lion), and that small business accounted foraround half of all private sector employment.This sector, while less well-equipped to meetenvironmental requirements, is nonetheless cru-cial to achieving sustainability in industry.

Analysis of the performance of Irish industryover the period from 1989 to 1992, carried out inconnection with the Operational Programme forIndustrial Development, 1994-99, showed that interms of employment, output and productivity,Irish industry performed considerably betterthan the average for either the EU or the OECD.In the manufacturing sector, for example, overalloutput grew by 6% per annum, productivity by

4.9% per annum, and employment by 1% perannum over this period. This encouraging per-formance has continued, with average increasesin output in manufacturing industry of 12.8% in1994 and 20.1% in 1995, and an estimatedincrease of 9% in 1996.3

Increases in productivity, which are normallyassociated with increased efficiency in the use ofinputs into the manufacturing process, are animportant consideration in the context of sustain-able development. While overall productivity inthe manufacturing sector generally has increasedsignificantly, the relative shift in output from tra-ditional sectors such as clothing, textiles,footwear and furniture to the capital intensivesectors of chemicals, pharmaceuticals, electronicsand electrical engineering, has been a significantfactor in this increase. The sectors most likely todrive future increases in manufacturing outputare electronics, pharmaceuticals, healthcare, foodand drink and print and publishing.

Sustainable Development and EconomicGrowthThe principle of sustainable development under-pins Ireland's industrial policy, the key objectiveof which is to promote a strong, internationallycompetitive enterprise sector, comprising bothindigenous and non-national companies, whichwill make the maximum contribution to self-sus-taining employment growth. The NationalDevelopment Plan, 1994-994, sought to developIreland's natural resources as a foundation forincreased industrial development, with partic-ular emphasis on the development of the food-processing and timber industries. The Plan notedthat sustainable industrial development entails:

• using cleaner technologies and production tech-niques to minimise emissions to air and water;

• preventing or reducing waste production and,where possible, increasing re-use or recyclingactivities; and

• pursuing a policy of conservation of energyand other raw materials.

Sustainable industrial development must allowindustry to pursue its primary functions of gener-ating wealth and employment while minimisingimpacts on the environment. It must also takeaccount of future as well as present needs toincrease employment and living standards. Thereis no easy balance: an ambitious environmentalpolicy carries unavoidable costs. In common withpolicy trends elsewhere, this Strategy recognisesthat a mix of policy instruments:• offers the best means of addressing public

concerns about environmental protection; and• creates the best framework for business and

industry to achieve environmentally-sustain-able growth in a cost-effective way.

Accordingly, Government will pursue a broadrange of policy instruments, which will includeincreasing the use of market-based instrumentsover time and using voluntary agreements withindustry where appropriate. In addition, greaterpolicy coordination at Departmental level in theareas of industry, environment and sustain-ability will be ensured through the developmentof the Green Network of GovernmentDepartments (see Chapter 19).

For industry, the overall objective of this Strategyis to ensure that development:

• is environmentally sound, maximising advantage and maintaining quality;

• optimises the use of natural resources; • minimises the production of waste and

emissions; • uses chemicals and other substances with

potentially adverse environmental impactssparingly and safely; and

• has a strongly defined clean production andclean technology ethos.

Industry's Interactions with theEnvironmentIt is essential for industry to recognise andaddress its potential for extensive impacts on thenatural environment.

Industrial emissionsThe relative absence of heavy industry in Irelandhas resulted in a low level of pollutant emissionsto air compared to most European countries.Growing road freight transport movements,arising from economic activity, contribute toincreasing air emissions from the transportsector, while direct emissions from other sectors,including industry, have remained relativelystable or decreased.

Fig 9.2 Emissions of Primary Pollutants from Industrial Combustion (tonnes)

SO2 NOx VOC CO Smoke

1980 78,600 8,200 200 --- ---

1985 57,140 8,180 570 --- ---

1990 38,000 11,260 340 890 1,250

1991 31,350 9,315 260 1,560 960

1992 32,705 9,240 190 1,550 1,060

1993 33,890 9,340 185 1,500 1,000

Source: Environmental Protection Agency6

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"Pollution is a form of waste, and a symptom of inefficiency in industrial

production."

- The World Commission for Environment and Development5

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Industrial combustion accounts for around 22%of national emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2)7

and for approximately 22% of national emissionsof sulphur oxides (SOx)8; the trend is positive,with the amount of SO2 produced by industryhaving reduced by half between 1980 and 1994.Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) from indus-trial combustion represent 8.5% of the nationaltotal9, and the quantity of emissions hasremained relatively stable over the past 15 years.There is still scope for a reduction in these emis-sions from industry, however, for examplethrough the use of low-NOx burners in boilers.

Existing information indicates that industryemits limited quantities of Volatile OrganicCompounds (VOC) (mainly from the use of sol-vents) and carbon monoxide (CO). However, theEPA10 has noted that there are deficiencies ininformation, to the extent that emissions ofVOCs from a range of industrial processes havenot yet been reliably quantified.

As traditional pollutant emissions (SO2, NOx,VOC) have been controlled for many yearsunder international conventions, national regu-lations and other measures, attention is increas-ingly focused on other substances. Togetherwith the other Contracting Parties to the UNConvention on the Long-Range Transport of AirPollution, Ireland is assisting in the elaborationof protocols to deal with persistent organic pol-lutants (POPs) and heavy metals.

As obligations to restrict national emissions toatmosphere of pollutants such as SO2, NOx,ammonia, heavy metals, POPs, CO2, and VOCsbecome demanding, it will be necessary to allo-cate targets/ceilings to the contributing sectorsof the economy. In this context, the Governmentwill consider the appropriateness of market-based instruments such as emissions trading,insofar as these might provide a more cost-effec-tive means for industry and other sectors ofachieving such targets/ceilings.

Pollutant emissions from industry may also bedischarged into water. In urban areas, wastewater from industry commonly discharges intosewerage systems. The Local Government (WaterPollution) Act, 1977, requires discharges to watersand sewers to be licensed, and at the end of 1995,nearly 2,000 water licences were in force. Sincethe commencement of integrated pollution con-trol licensing by the EPA in 1994, water pollutionlicences for certain industries are progressivelybeing replaced by integrated licences coveringall emissions and environmental impacts.

While the EPA identifies industrial activity as thesingle greatest cause of seriously pollutedwater11, the extent of such pollution has been sig-nificantly reduced in recent years, and nowaccounts for only 0.6% (77 km) of over 13,200 kmof river and stream channel surveyed. There is aneed for more information on discharges to theaquatic environment of toxic, persistent contam-inants. A research project in regard to the latteris to be undertaken under the OperationalProgramme for Environmental Services, 1994-99(the Environmental Services OP).

Fig 9.3 Proportion of Reported Fish Kills attributed to Industrial Sources

Period Total kills Industrial Percentage ofTotal

1971-1974 98 37 38%

1983-1986 296 35 12%

1987-1990 334 46 14%

1991-1994 175 26 15%

Source: Environmental Protection Agency12

Other key pollutants of concern includeorganochlorines, polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs), dioxins, furans and heavy metals.Levels of these pollutants in Ireland are gener-ally low in comparison to other countries13; how-ever, there are still gaps in the available informa-tion which must be filled. A report on dioxins inIreland, published by the EPA in May 199614,concluded that their environmental impact is notsignificant in Ireland, with levels significantlylower than in many other European countries.

Industrial emissions are, in general, well regu-lated. In respect of industry with significant pol-luting potential, integrated pollution control(IPC) licensing is recognised by Government andthe Social Partners in Partnership 2000 as a majorimprovement on multi-media licensing which itreplaces. IPC licensing will be commenced forexisting activities in most industrial categoriesby end-1998. The Government will keep thesystem under review having regard to cost andcompetitiveness issues, including the capacity ofthe SME sector, in particular, to deal in the shortterm with new regulatory demands. The systemwill also be adjusted, as appropriate, by 1999 toimplement Council Directive 96/61/EC onIntegrated Pollution Prevention and Control.

Consumption of natural resourcesConsumption of finite natural resources (bothindigenous and imported) is a major issue forsustainable development. As noted in Chapter8, the industry sector has decreased its energyconsumption by 19% since 1980, due to anumber of factors including fuel switching andchanges in the structure of industrial activityover the period. While a number of energy-effi-ciency measures were also adopted by industryto achieve this reduction, there is still scope forfurther improvement. Assistance is being pro-vided to industry in this regard through theEnergy Efficiency Investment Scheme and thetechnical advice services of the Irish EnergyCentre.

Maximum efficiency in the use of both energyand water in industrial processes is an importantpart of energy/resource conservation. Economicinstruments and, in particular, correct pricingmust increasingly be used to internalise allexternal environmental costs so that the realcosts associated with the use of natural resourcesare correctly attributed.

A formalised system for charging industry thecapital and operating costs of water and wastewater services provided to it will be introducedby the end of this decade. Assessment of theoptions in this regard began in 1994 with thecommissioning, by the Department of theEnvironment, of a study by the ESRI on chargingindustry the capital costs of waste water ser-vices.15 The Department also commissioned afurther study from the ESRI on the more generaluse of economic instruments to support environ-mental policy; this will be published in 1997.

Dangerous substancesSafety in relation to dangerous substances isclosely related to potential impact on the envi-ronment and human health. The Health andSafety Authority (HSA) enforces a range of con-trols on dangerous substances used in industry,including:

• regulations concerning the protection ofemployees from the use in the workplace oflead, asbestos and chemical and biologicalagents;

• regulations protecting employees, the generalpublic and the environment against majoraccident hazards, where dangerous substancesare used or stored; and

• regulations governing the classification, pack-aging and labelling of a wide range of haz-ardous substances.

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A review of the Dangerous Substances Act, 1972, isto be carried out by the HSA by 1998; this willalso take account of:• the implementation of the requirements of the

ADR (European Agreement concerning theInternational Carriage of Dangerous Goods byRoad);

• the implications of Ireland's 1996 ratification ofthe UN Convention on Chemical Weapons16;and

• the adoption of a new Directive on the Controlof Major Accident Hazards InvolvingDangerous Substances to replace EU Directive85/501/EEC (the Seveso Directive).17

Solid wastesThe industrial sector is the largest producer ofsolid wastes in Ireland. Industry produces anestimated 7.4 million tonnes of non-hazardouswaste a year, or nearly 17.5% of total nationalwaste production (estimated at some 42 milliontonnes).18 The definition of industrial waste usedby the EPA includes all non-hazardous, solid orsemi-solid wastes originating from industrial orpublic utility premises and includes wastesarising from mines and quarries, constructionand demolition sites, as well as wastes arisingfrom food processing.

The definition of hazardous wastes, included inthe Waste Management Act, 1996, reflects theproperties of waste which render it hazardous,as set out in Directive 91/689/EEC.19 Industry isthe largest producer of hazardous wastes, esti-mated at over 243,000 tonnes per annum; how-ever, more than 40% of this is reused, recoveredand recycled. Incineration is the principalmethod used for the on-site disposal of haz-ardous industrial wastes.

The minimisation of industrial wastes is a majorobjective of national policy; measures such ascleaner production processes, life-cycle analysisand other eco-efficient approaches in the indus-trial sector will contribute to realising this objec-tive. However, even with an extensive and

sophisticated clean technology programme,there will always be some hazardous wastesrequiring disposal. The issues involved indealing with this waste will be addressed by theEPA in the preparation of the national hazardouswaste management plan. Financial assistance ofapproximately £5 million for the provision ofappropriate hazardous waste management facil-ities will also be available under theEnvironmental Services OP.

ChemicalsThe estimated number of human-made chemi-cals on the world market almost doubled duringthe last three decades, and is projected to reachover 100,000 by the end of the century.Environmental risks arise from the significantincrease in flows of chemicals from human activ-ities, including industry, and in particular fromthe use of toxic chemicals and other hazardoussubstances. The accumulation of these in theenvironment, including in food chains, can pro-foundly disrupt biological processes. Usedresponsibly, chemicals make an essential contri-bution to modern social and economic goals and,with best practice, they can be used with a highdegree of safety in a cost-effective manner.

Risk assessment is critical to the environmen-tally-sound management of chemicals; it aims atidentifying, characterising and quantifying thepotential adverse effects on human health orecosystems of defined exposures to a chemicalsubstance or mixture, or to a chemically haz-ardous process or situation. The OECD is car-rying out a programme of work on risk reduc-tion for chemicals and other substances,including lead and mercury; in February 1996,OECD Environment Ministers adopted aDeclaration on risk reduction in relation to lead.20

In line with the Government commitment to pro-vide for a Toxics Release Inventory (TRI)21, theWaste Management Act, 1996, contains strength-ened provisions for the making available of infor-mation on releases of specified substances into

the environment, based on the concept of mass-balance accounting. Regulations to give formaleffect to the TRI provision in the Act will be madeby 1998. Under IPC licence conditions, the EPAalready requires mass balances of specified toxicchemicals, showing overall usage and routes ofdisposal and loss, to be submitted for inclusion ina Pollution Emissions Register (PER). The firstPER report will be published by the EPA in 1997.

Contaminated landLand contamination by industrial activity is alimited problem in Ireland, compared to moreheavily industrialised countries. At present,cases of land contamination are addressed on acase by case basis by developers and localauthorities. The need for a national policy onsoil and land quality will be addressed in thecontext of ongoing developments at EU level inrelation to environmental liability. Current envi-ronmental requirements, including IPC licensingand monitoring operations, will help to preventfuture contamination of land. The WasteManagement Act, 1996, provides for both localauthorities and the EPA to include in theirrespective waste management plans the identifi-cation and assessment of remediation needs inrelation to waste disposal sites.

Voluntary Action by Industry: A NewApproachWhile public regulation and control have animportant place in the environmental manage-ment of industry, substantial complementaryaction can be, and is being, taken voluntarily byindustry to minimise its environmental impactand increase its efficiency. It is in industry's owninterests to anticipate new developments andlead markets: the best performers have alreadyadopted comprehensive and challenging envi-ronmental policies and the management systemsto implement and communicate them. "Leaner"production, promoting better resource use, iseconomically as well as environmentally effi-cient. Industry can also benefit from "firstmover" advantage, building new opportunities

in eco-industry and anticipating consumer envi-ronmental concerns, so as to lead rather thanrespond to competitive trends.

It is simplistic to assume that economic growthmust necessarily be limited by the finite natureof non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuelenergy and minerals. Advanced economies haveproven their ability to stimulate the develop-ment of technological substitutes as scarcitiesemerge. But there is mounting concern interna-tionally about other factors which, unlessreversed, may limit growth in future, including:• the increase in emissions and wastes, with

potential adverse effects, which may not yet befully recognised, for human health and theenvironment;

• the degradation of natural resources, includingagricultural land, water and soil; and

• reductions in biodiversity and the acceleratingrate of species loss.

As is clear from the EPA report, State of theEnvironment in Ireland, there are problematictrends for Ireland in these areas also. It is notsufficient to achieve efficiencies which are at thesame time offset by volume growth, as is at pre-sent the case with energy and transport.Sustainable development depends as much onless intensive use of renewable resources as onoptimised use of non-renewable resources andthe development of substitutes.

Within the framework of this Strategy, demandas well as supply-side measures will be utilisedto secure sustainable industrial development.Key issues for industry include:

• improving production processes, includingefficiency of resource consumption;

• applying innovations in clean productiontechnologies;

• utilising life-cycle analysis/assessment toidentify environmental impacts through the

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stages of manufacturing, distribution, sale anduse, and modifying product design to min-imise such impacts;

• internalising the costs of environmental externalities;

• responding to consumer interests and needs,provided these are sustainable;

• taking advantage of the opportunities offeredby eco-industry;

• integrating environmental considerations intomanagement practice, through environmentalmanagement and auditing;

• taking responsibility for minimising waste andemissions; and

• assuming shared responsibility for the envi-ronment, and applying best practice, throughvoluntary action.

Sustainable consumption and productionSustainable consumption has been defined as:

"the use of goods and services that respond to basicneeds and bring a better quality of life, while min-imising the use of natural resources, toxic materialsand the emissions of waste and pollutants over thelife-cycle, so as not to jeopardise the needs of futuregenerations".22

This concept is becoming increasingly importantat international level, with work programmesdeveloped in both the United Nations (CSD andUNEP) and the OECD. The European Union,through its review of the Fifth EnvironmentAction Programme23, has also stressed the needto address sustainable production and consump-tion issues. In addition to work by Governmentsand international institutions, other initiativesinclude the programme of the World BusinessCouncil for Sustainable Development, aimed atpromoting environmental quality while satis-fying societal and consumer needs, and the

"Sustainable Europe" project being carried outunder the auspices of Friends of the EarthEurope.24

While all sectors must play their part in sustain-able production and consumption, the role ofindustry is particularly important in imple-menting sustainable production principles.These include:

• enhancing product efficiency and durability;

• offering after-sales services to assist the envi-ronmentally-friendly use of products and toprolong useful life;

• eco-labelling and consumer information; and

• developing and marketing innovative ser-vices, e.g. rental rather than purchase, servicesrather than goods.

The principle of extended producer responsi-bility, incorporated in the Waste Management Act,1996, places a responsibility on the producers ofgoods to have regard to the need for the preven-tion and minimisation of waste from activitiesproducing goods and from the goods them-selves, and as regards the recovery of wastesarising from the use of such goods. From awaste minimisation perspective, it places a focuson the life-cycle and durability of products,using ecologically-sound materials and lendingthemselves to environmentally-friendly use, re-use, and eventual recycling, either wholly or intheir individual components; in addition, itrequires that such products be manufactured byprocesses which avoid or minimise emissions ofliquid and solid waste, and minimise the con-sumption of energy. Producer responsibility isnow an integral part of environmental protectionpolicy. The REPAK scheme, launched in 1996 bythe Industry Task Force on Recycling25, repre-sents an important producer responsibility ini-tiative in respect of packaging waste.

Eco-efficiencyEco-efficiency is an important element of sus-tainable production, incorporating many of itsprinciples. The World Business Council forSustainable Development (WBCSD) hasdeclared that

Case studies by the WBCSD show that industrycan derive substantial economic benefits fromeco-efficiency. A life-cycle approach improvesthe way goods are produced, packaged, trans-ported, sold, reused, recycled and, ultimately,disposed of. Use-sharing, renting, leasing andborrowing are also valuable options which canreduce material flows, both in terms of the con-sumption of natural resources and the produc-tion of waste materials.

Cleaner productionCleaner production has been defined as "the con-tinuous application of an integrated preventive envi-ronmental strategy to processes and products toreduce risks to humans and the environment".27 Inrelation to production processes, it includes:

• the conservation of raw materials and energy;

• the elimination of toxic raw materials, e.g.through their substitution by less toxic mate-rials; and

• the reduction in both quantity and toxicity of allemissions and wastes before they leave a plant.

In relation to products, cleaner productionfocuses on reducing impacts along the entire life-cycle of the product, from the initial extraction ofraw material to the ultimate disposal of theproduct. A manufacturing life-cycle whichincorporates return, reuse and recycling in a

closed-loop system is becoming increasinglyimportant as part of this process.

Use of cleaner technology and cleaner produc-tion to reduce and minimise waste production isan important facet of the environmental man-agement programmes required by the EPAunder the terms of IPC licences. However, smalland medium-sized industries do not have a sim-ilar motivation and difficulties arise in the appli-cation of new clean technologies, due, forexample, to lack of access to pilot facilities, inter-national databases and expert assistance onapplications. There is an increasing range ofmechanisms for support and development inthis area, for example, through the LIFE initia-tive28, RETEX and the Cleaner Production mea-sure of the Environmental Services OP, andthrough the services of Forbairt, the CleanTechnology Centre (Cork RTC) and the CleanerProduction Promotion Unit (UCC). TheDepartment of Enterprise and Employment willreview the coordination of such mechanisms, soas to ensure maximum efficiency and value inthe uptake and replication of initiatives and as abasis for future targeting of supports to the SMEsector.

Environmental management systemsProgressive voluntary policies by business and industry can reduce the need for rigorousregulation, by, for example:

• allowing industry the scope to demonstrate itsown environmental credentials in operating tohigh standards;

• reducing the environmental risks; and

• enabling industry to demonstrate that it canachieve best practice without such regulation.

Many forms of action are open to industry,including:

• participation in environmental management,eco-audit and other voluntary schemes;

"Eco-efficiency is reached by the delivery of com-petitively priced goods and services that satisfyhuman needs and bring quality of life while pro-gressively reducing ecological impacts andresource intensity, through the life cycle, to a levelat least in line with the Earth's estimated car-rying capacity".26

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• subscription to international codes of conduct,including the Chemical Industry's ResponsibleCare Programme, and the InternationalChambers of Commerce Business Charter onSustainable Development; and

• the development of dedicated codes of prac-tice to cover, for example, green procurementand purchasing, environmental criteria forequipment and vehicles, waste prevention andenergy saving.

Environmental management and auditEnvironmental auditing is an important tool forindustry; only with full knowledge of its effectson the environment can the sector achieve theefficiencies that are central to sustainable pro-duction and demonstrate to clients, consumersand Government that it is effectively deliveringimprovements in environmental performance.

General environmental management byindustry can be improved through the adoptionof environmental management and audit sys-tems such as the EU Eco-Management and AuditScheme (EMAS).29 The benefits of internationalcertification systems, such as the ISO 9002Quality Systems Management Certificate, arealready recognised in relation to business com-petitiveness and image; similarly, certificationunder EMAS or ISO 14001 (adopted inSeptember 1996 by the International StandardsOrganisation and CEN, the European StandardsOrganisation) can benefit industry in terms of:

• identifying, quantifying, and assessing theimpact on the environment;

• identifying the management and organisa-tional systems required to deal with environ-mental issues;

• ensuring good environmental performanceand - as a minimum - ensuring compliancewith in-house company policies and nationallegislation;

• providing a basis for formulating a corporatepolicy on environmental issues;

• identifying areas where improvements or cost-savings can be made;

• improving the corporate image of the company;• attracting the support of the public for some

elements of self-regulation by industry as ameans of environmental conservation and pro-tection; and

• identifying problem areas before they becomeacute.30

The Environmental Standards ConsultativeCommittee of the National Standards Authorityof Ireland (NSAI) will provide for participationby Irish experts in the development of Europeanand international standards, in particular theISO 14000 family of environmental standards.The NSAI will hold regular workshops, confer-ences and seminars to inform industry of devel-opments in this regard.

It is Government policy actively to promote theextension of EMAS certification to all majorindustrial sites. The Minister for the Environmenthas designated the National Accreditation Board(NAB) as the Registration Body for Irish partici-pants in EMAS, and the NAB will have a key rolein pursuing this policy objective.

A new environmental training programme tohelp companies wishing to develop or updatetheir expertise on environmental issues will bepromoted by the Irish Business and EmployersConfederation (IBEC) in 1997. The project,funded under the EU LIFE initiative, was devel-oped in collaboration with the EnvironmentalProtection Agency, An Taisce, and the CleanTechnology Centre.

"Irish companies will need to incorporate environmental

issues into all aspects of their business if they are to stay

competitive. Training of staff in environmental manage-

ment will be crucial".

- Dr. Mary Kelly, IBEC31

Environmental reportingEnvironmental management systems facilitateindustry in reporting to its stakeholders -including the local community and the widerpublic, shareholders, customers, suppliers andstaff - about its environmental performance,including the use of energy and naturalresources and the extent of emissions. A growingnumber of companies worldwide are taking upthis challenge, to respond to increasing publicand consumer awareness and to address marketconcerns related to environmental performanceand the environmental quality of goods.Companies which cannot assure the public andconsumers that they take account of and controltheir environmental impacts may find that theyrisk losing market share or market opportunitiesas a result.

Eco-labellingThe aim of the EU Eco-labelling scheme32 is tostimulate the production of goods with the leastimpact on the environment and to identify theseto consumers by an EU-wide label or logo.Consumer products other than food, drink andpharmaceuticals may be eligible for an eco-labelif they meet strict ecological criteria.Participation in this voluntary scheme allowsindustry to demonstrate its commitment to eco-logically-friendly production by informingpotential customers that its products meet strin-gent requirements and high standards based onlife-cycle analysis. As consumers become moreeducated regarding the importance of environ-mentally-friendly goods and services, compa-nies whose products bear the recognised eco-label will have a competitive advantage in themarketplace. The NSAI has been designated asthe Competent Body for Irish companies partici-pating in the EU Eco-labelling scheme.

Voluntary agreementsVoluntary agreements between government andindustry (including manufacturing and services)are means of expressing shared responsibility forthe environment. They allow industry to exer-

cise leadership in recognising and acting on theprinciple of producer responsibility.

Examples of existing voluntary action in Irelandinclude the REPAK initiative (already referredto) which, in providing a basis for the recoveryand recycling of packaging waste, is designed tohelp meet Ireland's obligations under the EUDirective on Packaging and Packaging Waste.33

Also since 1996, the Society of the Irish MotorIndustry is developing a voluntary scheme torecover and recycle spent automotive batteries.The Department of the Environment is seekingfurther expansion of this scheme to cover recy-cling of other vehicle materials.

Government will continue to pursue and partic-ipate in voluntary agreements provided they cansecure real pollution prevention and reductionobjectives. While such agreements can improveindustry's public image, they will not be allowedto substitute for regulation unless they candemonstrate achievement and real environ-mental dividends.

Financial SectorThe potential of the financial sector to assist sus-tainable development has received relativelylittle attention in Ireland to date, despite the sig-nificant influence of financial institutions onindustrial investment, and the relevance of envi-ronmental performance costs (including liabili-ties) to share performance and profits. The role ofthe financial sector has attracted greater interest atinternational level. Awareness in banking, insur-ance and other financial institutions of the costsand liabilities associated with poor environmentalperformance has become a new factor in thefinancing of business and industry. Increasingemphasis on environmental liability, particularlyin relation to waste streams, is a concern not onlyfor industry but for its financial backers and thefinancial community in general.

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Eco-IndustryThe global environmental technology industryhas been expanding rapidly in recent years.OECD estimates predict that global spending onenvironmental products and services will beUS$320 billion by the end of the decade.34 Thegrowing environmental protection industry cur-rently supports more than 1 million jobsthroughout the EU, and is estimated to expandat a rate of 5% per annum. The market for envi-ronmental goods and services is growing at ahigh compound rate in advance of economicgrowth generally, globally and in both devel-oped and developing countries. Some 400 Irishfirms are already engaged in this market to someextent; over 120 of these, employing some 5,000people, are wholly engaged in providing envi-ronmental goods and services. The prospects foroutput and employment growth in this sector inIreland are good, and will be developed.

Public policy, expressed, for example, throughthe Operational Programme for IndustrialDevelopment, and through the mandate of theJoint Oireachtas Committee on SustainableDevelopment, seeks to encourage Irish participa-tion in world markets for environmental goodsand services. An Bord Tráchtála has identifiedprimary areas of potential for Irish eco-industry,and has established an Environmental Unitwhich is targeting opportunities for Irish compa-nies in areas including the manufacture of equip-ment for dealing with industrial air pollution,water pollution, noise control and contaminatedland. Environmental monitoring, consultancy,odour control and pollution prevention are alsokey areas of potential. The Unit is compiling adatabase of Irish environmental equipment andservice companies, to provide potential cus-tomers with a comprehensive register of Irishsupply capability. It has also produced anEnvironmental Technologies Directory35, whichdetails the wide range of Irish environmentalexpertise. Both of these initiatives promoteIreland's capability to provide environmentaltechnologies and services to international cus-

tomers. While a number of Irish companies arealready successfully involved in the industry,there is considerable scope for more business tobe won.

The Department of Enterprise and Employmentand its agencies will support and encourage thedevelopment and export of Irish eco-industry,with a view to reaching a defined level of eco-industrial activity by the year 2005. This willinvolve identification and development ofgoods/services and export markets and provi-sion of R&D support. Joint working arrange-ments have already been established betweenForfás, Forbairt and An Bord Tráchtála to prepareJoint Development Strategies and consistentoperational arrangements between the agenciesin relation to sectors with good growth potential.The Marine Institute is preparing an RTD plan forthe marine technology sector which will identifyopportunities in the area of marine environ-mental monitoring and protection systems.

Joint Oireachtas CommitteeAs mentioned in Chapter 4, the report of theJoint Oireachtas Committee on SustainableDevelopment, published in March 1997, high-lights market opportunities for Irish industry inrelation to global demands for environmentalgoods, technologies and services. Many of theCommittee's recommendations outline practicalmeans to assist Irish industry to exploit worldmarket opportunities. The report is a good basisupon which development authorities can devisemore specific measures in the areas identified.The Committee's recommendations also focususefully on areas in which better integrationbetween environmental and economic policyand implementation, improved coordination

"Sustainable Development policies will, in the case of

Ireland, lead to sustainable competitive advantage in

industries such as food production, and tourism where a

green image can enhance job creation".

- Joint Oireachtas Committee on SustainableDevelopment36

between State Departments and Agencies, andgreater consultation and partnership in settingand achieving objectives, can support and con-tribute to industry's efforts. For example, theCommittee recommends, in relation to eco-industry:• better cooperation, coordination and appro-

priate links between agencies, such as Forbairtand An Bord Tráchtála, which are involved inindustrial and trade development and promotion;

• the development of a cross-agency strategicplan with clear-cut targets for job creation andsales in the Environment Protection Industryand the Green Consumer Market; and

• greater integration and coordination betweenDepartments involved in environmental regu-lation and economic development policies.

Many of the Committee's recommendations arein line with the general thrust of this Strategy.Further consideration will be given to theCommittee's report in operationalising theStrategy.

A Task Force on Enterprise and theEnvironment, established by the Minister forEnterprise and Employment in April 1996, hasalso examined market opportunities for Irishfirms arising from both greater environmentalconsciousness among consumers and environ-mental conservation measures. The Task Force,reporting in 1997, has also considered the oblig-ations and challenges facing Irish businessresulting from environmental policies already inplace and those likely to evolve in the future, andthe actions which should be taken by both busi-ness and Government to respond to these chal-lenges and to seize the economic opportunitiesthey present. Its report provides additionaldirection and guidance for enterprise inaddressing the challenges and opportunities ofenvironmental integration.

Environmental Research

The Science, Technology and InnovationAdvisory Council (STIAC), which reported tothe Minister for Commerce, Science andTechnology in January 1995, recognised the eco-nomic importance of natural resource-based sec-tors and the need for strong, coordinated R&Dpolicies to underpin their sustainable develop-ment. The Government's Task Force38 on theimplementation of STIAC recommendationsnoted the work of the EPA towards the develop-ment of national environmental R&D priorities,and the developing work of the Joint OireachtasCommittee on Sustainable Development. Giventhe existing role of the EPA in relation to the co-ordination of environmental research, theDepartment of the Environment intends that theAgency should lead the definition of R&D prior-ities relating to the environmentally-sustainableuse of natural resources, in consultation with therelevant sectors and agencies, including theMarine Institute which has statutory responsibil-ities in the establishment of priorities for marineenvironmental research.

The 1996 White Paper on Science, Technology andInnovation called for science and technology(S&T) initiatives to realise the full economic ben-efits and potential of Ireland's natural resources.The Government has endorsed this recommen-dation and has created new structures to coordi-nate and prioritise S&T expenditure. Theseinclude:

• maintaining the Cabinet Committee onScience, Technology and Innovation;

• establishing an Interdepartmental Committee,comprising S&T-spending Departments andchaired by the Minister for Commerce, Science

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"State R&D programmes in support of enterprises ... must pay spe-cific attention to the use of best practice, clean technologies in alltheir developmental projects, and should also maintain awareness ofcleaner processes developed abroad which are potentially applicablein Ireland."

- Science Technology and Innovation Advisory Council37

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and Technology, to assess actual and proposedspending in the S&T area; and

• establishing an STI Advisory Council (as asub-committee of Forfás) to provideGovernment with expert independent adviceon S&T matters, and encourage greater aware-ness and debate on S&T.

Measures which will be taken in association withthese new structures include:

• developing an integrated procedure for theprioritisation of S&T spending, as part of theannual Estimates and Budgetary cycle;

• reviewing and evaluating existing measures insuch sectors as agriculture, food, marine andforestry to ensure greater coordination betweenDepartments and agencies involved in this field;and

• coordinating, through Forbairt, a major effort,to develop, in both sustainable product andtechnological terms, firms in natural resource-based sectors.

In finalising its environmental research pro-gramme and priorities on the basis of responseto the discussion document published in 199539,the EPA will be asked to maintain and build onits existing emphasis on environmentally-sus-tainable resource management, with due regardto the existing and potential role of naturalresources in the national economy.

Extractive Industries

ExplorationThe techniques used in mineral explorationinclude soil and water sampling, airomagneticsurveys, geochemical surveys, rock samplingand drilling of boreholes or trenching activities.

While these are generally non-invasive, withlittle or no effect upon the environment, the factthat exploration is designed specifically to pro-vide the information necessary to proceed toextraction or mining means that the long-termimplications must be taken into account.Ground disturbance or excavation during theexploration phase is a rarity in general explo-ration, and is strictly controlled by theDepartment of Transport, Energy andCommunications.

MiningMineral extraction is an activity which can neverbe reversed. It involves the depletion of a non-renewable resource and causes permanentchanges to the earth. The issue from a sustain-ability viewpoint is whether or not the human-made wealth created from minerals, for existingand future generations, justifies the consumptionof these finite resources and the environmentaldisruption involved. The greater the effort madeto minimise the adverse effect on the environ-ment, while preparing for, and both during andafter, the mineral extraction, the more sustainableminerals development projects may be.

The environmental impacts of mining mayinclude:• ground and surface water pollution;• air emissions;• noise and vibration;• visual impact (including landscape damage or

alteration due to pits and waste rock);• land subsidence;• traffic;• effects on elements of archaeological heritage;• loss of habitat;• loss of water supplies; and• generation and disposal of large volumes of

waste.

Most, if not all, of these impacts can be min-imised by careful planning and monitoring, andenforcement of well-defined regulations. Inaddition, pollution prevention approaches cansubstantially reduce or nullify the volume and

"Mining and quarrying can seriously alter the composition of a landscape, dis-rupting landuse and drainage patterns and removing habitats for wildlife."

- European Environment Agency40

concentration of contaminants released into theenvironment. The integration of a strong envi-ronmental management approach into miningpolicy is critical to achieve this objective.

The Guidelines for Good Environmental Practice inMineral Exploration41, issued by the Departmentof Transport, Energy and Communications inSeptember 1995, seek to integrate the best envi-ronmental approach into all phases of the explo-ration process - from the initial planning stage tooperational issues related to prospecting, such asdrilling, excavation, surveying techniques, andsurface and groundwater protection. TheGuidelines also emphasise the need to protectland and habitats from damage and to restorethem fully where damage has occurred.

Environmentally sustainable mineral extractioninvolves a proactive corporate commitment fromdevelopers to extracting minerals in an environ-mentally-sustainable manner. The Green 2000Advisory Group recognised that, with a clearcorporate commitment to environmental protec-tion, mining could be undertaken in an environ-mentally-sensitive manner. Developers shouldbe committed to involving local communities inthe project from the early planning stage rightthrough to aftercare. It must be recognised thatthere are some circumstances and places wheremining may not be permitted or only allowed tooperate under restrictive conditions; thesewould include Natural Heritage Areas and areasof cultural and historical significance. It is alsofundamentally important that full rehabilitationof the land and proper aftercare arrangementsshould follow decommissioning of all mines.The site should be restored to as close to its orig-inal appearance as is feasible. The NationalMinerals Policy Review Group, in its 1995report42, paid specific attention to the poor envi-ronmental image which mining has had inIreland, and made a series of recommendationstowards addressing the negative environmentaleffects of mining development.

IPC licensing of new activities in relation to min-erals commenced in May 1994, and will beextended to established activities by 1999. Newmining activity is therefore now subject todetailed planning and environmental controls.Under new provisions in the Waste ManagementAct, 1996, the EPA is also empowered to requirethat financial arrangements, including bonding,be made to ensure that financial liabilities associ-ated with licensed activities are discharged. Thiswill ensure proper provision for mining restora-tion and aftercare arrangements. In addition,special targeted tax relief was introduced in 1996to address the problem of rehabilitation of minesafter operations cease.

The Department of the Environment intends tokeep under review the development controlsystem, and other legislation impacting onmines, to ensure high environmental standards.

QuarryingQuarrying for stone, gravel, sand, crushed rock,etc., is also based on an ultimately finiteresource. Its products are used mainly in theconstruction industry, both as crushed rock andfor the production of cement; ground limestoneis also used in agriculture.

While the raw materials for the quarryingindustry are not in short supply, the environ-mental impacts, which are similar to those ofmining as outlined above, require greater con-sideration. In many cases, demand for aggre-gates for use by the construction industry couldbe adequately met by the recycling and reuse ofconstruction/demolition waste, which has beenestimated to amount to some 2.5 million tonnesannually.

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transporttransport

SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT

• helps to preserve the naturalenvironment by minimising emis-sions of pollutants, reducing andmanaging transport waste and bycareful land use planning toaddress the impact of transportinfrastructure

• reduces environmental impactsand contributes to economicprosperity and development bymaximising transport efficiency

• enhances social well-being by pro-viding access and mobility tourban and rural populations andby reducing health risks and noisenuisance

10

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National transport policy, reflected in theOperational Programme for Transport, 1994-99, (theTransport OP) already takes considerable accountof sustainability considerations. However, betterintegration is needed to address the growingenvironmental impacts of the transport sector.This Strategy sets out an agenda to "green" Irishtransport, centering on:• making transport more efficient;• reducing the environmental impact and the

intensity of transport; and• support for moves at EU and international

levels towards examination and implementa-tion of the internalisation of external costs intransport.

Specific actions and initiatives will be taken insupport of these objectives to establish a basis formore sustainable transport.

• Minimisation of potential growth in transportdemand will be incorporated as a leading con-sideration in land use planning.

• Government policy and investment for roadtransport will support necessary economicgrowth. To this end, the roads programmewill continue to target bottlenecks which rep-resent inefficiencies in the infrastructuralsystem.

• Increased efforts will be made to manage theexisting road network more efficiently.

• Government policy will continue to supportand improve public transport systems andinfrastructure with a view to increasing theirmarket share. Efficient, cost-effective and cus-tomer focused development of the rail net-work will be supported for its economic,social, environmental and regional develop-ment benefits.

• The agencies concerned, led by theDepartment of the Environment and theDepartment of Transport, Energy andCommunications, will work together to pro-

vide more sustainable and environmentally-acceptable alternatives to private car trans-port, including better facilities for non-motorised transport and, where feasible,improved public mass transport modes.

• Implementation of the Dublin TransportationInitiative will be intensified.

• Noise controls will be developed under theroads (or other) legislation to limit permissiblenoise from road transport.

• Opportunities for non-motorised transportwill be improved. This will include increasedprovision of cycle lanes and safer facilities forpedestrians.

• The Department of the Environment andappropriate agencies, such as the DublinTransportation Office, will actively encouragegreater public awareness of the unsustainableaspects of increasing use of vehicle transport.

• The Government will commission research toestimate more accurately the environmentalexternalities of road transport, and will makethe results available both for public informa-tion and to the National Roads Authority(NRA) and local authorities. The NRA will beasked to amend various planning parametersto take greater account of these externalitiesand the cost benefits and viability of proposedmajor roads schemes will be assessed accord-ingly.

• The Government will support policy develop-ment at EU level and participate in measurestowards internalising the external costs associ-ated with transport.

• Ireland will strongly support the completion ofEU proposals to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2)emissions from motor vehicles and/or providegreater incentives for the use of fuel efficientvehicles. Pending full establishment of mea-sures to reduce CO2 emissions from motor

An action programme towardssustainable transport

vehicles, Irish vehicle tax provisions will bealigned more closely with this objective.

• Where allowable under EU law, considerationwill be given to the application of tax incen-tives to encourage the placing of more efficientand less polluting vehicles on the marketahead of relevant EU deadlines.

• The scrappage scheme introduced in the 1995Budget, which encourages the replacement ofolder cars with new, more efficient models, isbeing maintained for 1997 as a financial incen-tive to improve the age profile and efficiencystandard of the vehicle fleet. Its effects will bemonitored to ensure that it continues to meetthis objective without creating other environ-mental problems, particularly in relation todisposal of vehicle waste. The Minister for theEnvironment is pursuing with the motorindustry the development of more systematicvoluntary arrangements for recycling vehiclematerials.

• Ireland will support the EU Auto Oil pro-gramme as an appropriate means ofaddressing many of the environmental issuesarising from transport emissions.

• Ireland will support the continued develop-ment at EU level of strict emission controlstandards for motor vehicles. In particular,Ireland will support a significant tightening ofbenzene and other limits in the context of theAuto Oil programme.

• The use of leaded petrol will be phased out bythe year 2000.

• Vehicle testing will be extended to apply toprivate cars over four years old with effectfrom 1 January, 1998. Particular emphasis willbe placed on adequate emission controls toreduce pollutants.

.

• Air transport is an increasing source of pollutingemissions (particularly CO2 and nitrogenoxides). Ireland is supporting the initiation ofaction by the EU to address this problem in awider international context, and with dueregard to effects on national competitiveness.

Introduction/OverviewTransport plays a central role in the Irisheconomy. National transport policy aims at:• improving the internal and access transport

network;• meeting social and economic needs for the

mobility of people and goods;• offsetting the effects of Ireland's geographical

peripherality; and• facilitating successful participation in the EU

internal market.

As an island nation, sea and air routes are vitallyimportant to the Irish economy, providing accessto and from Irish and world markets for bothgoods and passengers. Transport by sea is thedominant mode where freight trade is con-cerned, with over three-quarters of trade byvolume passing through Irish ports. Air trans-port, on the other hand, accounts for 65% of allpassenger traffic in and out of Ireland.1

Internal transport in Ireland is predominantlyroad based; 96% of passenger traffic and 89% offreight traffic is carried on the roads system.Virtually all of the remainder is carried by rail,which plays a useful part in the transport of bulkand other freight.2

In large urban areas, traffic congestion hasbecome a serious problem, leading to increasedair pollution, noise and a perceived diminutionof the quality of urban living. Congestion alsocauses delays for commercial traffic, leading toeconomic and competitive disadvantages. Theoverall volume of traffic makes the roads lesssafe for pedestrians, particularly children, andfor cyclists. Yet it is in the urban areas that thereis the greatest potential to provide alternatives to

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the use of private motor vehicles, such as saferfacilities for cyclists and pedestrians, and masspublic transport modes (buses, trams, suburbanrail services).

Fig 10.1 Sustainability Issues in Irish Transport

Increasing volumes of road traffic• over 1.2 million vehicles were licensed at the

end of 1995• the number of private cars licensed increased

by nearly 5.5% during 1995 to over 990,000• vehicle kilometres travelled per capita

increased by 47% between 1986 and 1995• traffic congestion in urban areas is

increasingly a problem

Emissions to air• transport contributes over 17% of national

CO2 emissions; three-quarters of this comesfrom road traffic. Levels of these emissionsare increasing, and are not amenable to con-trol by end-of-pipe measures

• transport is now the largest source of emis-sions of NOx, with vehicles contributing over41% of national emissions

• levels of lead have been reduced as a resultof the increased use of unleaded petrol

Land use• demand for transport infrastructure (roads,

rail, harbours, airports) encroaches on land-scape, habitats, biodiversity and other uses

Energy consumption• the transport sector accounts for the

largest share of energy consumption - 31% ofthe total

In rural Ireland, the level of population dispersalposes particular problems for sustainable trans-port. Almost 40% of Irish households live inrural areas (defined as being outside settlementsof fifty dwellings or more). A dispersed rural

population increases dependence on road trans-port in general, and on private motor vehicles inparticular. This high degree of dependencyplaces some limitation on the scope for move-ment to more environmentally-friendly alterna-tives, such as mass public transport.Nonetheless, where economically and environ-mentally practicable, environmentally-friendlyalternatives (e.g. rail) should be maintained andsupported.

Sustainable transport involves minimisingadverse environmental and social effects oftransport, while maintaining opportunities formobility. Measures to achieve this fall into twomain categories, technological and operational.Technological improvements to vehicles andfuels can help to minimise emissions whichharm public health and the environment.Operational measures such as traffic manage-ment and increased provision of public transportcan reduce dependence on private vehicles, ascan better facilities for non-motorised transport(e.g. provision for cyclists and pedestrians).Sustainable transport also calls for strategieswhich reduce total transport demand and trans-port demand growth, especially in private carmovements, and which promote greater effi-ciency in transport arrangements generally.

All of these issues are currently being addressedin a variety of international fora. At EU level, theWhite Paper on the future development of theCommon Transport Policy3 (1992), the CommonTransport Policy Action Programme, 1995-20004

(1995) and subsequent Green Papers, TowardsFair and Efficient Pricing in Transport5 (1995), andthe Citizens Network6 (1996), all address thetheme of sustainable mobility. The EU is nowaiming at transport policies which will optimisethe economic functioning of the sector whilerespecting and preserving the environment, nowand in the future. In doing so, it recognises thattransport is a key (and probably the most diffi-cult) sector to be addressed from the point ofview of sustainability.

The challenge for sustainable transport is toencourage patterns of economic growth whichcan be achieved with maximum transport effi-ciency and the least possible environmentalimpact, so that economic growth does not gen-erate unlimited growth in demand for transport,with adverse environmental effects.

Transport Interactions with theEnvironmentTransport has extensive impacts on the environ-ment. The use of land for transport infrastruc-ture, whether road or rail networks, port or air-port facilities, encroaches on landscape, naturalhabitats and biodiversity, and agricultural use.Motor vehicle traffic emits pollutants whichaffect air quality and human health, and givesrise to excessive noise, which affects the qualityof life. Polluted surface water run-off from roadsurfaces may affect water resources. Traffic con-gestion, particularly in the urban environment,similarly affects human health, while the resul-tant delays are economically disadvantageous.Large volumes of traffic, especially whenmoving at speed, are hazardous to the safety ofpeople (and also of wildlife). The human andsocial cost of road accidents, including the cost ofhospital treatment, is high. Transport is also asubstantial creator of waste products.

Growth in transportIncreased transport demand is both a functionand a consequence of economic growth. Certaineconomic factors strongly encourage the growthin transport demand. These include:• the dispersal of industrial activities away from

traditional urban locations;• changing production and stock-control

methods requiring more frequent shipment ofsmaller quantities of goods;

• the growth of the service sector involvingmulti-site businesses, and of the tourismsector; and

• increased business/professional mobility.

Consumer and social factors, related for exampleto the demand for year-round availability of sea-sonal foods and of material goods and products,as well as individual lifestyle and mobility, alsoinfluence transport growth.

Since the 1960s, transport growth in Ireland hasbeen concentrated on the roads. Economicgrowth, rising disposable incomes, and anincreased emphasis on personal mobility haveall contributed to increasing traffic on Irishroads. Over the period 1977 to 1995, thisincrease averaged an estimated 3.7% per year.7

The average figure includes both the earlier1980s, when a combination of economic reces-sion and changes in motor taxation caused aslowing down of growth, and the periodbetween 1988 and 1992, when growth averaged5% per annum. Continued buoyant growth (7%in 1994 and 7.2% in 1995) may mean that the cur-rently used projection of around 3% per annumgrowth in road traffic for the foreseeable futureon a "business as usual" scenario is understated;the Dublin Transportation Office indicate thattraffic flows earlier predicted for the year 2001have already been reached.8 Accelerating growthwould exacerbate transport pressure on the envi-ronment, and make more urgent the need to takeprecautionary environmental measures.

Growth in traffic volume is also reflected invehicle kilometres of road travel. Measured percapita, this increased from some 5,990 km in 1986to over 8,800 km in 1995, an increase of 47%.

The total number of licensed vehicles on 31December, 1995, was over 1.262 million, anincrease of 60,000 since 1993. This figureincludes over 990,000 private cars, an increase ofmore than 51,000 over the 1994 figure. Theextent of this growth over the past 20 years, par-ticularly in relation to private cars and goodsvehicles, is shown in Fig 10.2. Ireland's level ofcar ownership remains low compared to otherEU Member States. However, Irish car owner-ship in 1995 was some 27 cars per 100 people,reflecting increases of over 5.3% during 1994 and

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nearly 5.5% in 1995. While still below car own-ership of nearly 43 cars per 100 people for the EUas a whole, the Irish figure has increased from 22cars per 100 people in 1989.10 The combination ofincreasing disposable income and the age profileof the population suggest that there will be acontinued and significant growth in the numberof private motor vehicles.

Freight trafficFreight traffic is concentrated on the roads, andthe growth (see Fig 10.3) in heavy goods vehicles,i.e. those over 8 tonnes, is notable. However,there is no real alternative to road transport forthe vast bulk of goods movements; for example,almost half of all road freight carried in 1992involved journeys of less than 15 miles.

The age of goods vehicles is also a factor, partic-ularly, in relation to the introduction of new tech-nologies and the maintenance of high standards.Figures for the year ended 31 December, 1995,show that 66% of all goods vehicles were fouryears old and over, while 45% were six years oldand over.11 Positive developments in relation tonew technologies and standards include thosearising from Euro class I engines (mandatorysince 1994) and Euro class II engines (mandatorysince 1996).

Mandatory roadworthiness testing is in force forcommercial vehicles. In 1995, 38.1% of goodsvehicles (which represented 77% of vehiclestested) passed without having to remedydefects. A further 44.6% had to rectify defects inorder to obtain a pass.12 These defects, however,were primarily safety-related rather than envi-ronment-related. Ireland favours a greater linkbetween vehicle testing and environmental per-formance, particularly in relation to emissions toair. This matter is being pursued at EU level.

As regards efficiency of road haulage, significantprogress has been made in recent years throughthe liberalisation of road haulage markets in theEuropean Union, involving the removal ofrestrictive and protectionist practices. Cabotageis due to be fully liberalised on 1 July, 1998.

Energy consumptionAs a consequence of transport growth, final con-sumption of energy by transport increased by34% between 1980 and 1993.13 Transport nowaccounts for a greater share of energy consump-tion than any other sector. Specifically, the sectoraccounted for 31% of total energy consumptionin 1993 compared to 22% for industry, 28% forthe residential sector, 15% for the commercialsector and 4% for agriculture (see Fig 8.2).

Fig 10.2 Mechanically Propelled Vehicles (by Taxation Class), 1975-1995

Year Private Goods Agricultural Motor Others TotalCars Vehicles Tractors etc. Cycles

1975 510,651 52,367 65,166 36,711 16,256 681,151

1980 734,371 65,052 69,118 28,488 14,002 911,031

1985 709,546 93,369 68,552 26,025 17,266 914,758

1990 796,408 143,166 72,814 22,744 19,127 1,054,259

1995 990,384 141,785 77,925 23,452 28,957 1,262,503

Source: Department of the Environment9

Roads infrastructureWith a high proportion of internal transportdependent on the roads network, significantinvestment has been made and continues to bemade in improving road infrastructure. This isparticularly important from an economic pointof view, to overcome competitive disadvantagescaused by delays, congestion, etc. Addressingtransport deficiencies and costs is of criticalimportance to meeting the objectives ofGovernment policy regarding the growth andequitable distribution of income, facilitated byincreased opportunity and mobility for eco-nomic development.

It is equally important to the economy andsociety as a whole that this process does not dis-regard external costs, which are considerable.OECD and EU estimates suggest that theexternal costs of land transport (e.g. congestion,noise, air pollution and accidents) can be up to5% of GDP - a significant cost to the overalleconomy. The EU Green Paper Towards Fair andEfficient Pricing in Transport sets out options to beexplored at EU level on how to achieve a properinternalisation of these costs so as to make trans-port more efficient, fair and transparent.

Current roads policy in Ireland aims at anoverall balance. It focuses on key economic cor-ridors, supports an adequate dispersal of eco-nomic development and seeks to bypass con-gested towns and villages. It concentrates on:• upgrading and realigning existing roads,

rather than building unnecessary new roads;• bypasses to relieve congestion; and• minimising the construction of new roads and

motorways.This policy reduces the impact of new roaddevelopments, and focuses resources on max-imising the safety and efficiency of the existingnetwork.

The Government will maintain this approach,with increased emphasis on the sustainability ofconstruction, materials and use factors. Theobjective is to reduce and eliminate inefficienciesin road transport from every source; forexample, the roads programme will continue totarget bottlenecks which represent inefficienciesin the infrastructural system. Greater attentionwill also be paid to reducing the adverse impactsof roads infrastructure (and road traffic) onwildlife and biodiversity (e.g. by providingappropriate tunnels or other crossing points foranimals), and on the archaeological heritage.

Rail transportThere has also been some growth in rail trans-port, as shown in Fig 10.4, although in absoluteterms this is modest in comparison with roadtraffic.

Fig 10.4 Passenger/Freight Transport by Rail, 1970-1995

1970 1980 1990 1995

Passenger Km (000s) 582 1,032 1,226 1,291

Tonne Km (000s) 529 624 589 603

Source: Department of Transport,Energy & Communications/CSO15

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Fig 10.3 Heavy Goods Vehicles Registered, 1960-1993

Year Number

1960 195

1970 1,078

1975 3,093

1980 6,651

1985 7,073

1990 9,449

1995 12,116

Source: Department of the Environment14

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Current annual rail passenger numbers are in theregion of 27 million. Much of this growth can beattributed to the suburban rail services, pri-marily in the Greater Dublin area, which providean important alternative to the private car forcommuters. Passenger use of suburban rail ser-vices has more than doubled over the pasttwenty years. A significant contribution to thisincrease has been made by the DART line inDublin which has been particularly successful inattracting commuters in its catchment since itslaunch in 1984. Other commuter services,including those between Dublin and Kildare,Maynooth, Dundalk and Arklow have furtherenhanced the public transport option in theGreater Dublin area. However, there is stillscope for further improvement, such as theextension of the DART to Greystones, Co.Wicklow, announced in 1995. The developmentof a light rail system in Dublin by 1999 is alsointended to provide an attractive alternative tomotor car use, and, when completed, help torelieve congestion in the city centre.

Investment under the Transport OP recognisesthe environmental importance of rail as a viablealternative to road transport. Funding forimprovements in rolling stock, signalling andtrack network will have positive environmentaleffects, further encouraging commuters toswitch from road to rail. Government policy willcontinue to support and improve public trans-port systems and infrastructure with a view toincreasing their market share. Efficient, cost-effective and customer focused development ofthe rail network will be supported for its eco-nomic, social, environmental and regional devel-opment benefits.

Planning/Land useTransport policy and planning and land usepolicy are fundamentally linked. The emphasisin national policy on the improvement of theexisting road network, rather than the buildingof new roads, reduces the impact of new works.

However, physical planning and developmentpatterns (including the expansion of outer sub-urban areas) addressed in Chapters 14 and 15,the national spread of economic activity, and thedispersed settlement patterns in much of thecountry, have a significant effect on the demandfor transport infrastructure.

The pattern and density of urban developmenthas a major influence on travel patterns. ManyEuropean cities are now pursuing the option ofincreasing urban densities around points of highaccessibility, particularly points of high accessi-bility to public transport. This approach seeks toachieve the right activity or mix of activities in theright place by, for example, guiding businesseswith large work forces or large numbers of visi-tors to locations with high accessibility to publictransport and at the same time reserving locationsadjacent to motorway junctions for businesseswith a high dependence on road freight.

Encouraging high movement activities to locate inareas of maximum accessibility to public transportcan help to reduce growth in transport demand.This requires a high degree of coordination atregional level and is a strategic issue to be consid-ered in longer term planning. As a general prin-ciple, minimisation of potential growth in trans-port demand will be incorporated as a leadingconsideration in land use planning.

Air Pollution from Transport

Transport is a major contributor to air pollution.Its emissions are a serious concern, both nation-ally and internationally, because of their impacton the environment and on human health. Thediversity and dispersion of transport make itsemissions more difficult to address than thosefrom stationary sources.

"Road traffic has become potentially the greatest sourceof air pollution generally."

- Environmental Protection Agency16

The major air pollutants arising from the use ofmotor vehicles fall into two main categories:• those which have global effects, in particular

carbon dioxide (CO2); and• the so-called conventional emissions whose

effects are primarily local and regional,including nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbonmonoxide (CO), Volatile Organic Compounds(VOC), sulphur, lead and particulate matter(PM).

Individually, these emissions have unwantedeffects:• CO2 is a major greenhouse gas implicated in

global warming;• sulphur and NOx contribute to acidification

and eutrophication; and• CO, lead and PM threaten human health.

The combined impact of these pollutants canalso be considerable. For example, NOx andVOC combine to form low-level ozone, whichdamages both human and crop health. Suchinteractions make it more difficult to address theproblem of emissions, as strategies directed atindividual pollutants may not be fully effective.An EU framework Directive on ambient airquality has now been adopted.17 This will be fol-lowed by subsidiary Directives which willspecify air quality standards for a number of pol-lutants including NOx, CO and troposphericozone. Ireland will support, and will seek tocomply with, the new standards which areexpected to be in line with WHO Guidelines andwill extend the range of pollutants covered.

With no indigenous car manufacturing industry,Ireland does not control most of the technicalmeans of reducing emissions from motor vehi-cles. Agreed action at international level isneeded to change the types of cars and enginesproduced for sale. However, measures can betaken to reduce emissions to minimum achiev-able levels, for example, by fixing aggregatelimits for different vehicle-related emissions.

Ireland will support the continued developmentat EU level of strict emission control standards.Specific domestic action can be taken in the areaof vehicle testing, and in measures whichencourage the introduction of new models toreplace older, more polluting vehicles. TheGovernment will consider, where allowable, theapplication of tax incentives to eligible best-tech-nology vehicles which are placed on the marketahead of the relevant EU deadlines.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a global problemThe effects of CO2 in relation to global warmingand climate change are addressed in Chapter 8.Ireland's National Climate Change/CO2 AbatementStrategy (1993) recognised the extent of the trans-port sector's contribution to the problem ofglobal warming. Some 17% of Ireland's energy-related CO2 emissions arise from transport, withroad transport responsible for over three-quar-ters of this.18 CO2 emissions from transport areprojected to increase by more than a thirdbetween 1990 and the year 2000; in addition, theproportion of total CO2 emissions which arisefrom this sector is expected to increase up to andbeyond this date.19

Fig 10.5 CO2 Emissions from Transport, 1990 (% of total CO2 emissions)

kT %Austria 16 28Belgium 23 21Denmark 14 26Finland 13 25France 126 34Germany 173 18Greece 18 25Ireland 6 20Italy 100 25Luxembourg 3 24Netherlands 31 20Portugal 11 28Spain 67 32Sweden 21 43United Kingdom 137 24EU Total 758 24

Source: European Commission20

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CO2 emissions from transport are not amenableto control by technologies, such as three-way cat-alytic converters and fuel standards, which areeffective in relation to other emissions. Demandrestraint and greater fuel efficiency of vehiclesare the accepted strategies required to limittransport related CO2 emissions. Ireland willstrongly encourage EU proposals to reduce CO2

emissions from motor vehicles and incentivisefuel efficient vehicles.

Demand restraint is a more difficult proposition.Many countries have found that the demands ofmodern society for a high level of mobilitymeans that even strong public/consumer aware-ness of the environmental and health problemscaused by transport does not lead to a reductionin personal use of motorised transport.Nonetheless, the Department of theEnvironment will actively encourage greaterpublic awareness of the unsustainable aspects ofincreasing use of transport, and will work withthe Department of Transport, Energy andCommunications to provide more sustainableand environmentally-acceptable alternatives.These will include better facilities for non-motorised transport and, where feasible,improved public mass transport modes.

The growing use of information technology ser-vices, including teleworking, teleshopping andother computerised facilities, will also help toreduce the need for transport in certain circum-stances. The Government will encourage andsupport the use of these services so as to limittravelling requirements of business/industry.

Non CO2 emissionsNon CO2 emissions are more amenable to control.Vehicle emissions controls, primarily set at EUlevel, go some way towards reducing and miti-gating the effects of these pollutants. Standardsare already in force for emissions of carbonmonoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. Atpresent, these standards apply only to individualnew road vehicles. All new petrol-engined vehi-cles, diesel-engined passenger cars and most light

commercial vehicles, as well as heavy duty pas-senger and commercial vehicles with dieselengines, are covered by current standards.

Further proposals are being considered at EUlevel, including a proposal for a motor vehiclesemissions Directive, which will strengthenexisting controls on vehicle emissions. In addi-tion to supporting the EU-led movementtowards stricter vehicle emissions standards,there may ultimately be a need to adopt aggre-gate limit targets for different emissions fromvehicles (such as those which operate in theenergy sector) so as to set some limiting envi-ronmental parameters for air pollution fromtransport.

Nitrogen oxidesNitrogen oxides (NOx) are a major problem inrelation to air quality. Transport is now thelargest source of these emissions, with vehiclesaccounting for over 41% of national emissions ofNOx.21 The other major source is power genera-tion, but in that sector the upward trend in NOx

emissions is being addressed by the retro-fittingof NOx controls at one of the larger power sta-tions; similar controls are planned for a secondstation. NOx emissions from transport, on theother hand, continue to increase. This is becausethe growth in transport counterbalances techno-logical improvements in vehicle standards (e.g.catalytic converters) which would otherwisehave the effect of reducing emissions. The EPA22

estimates that vehicle emissions will continue toincrease over the next five years before correc-tive measures, such as the compulsory fitting ofcatalytic converters to new cars, can bring aboutsignificant improvements.

Given that catalytic converters only became com-pulsory in new vehicles in 1993, the age profile ofcars in use on Irish roads is important. At the endof 1995, 54% of private cars registered in Irelandwere six years old and over, with 71% four yearsold and over.23 Even when a significant propor-tion of the vehicle fleet is fitted with catalytic con-verters, it will still be necessary to ensure that

vehicles are properly maintained so as to min-imise emissions of NOx and other pollutants.

Fig 10.6 NOx Emissions from Road Transport in the EU, 1990 (% of total NOx

emissions)

kT %

Belgium 189 55

Denmark 120 45

France 1,089 69

Germany 1,184 39

Greece 139 27

Ireland 47 41

Italy 1,006 49

Luxembourg 10 42

Netherlands 169 47

Portugal 117 53

Spain 499 40

United Kingdom 1,083 38

EU Total 5,752 45

Source: European Commission, DG XI24

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)These include the aromatics, such as benzene,which are added to high-octane unleaded petrol.As well as being implicated in photochemicalozone pollution, benzene is a known carcinogen.The benzene content of petrol is already limitedby Regulations, which transpose EU Directives,and is strictly enforced. As a further measure todiscourage the use of high-octane unleadedpetrol containing benzene, which is only requiredfor high-performance cars, the 1996 Budget25

included a proposal towards eliminating theexcise differential on high-octane unleadedpetrol, thus making it the same price as leadedpetrol. This is intended to encourage motorists touse the cheaper, lower octane unleaded petrol,which can be used safely and without affectingperformance in the majority of vehicles.

Ireland will support a significant tightening ofbenzene and other limits in the context of the EUAuto Oil programme.

Fig 10.7 VOC Emissions from Road Transport in the EU, 1990 (% of total VOC emissions)

kT %

Belgium 129 35

Denmark 82 50

France 978 41

Germany 743 25

Greece 131 40

Ireland 42 23

Italy 866 36

Luxembourg 7 38

Netherlands 185 41

Portugal 60 29

Spain 469 42

United Kingdom 1,056 40

EU Total 4,747 36

Source: European Commission, DG XI26

LeadLead emissions from petrol combustion, aknown health risk, can be a particular problemin urban areas where high concentrations mayarise due to significant traffic flows, slow-moving traffic and congestion. Major reductionsin lead emissions have been achieved since themid-1980s through a combination of a progres-sive reduction in the lead content of leadedpetrol and the significant expansion of the use ofunleaded petrol (see Fig 10.8), which nowaccounts for some two-thirds of the petrolmarket. However, as over 71% of motor vehiclesregistered in Ireland run on petrol27, there is stillconsiderable scope to reduce emissions furtherby expanding the use of unleaded petrol.

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Fig 10.8 Percentage Sales of Unleaded Petrol in Ireland since 1989

Year %

1989 7.0

1990 19.4

1991 25.9

1992 32.3

1993 39.6

1994 49.0

1995 56.5

1996 64.7

Source: Department of the Environment28

Particulate matterWhile national standards are enforced in relation toemissions of black smoke, the data gathered do notdistinguish the proportion of fine particulatematter in the smoke. PM10 (particulate mattermeasuring less than 10 microns in diameteremitted from engines) has been the cause of partic-ular concern following studies in the USA whichshowed a correlation between concentrations ofairborne particulate matter and human mortality.

Diesel-engined vehicles are generally more fuelefficient than those powered by petrol engines, andthus emit less CO2 over a given journey, despiteproducing more CO2 per gallon of fuel. However,diesel is not otherwise an environmentally-friendlyalternative to petrol. It has a higher sulphur con-tent than petrol, giving rise to increased emissionsof sulphur dioxide (SO2), and its emissions of fineparticulate matter are implicated in health prob-lems. The proportion of diesel-engined vehiclesregistered in Ireland was over 28% of all registeredvehicles in 1995, and has been increasing in recentyears, particularly in the private car sector.29

The problem of emissions from diesel, especiallyof particulate matter, is also being addressed inthe EU Auto Oil programme. Ireland supportsthe measures proposed to reduce SO2 and PM10

emissions, and will transpose them speedily intoIrish law. A research project to investigate levelsof PM10 in Dublin, being carried out under theEnvironmental Services OP will help to determine

whether additional national measures arerequired in relation to fine particulate matter.

Vehicle TestingIn-service vehicle testing is recognised as a costeffective approach to reducing road traffic emis-sions. Compulsory roadworthiness testing isalready in operation for heavy commercial vehi-cles over one year old (annual test) and lightgoods vehicles over four years old (biennial test).By 1 January 1998, private cars over four yearsold will also be subject to biennial testing.30 Theinclusion of a robust air pollution control ele-ment in this testing will ensure that vehicles aremaintained in a satisfactory condition to min-imise emissions. This should also encourage theremoval of older, more polluting vehicles fromthe fleet and their replacement by newer, techni-cally cleaner and more efficient models.

At EU level, the Auto Oil project31 is bringingforward proposals on fuel quality, vehicle tech-nology and emissions controls. These should beaccompanied by a range of non-technicaloptions (e.g. road pricing, traffic management,scrappage schemes), to achieve air quality stan-dards in major conurbations. Ireland will sup-port such integrated efforts to improve airquality and reduce the adverse impacts of trans-port.

Alternative FuelsThe EU White Paper on Energy32 (1995) recog-nises that fuel diversification in relation to trans-port to reduce total reliance on fossil fuels isessential for both environmental reasons andsecurity of supply. The Government will expandits support of research and development intoalternative fuels, such as biodiesel (already beingdeveloped by Teagasc), for use in motor cars, aswell as alternative power methods such as elec-tric vehicles. The extension of electric-poweredrail and light rail public transport systems in theDublin area is also being supported as part ofthis objective.

Urban TransportEnvironmental problems arising from transportcause particular difficulties when concentrated in

urban areas. High traffic levels in large cities giverise to significant congestion. Apart from causingdelays impacting on economic and social welfare,congestion creates noise and air pollution. Theseproblems are best addressed by strategies whichpromote traffic management, demand manage-ment and public transport options.

Traffic management systems, such as those pro-posed by the Dublin Transportation Initiative(DTI)33, are an option for both major urban centresand smaller towns. They include options such asenhanced traffic management and enforcementsystems, traffic calming measures in city centre andresidential areas, parking restrictions and facilities,coordinated traffic signals, and improved facilitiesfor cyclists and pedestrians. DTI proposals in thisregard are being implemented under the TransportOP, while similar measures are being undertakenin a number of other cities and towns throughoutthe country. The Government will intensify imple-mentation of DTI (which will, inter alia, increase theproportion of peak period journeys by publictransport in the City Centre area from 44% to 57%,and provide decongestion benefits of up to £1 bil-lion over a thirty year period).

In addition to traffic management, transportsolutions in urban areas require more intensivedemand management and the provision of alter-natives to private cars. These can include:• better planning and land use policy and

implementation;• increased provision for cyclists and pedes-

trians, in particular for short journeys; and• improved availability of more efficient public

transport.

Public Transport

Greater efficiencies, and environmental benefits,can be obtained by means of mass public transport.Studies at EU level have shown that collectivetransport is far more energy efficient than use ofprivate cars, which very often have only singleoccupancy. Public transport also has a major social

impact. People who cannot afford to run a car aredependent on public transport for any journeyover walking distance. Where such people live inareas with poor or no access to public transport,they are particularly disadvantaged.

Improvements are being made in the major urbanareas, particularly in Dublin, to reduce congestionby providing more and better public transportfacilities (rail, bus, and in future, light rail). Thereis scope for much greater improvement, not only inthe physical infrastructure, but in greater incentivesto the public to switch modes, better coordinationbetween different modes (e.g. ticketing practices,timetable co-ordination, route planning, etc.).

Transport WasteSustainable waste management requires thattransport wastes (including old vehicles, tyresand batteries), should be recycled, reused andalso requires suitable arrangements for final dis-posal. Ireland is participating in discussions atEU level on a proposal for a Directive on "end-of-life" vehicles, and will seek agreement on suitablearrangements to minimise the environmentaldamage which can be caused by these wastes.Industry, too, has a part to play in measures tothis end, and the voluntary agreement enteredinto by the motor industry in relation to the col-lection and safe disposal of spent automotive bat-teries is a welcome initiative in this connection.

In renewing the vehicle scrappage scheme for1997, the Government stated that it considers thatthe motor industry should reciprocate by initiatingmore systematic efforts for the recycling of vehiclematerials. The Minister for the Environment isundertaking discussions with the motor industryto arrange a voluntary agreement to this end.

Transport Noise

Transport is a major source of environmentalnoise, which is an important factor in determiningthe quality of life. In urban and suburban areas inparticular, road traffic is the most frequent causeof disturbance to residents. As a non-fixed source,however, it is not always identified among the

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"Transportation strategies should reduce the need formotor vehicles by favouring high-occupancy public trans-port, and providing safe bicycle and foot paths."

- Agenda for Change34

"[the growth of traffic volume during recent years] ... more than offsets any possible resultsof tightening noise limits from road vehicles through engine/exhaust noise controls."

- European Environment Agency35

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causes of complaints concerning noise pollution.Railway noise, although more limited in terms ofthe areas affected, can also be an environmentalproblem. Aircraft noise is dealt with below.

Where road vehicles are concerned, EU noiseemissions limits have been significantly reducedover the past two decades. In response, car man-ufacturers have reduced mechanical noise to thepoint where a significant proportion of trafficnoise is now due to tyres and road surfaces.Further measures to reduce noise from thesesources will be explored. In particular, noise con-trols under roads (or other) legislation will bedeveloped to limit permissible noise from roadtransport. However, unless growth in road trans-port can be limited by measures already outlined,traffic noise will continue to pose problems.

Insofar as railway noise is concerned, IarnródÉireann will continue its programme of noisereduction through new technology and othermeasures.

Air TransportAir transport is an increasing source of pollutingemissions (particularly carbon dioxide and nitrogenoxides). Ireland is supporting the initiation ofaction by the EU to have this problem addressedin the wider international context, and with dueregard to effects on national competitiveness.

Aircraft noise poses particular problems in theimmediate environment of airports. Ireland isalready implementing standards for noise certifi-cation and limitation which have been agreed ininternational fora such as the International CivilAviation Organisation, the EU and the EuropeanCivil Aviation Conference. In addition, develop-ment planning in the vicinity of airports is moni-tored and controlled to minimise the impact ofaircraft noise. Despite increases in traffic throughthe major Irish airports, the EPA reported in199636 that noise reductions have been achievedby a combination of improvements in aircrafttechnology and greater attention to operationalmatters including noise abatement proceduresand selection of take-off and landing routes/ori-entations to minimise the impact of noise.

Pricing and Cost InternalisationCost internalisation involves taking the externalcosts of transport (e.g. noise, pollution, conges-tion, health risks, etc.) into consideration whenpricing the elements of transport. Such internal-isation of costs gives a better signal to consumersof the real costs (financial and otherwise) of theirtransport practices, and can help to motivatechanges in attitudes and, more particularly,behaviour, which can benefit the environment.

The environmental externalities of road transporthave up to now been underestimated. TheDepartment of the Environment will commissionwork to identify more accurately the cost of theseexternalities. The results will be made available bothfor public information and to the NRA and localauthorities. The NRA will be asked to amend var-ious planning parameters to take greater accountof these externalities and the cost benefits and via-bility of proposed major roads schemes will beassessed accordingly. In line with the approach ofthe EU Green Paper, Towards Fair and Efficient Pricingin Transport, the Government will support policydevelopment at EU level and participate in mea-sures towards internalising the external costs asso-ciated with transport. This will assist in correctingthe current distortion whereby car ownership ismore highly taxed than car use, by focusing on inter-nalising the costs of car use. Such measures couldinclude road pricing (which may include roadtolls, parking charges or electronic road pricingtechnologies), circulation taxes, fuel taxes, etc.

Road user charging has the potential to providesignificant environmental benefits. These can helpto control growth in traffic and obviate the needfor heavy additional investment in expandingcapacity. The Dublin Transportation Office andthe NRA have initiated a study of road pricing inthe context of the M50 motorway. Assessment ofroad user charging options, in particular roadtolling, will have to take account of the diversionof traffic which might result, including the typesof traffic likely to be diverted, the probable impacton adjacent residential areas and the expectedadditional road construction/maintenance costsarising from the diversion.

tourismSUSTAINABLE TOURISM

• provides a high-quality productbased on, and in harmony with, ahigh-quality natural environment

• minimises adverse impacts on localcommunities, as well as on builtheritage, landscapes, habitats andspecies

• supports social and economicprosperity while protecting andenhancing the cultural and natural environments

11

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Sustainable tourism involves a positiveapproach to harmonising the interactionsbetween tourism, the physical environment andthe host communities. National tourism policy,as set out, for example, in Bord Fáilte's develop-ment plan for the period 1994-99, DevelopingSustainable Tourism, already provides good foun-dations for sustainability in this sector. Specificactions will be taken under this Strategy, addi-tional to or in association with current policies.These will be designed to ensure a full integra-tion of sustainable development principles in thesector and will involve the following actions.

• Tourism development will be taken intoaccount, as appropriate, by the Department ofthe Environment in the preparation of landuse policy guidelines for planning authorities,developers and the public.

• Planning authorities will make provision in theirdevelopment plans for sustainable tourism, andensure through the planning process that over-development does not take place.

• Bord Fáilte will consider the implementation of amanaged network of scenic landscapes by 1999.

• The Department of Tourism and Trade/BordFáilte will issue appropriate guidelines ongood environmental management to thetourist accommodation sector.

• The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will implement good environmentalmanagement, including energy conservation,in historic properties and other tourist attrac-tions under its care.

• The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will consider implementing collec-tive transport, such as operates in Glenveagh,in other National Parks.

• A national Coastal Zone Management strategystudy will be completed in 1997 and lead to anational policy for the sustainable use of thecoastal zone.

• The provisions of the Foreshore Acts in rela-tion to preventing and penalising damage tobeaches, sand dunes and seashore ecosystemswill continue to be fully implemented.

• The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will ensure that all river cruiserslicensed for hire are fitted with appropriatewaste water storage and pumping facilities.Local authorities and the Department willensure that the complementary shore pumpingfacilities are properly used and maintained.

• The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will develop appropriate manage-ment strategies to protect riverine archaeolog-ical monuments, which may be vulnerable todamage from cruising activities.

• Consideration will be given to the need forcontrols or restrictions on certain unsustain-able leisure activities; the Department of theEnvironment, in consultation with theDepartment of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht, the Department of Tourism andTrade and the Department of the Marine,where appropriate, will provide suitable guid-ance for local authorities.

• Bord Fáilte, the Department of Tourism andTrade and the Marine Institute, where appro-priate, will commission research on the "crit-ical loads" of tourist destinations, includingsensitive coastal or wilderness areas, to pro-vide a firm basis for the establishment of sus-tainable tourist numbers.

• CERT, in conjunction with the educationsector, will continue to provide suitabletraining emphasising the sustainable use ofresources and highlighting natural products.

• Bord Fáilte, the Department of Tourism andTrade and the Department of Arts, Culture andthe Gaeltacht will develop, and widely publi-cise, codes of conduct and practice to foster agreater awareness of the potential impact oftourist behaviour on sensitive areas and sites.

An action programme towardssustainable tourism

Introduction/Overview

Fig 11.1 Key issues in Irish Tourism

Management of increasing tourist numbers• overseas tourists - at almost 3.7 million -

exceeded the resident population of Irelandfor the first time in 1994

• numbers of overseas tourists increased from2.4 million in 1988 to 4.6 million in 1996;emphasis is now placed on growth in revenuerather than numbers

Concentration of tourists in certain areas• the main centres for tourist accommodation

(compared to resident population) arelocated on the west coast

• Connemara, the Burren, the Ring of Kerry,the Dingle Peninsula and the WicklowMountains have been identified as sensitiveareas which are already subject to significantpressures from tourism

Seasonal profile• 30% of all overseas tourists arrive in July and

August• domestic tourism is more than twice as

peaked as overseas tourismIncreasing stress on landscape and infrastructure• sensitive areas are subject to damage and

erosion from tourism-related activities - e.g.threat to sand dunes from golf courses andhorse trekking

• water, sewerage and solid waste infrastruc-ture in some areas is inadequate or over-loaded by pressure of tourist numbers

• roads in some areas are subject to damageand congestion arising from the growth intourism traffic, especially coach tours

Tourism is one of Ireland's major indigenousindustries, and one of the fastest-growing. It

makes a significant contribution to the nationaleconomy, particularly through its foreignexchange earnings which have a high multipliereffect in terms of the national income. Totaltourism revenue exceeded £2.3 billion in 1995(continuing the steady growth experienced since1993), and the sector now contributes around 7%of GNP. This represents a significant increasefrom a contribution of under 5% in 1986, espe-cially given the rapid expansion of total recordedGNP over the same period. The value to theeconomy of overseas tourists in 1996 was some£1.45 billion.

Tourism provides around 8% of nationalemployment, at some 102,000 full-time equiva-lent jobs in 1995; this is expected to increase to110,000 by end-1997. The Operational Programmefor Tourism, 1994-99 (the Tourism OP), is expectedto deliver an additional 35,000 full-time jobequivalents by 1999. It is likely, however, thatthis underestimates the total employmentimpact of the tourism sector, as many jobs whichare supported by tourism (for example in theretail and leisure sectors) are recorded elsewherein the statistics. Tourism is a growing force foremployment; the additional 30,000 tourism-related jobs created between 1987 and 1994 rep-resented half of the net increase in employmentin that period.2

Continued growth in tourism in Ireland isexpected in line with the projected annualgrowth of around 4% per annum for worldtourism generally to the end of the century. Inparticular, Ireland has targeted growth of 9% perannum in overseas tourism revenue. Currenttrends in international tourism, which providefurther strong opportunities for Irish tourism,include a growing environmental awareness anda preference for activity-based holidays.Maintaining the Irish environment and physicalcultural heritage, which are recognised as beingof high quality, will provide the foundation onwhich to build sustainable tourism and takeadvantage of these international trends.

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"Among the major strengths which characterise Irishtourism is our clean physical environment."

- Operational Programme for Tourism,1994-991

However, it is important that tourism develop-ment itself should not become a force whichthreatens this foundation.

The Tourism OP recognises that Ireland's qualitynatural environment is one of the majorstrengths of Irish tourism. Ireland offers an idealsetting for a wide range of recreational andleisure pursuits, many of which (such as swim-ming, fishing, sailing and equestrian pursuits)are critically dependent on the maintenance of ahigh quality environment. The scope for furtherdevelopment of tourism in these areas must notbe limited by deteriorating environmentalquality, but neither must tourism be allowed tocontribute to any such deterioration.

Ireland's tourism development strategy seeks topromote an image of an uncrowded, relaxedisland, of great scenic beauty, with a distinctiveheritage and culture, a friendly welcomingpeople, high-quality facilities and a superb,unspoilt environment for outdoor activity.Ireland must avoid the drift to uniformity, evi-dent in many countries, and concentrate onenhancing competitive image, improving thequality of the tourism product and attractingtourists seeking environmentally-based holi-days. Sustainable tourism development is iden-tified as the way to achieve this goal.

Fig 11.2 Key Strengths of the Irish Tourism Product

• superb scenic landscapes• a quiet island with a relaxed pace of life• a distinctive heritage and culture• the absence of mass tourism• a friendly, welcoming, convivial people• an excellent location for outdoor activities

and sports• a "green" unspoilt environment

Source: Bord Fáilte3

Tourism’s Interactions with theEnvironmentTourism promotes regional development, asmany of the top tourism destinations are locatedin the less-developed and more remote regionsof the country. Almost three-quarters (£1.47 bil-lion) of total tourism revenues (over £2 billion) in1995 (excluding carrier receipts) accrued outsideDublin.4 From a sustainability perspective, themanagement of our tourism assets, to ensuretheir preservation while continuing to promoteviable growth in the sector, is a key issue.

The development of the tourism industry canhave beneficial effects on the environment, par-ticularly with a growing realisation of the highdegree of inter-dependency between theindustry and the environment in which it isrooted. There have been both positive and neg-ative experiences, for example, in the develop-ment of facilities and infrastructure, the spreadand seasonality of activity, and interactions withthe landscape and natural resources. Anexample of the high level of environmentalawareness in the Irish tourism industry was theaward, in 1995, of the inaugural EU Tourism andthe Environment Prize to Kinsale.5 Local effortsunder the Tidy Towns Competition6 also providean impetus to community action supportingenvironmental and tourism objectives. TheAction Against Litter campaign7, which willoperate until 1998, is an integrated approach totackling litter and its negative effect on the"green" image which is so important to tourism.

Land useLand use planning has a role to play in bringingabout the optimum development of tourism. Akey issue for tourism is the protection of our nat-ural and cultural landscape. Local developmentplans must ensure the protection of this land-scape, as well as the preservation of views and ofthe human heritage. The Department of theEnvironment will take tourism developmentinto account in the preparation of land use policyguidelines for planning authorities, developersand the public.

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National tourism policy recognises that Irelandshould not aim at becoming a mass tourism des-tination. Local authorities, in preparing devel-opment plans, will make provision for sustain-able tourism and, in considering applications fortourism development, must recognise capacitylimitations and not permit over-development.

Image and infrastructure supportsSustainable tourism growth must be under-pinned by high quality tourist services, efficientsupporting infrastructure and strong manage-ment policies to protect natural resources.Infrastructure requirements for sustainabletourism growth include not only sensitivelydeveloped amenity and recreational develop-ments, but also basic facilities in terms of accom-modation, transport (including roads andparking), water and sewerage, solid waste ser-vices, etc.

The potential environmental impacts of thisinfrastructure must be taken into account toavoid conflict between proposed developmentsand the environment. The application andenforcement of planning controls in regard tomajor tourism facilities, including golf coursesand interpretative centres, is an important com-ponent of this process. The justification for newfacilities, which in some cases may duplicateexisting facilities or increase environmental pres-sures, is an important issue for the planning con-trol process. The emphasis of the Tourism OP ison the enhancement of existing infrastructure,rather than the development of new facilities,and up to 75% of investment under the OP isbeing directed to this end.

Potential difficulties arise when expandingtourist numbers exceed the carryingcapacity of existing environmental infrastruc-ture. Overloading of sewage treatment plantshas contributed to some pollution of rivers andlakes; responses to cater for additional loadinghave included the upgrading of sewage treat-ment in major tourist centres. Account must also

be taken of the demands placed on infrastructureby concentrated tourist numbers during thepeak season - offshore islands can be particularlyvulnerable in this respect. Where new servicesare being provided, modular design may beappropriate.

Overall, however, the carrying capacity of theenvironment must be respected where tourismplanning is concerned. Where large scale expan-sion of, for example, waste water treatmentinfrastructure is contemplated to provide forincreased tourism, the question must be askedwhether tourism activity is sustainable on thescale proposed, or would it in time erode thequality of the tourism product. In general, it ispreferable that pressure of numbers be relievedby greater dispersion and a better seasonal pro-file of tourism.

Tourism related infrastructure should protectand enhance, not detract from, environmentalquality. Adverse impacts can include landscapeintrusion, erosion, loss of flora, disturbance towildlife, pollution and littering, noise, distur-bance and congestion, undermining the resourceupon which tourism depends and altering thecharacter and attractiveness of natural and her-itage features. Sustainable developmentrequires a balance between preserving a natural,unspoilt environment and providing facilitieswhich allow tourists - and local residents - tobetter understand, appreciate and enjoy it.Facilities must be in harmony with the localenvironment, and reconcile the economic benefitto the local community with the preservation ofthe natural and cultural environment whichunderlies economic well-being.

One indication that development activelyrespects and enhances the local environmentwould be a tourism eco-label. A pilot project8

under the EU LIFE initiative was launched in1995 and is now operating in four areas - WestDonegal, West Mayo, Galway City/Connemaraand the Brandon area of the Dingle Peninsula.

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Over a period of three years, a thorough exami-nation of all aspects of the natural, cultural andeconomic environments in relation to tourismdevelopment will be carried out with the partic-ipation of the local communities in these areas,with a view to drawing up a set of standards fora tourism eco-label. If successful, the intention isthat it will be adapted for use throughout the EUas a universally recognisable "green tourism"label.

Increasing tourist numbers also have implica-tions for demand for transport infrastructure.60% of current overseas tourist business isrelated to car touring, either in hire cars or theestimated 500,000 cars brought in by tourists.9

Both of these sectors are expected to expand withtourist growth and increasing capacity in portsand ferries. The implications for road congestionin peak tourism areas are considerable, and needto be taken into account in addressing the gen-eral issue of transport growth. Tourist trafficalso requires effective management measures,without overall curtailment of tourism. Greateremphasis will be placed on promoting holidayswhich can avail of more environmentally-friendly modes of transport such as railways,waterways, cycling and walking. To minimiseadverse effects on the environment, the car hirefleet should comprise the most fuel-efficient,least-polluting vehicles available. The use of col-lective transport, as currently operated inGlenveagh National Park, Co. Donegal, shouldbe expanded where practicable.

High quality Irish goods and consumer servicesto support the tourism sector are important inenhancing the perception of a quality Irishtourism product. These goods and services needto emphasise the sustainable use of resourcesand highlight Irish food and other natural prod-ucts. Suitable training in support of thisapproach will continue to be provided by CERT,in conjunction with the education sector.

Managing numbers

The significant growth in tourist numbersbetween 1984 and 1994 increased the pressureson the Irish environment. In 1984, some 1.7 mil-lion overseas tourists visited Ireland. By 1994,this number had more than doubled, and atalmost 3.7 million exceeded the resident popula-tion for the first time.11 These increases have con-tinued; overseas visitors in 1996 totalled some4.6 million.12 Good management is necessary tosustain this level of growth.

An indication of the increased numbers visitinghistoric sites under the care of the Department ofArts, Culture and the Gaeltacht is set out in Fig11.3. While visitor densities are relatively low byinternational standards, the growing emphasison cultural/heritage holidays suggests that fur-ther increases are likely. The sustainability ofincreased visitor numbers at particular historicalmonuments will need careful consideration,especially as such numbers may, in certain cir-cumstances, result in damage to the monuments(e.g. as at Newgrange). Careful management ofaccess to these sites will therefore be increasinglyimportant.

The impact of tourist numbers on towns andother accommodation centres is also describedby an index compiled by Bord Fáilte. This showsthat in thirteen of the main tourism centres,tourist beds in approved accommodation repre-sent between 10% and 36% of the resident popu-lation (see Fig 11.4). Tourist beds in Dublin, bycomparison, equate to only 2% of the residentpopulation. The relative pressure of tourist num-bers on local communities and local infrastruc-ture is considerably greater in the west andsouth-west of Ireland, including offshoreislands.

"In the interests of sustainable tourism development, wemust aim to improve significantly the yield from visitors,thus achieving agreed revenue targets with slower growthin visitor numbers."

- Bord Fáilte10

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Fig 11.4 Tourist Beds as % of Resident Population

Centre %Dublin 2Galway 10West Clare 10Bundoran 16West Cork 16Achill 17Waterville 18Letterkenny 20North Donegal 26Clifden 29Dingle 30North Clare 35Kenmare 35Killarney 36

Source: Bord Fáilte14

Current policy focuses on increasing the revenuevalue of tourism rather than the number oftourists. This is a welcome development.

Continuing increases in numbers could not beentertained without seriously damaging thecapacity of the Irish environment to continue tosupport the industry. The approach taken in theTourism OP is designed to reduce the impact oftourism on the product, at any given level of rev-enue, while contributing to improved profitability.

Tourism development policy must leave the phys-ical and the social environment undiminished and,ideally, enhanced as a resource for future enjoy-ment by domestic and foreign visitors alike. Tothis end, the carrying capacity of sensitive naturalareas and of tourist centres must be identified, andsteps taken to ensure that this capacity is notexceeded. This will require a form of control to beexercised over the most highly sensitive areas(possibly, although not necessarily, some form ofdesignation) and the implementation of plans formanaging access so as to reduce extremes of pres-sure. Success in this regard will be indicated by,inter alia, a low level of complaint from local com-munities regarding the impact of visitor numberson the local quality of life, the numbers admitted tospecified areas, and the limitation of damagealready being caused to these areas.

Bord Fáilte's plan for developing tourism over theperiod 1994-99 aims for an "optimal" number oftourists. Optimal is defined as the point beyondwhich it would not be possible "to enhance the wel-fare of additional tourists without making the commu-nity worse off as a result".15 Optimisation includestaking account of social as well as economic costs,including environmental damage, congestion,time losses, inconvenience and the disruption oflocal communities by increased tourism. The"optimal" number can, however, change over timein the light of increased success in improving theseasonal profile, dispersing tourism more evenlyaround the country, and improving controls onaccess and behaviour of visitors to sites.Conversely, if pressures on the environmentbecome excessive, the optimal number of touristspermitted may be reduced.

Fig 11.3 Visitor Numbers on Historic Sitesunder the care of the Department ofArts, Culture and the Gaeltacht

Site Visitors in Visitors in percentage1985 1994 increase

AughnanureCastle 4,268 24,081 464%

Charles Fort 13,901 33,296 140%

Clonmacnoise 31,471 118,157 275%

Derrynane House 10,262 16,673 62%

Dublin Castle 62,674 122,479 95%

Dunmore Cave 22,334 32,391 45%

Source: State of the Environment in Ireland13

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Fig 11.5 Tourist Participation in Environment-related Activities

Activity Number of tourists 1989 1993 percentage

increaseCycling 100,000 167,000 67%Golfing 95,000 162,000 71%Horse riding 42,000 61,000 45%Sailing 31,000 35,000 13%Walking 244,000 323,000 32%

Source: Bord Fáilte 16

SeasonalityAt present, 30% of all overseas tourists (over 1.25million people in 1995) arrive in Ireland in thepeak months of July and August. Domestictourism is almost twice as peaked as overseastourism in the same months, leading to signifi-cant concentration of numbers in this limitedperiod.

Irish tourism policy recognises the need toextend the tourism season more evenly beyondthe traditional summer holiday period, in orderto relieve the concentration of peak numbers forenvironmental reasons and also to improve theeconomic performance of the industry. Betterseasonal spread is positively encouraged by thedevelopment of "off-peak season" activities andnon-weather dependent facilities. The objectiveunder this Strategy, in line with the Tourism OP,is to secure a tourism seasonality profile which isfully consistent with environmental sustain-ability; specifically, to reduce the current high-season load from 30% to 25% of total touristnumbers by 1999. In order to meet this objective,greater attention will focus on the provision andmarketing of off-season activities and facilities.

With regard to domestic tourism, other coun-tries have shown that effective ways to improvethis situation include staggering school andpublic holidays. As only one Irish public hol-iday falls within the peak period, scope forchange is limited, and may be unnecessary. The

structure of the Irish education system,including terminal examinations, is such thatthere is no immediate prospect of a change inthis regard. However, there is scope for indi-viduals who can do so, as consumers of tourismservices, to choose to holiday outside the peakperiod of July-August.

Sensitive areas and scenic landscapes

It is recognised that a small number of sensitivelandscapes is already experiencing significantpressure from tourism. These include the Burren,Connemara, the Ring of Kerry, the DinglePeninsula and the Wicklow Mountains. Severalof these areas contain rare flora and fauna whichneed to be protected, and Killarney National Parkhas been designated by UNESCO as a biospherereserve. Protection, however, cannot mean exclu-sive dedication to tourism/leisure uses, nor theprohibition of development within those areas.Nor should it compromise the economic andsocial viability of local communities, or the rangeof activities necessary to sustain a living land-scape.

The national network of scenic landscapes pro-posed by Bord Fáilte in Developing SustainableTourism would embrace about 25 areas of out-standing scenic beauty, which would be activelymanaged and selectively promoted. Bord Fáiltehas suggested that Comprehensive AreaManagement Plans are urgently required toaddress this issue and ensure that these land-scapes are protected and preserved from theexcesses of tourism. A demonstration project,funded under the EU LIFE programme and car-ried out by Bord Fáilte and An Taisce, has testedthe practicality of this proposal in three pilotareas.

"The stability and appearance of the landscape [are]

inextricably linked to the prosperity and activities of the

community who live in these landscapes."- Tourism and the Landscape17

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It concluded that:• the integration of tourism and the environ-

ment is more likely to be effective and accept-able to the local community through a processof agreement on, rather than designation of,special areas;

• there is a need to shift the emphasis from theidea of sustainable tourism to one of sustain-able communities, which requires a total inte-gration of the environment, tourism and othersectors; and

• sustainable activity is promoted throughawareness, understanding and consensusrather than through regulation.18

Bord Fáilte is now considering the establishmentof a pilot Scenic Landscape Forum, as recom-mended in the study, as a means of taking for-ward the preparation of an integrated manage-ment strategy for a scenic landscapes network.

Inland waterway cruising is a growth area inIrish tourism. The number of boat-weeks soldper annum increased from 6,186 to 8,195 over theperiod from 1988 to 1992.19 A programme of pro-viding pump-out facilities on inland waterwaysis continuing to ensure that environmentalquality is not threatened by increasing cruiseractivity. The Department of Arts, Culture andthe Gaeltacht, which licenses hire cruisers, willensure that all such boats are fitted with appro-priate storage and pumping facilities. Localauthorities (and the Department of Arts, Cultureand the Gaeltacht where canals are concerned)are providing sufficient, and suitably located,shore pumping facilities to cater for cruisertraffic and will ensure that these are properlyused and maintained. Cruising may also impacton certain riverine archaeological monuments;the Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will develop appropriate managementstrategies in this regard.

Unsustainable leisure activitiesThere has been a growth in recent years in cer-tain leisure activities which have the potential todamage or destroy natural landscapes and habi-tats, as well as causing noise, emissions and gen-eral nuisance. Generally minority activities, they

include motorcycle scrambling, the use of jetskis,beach buggies and all-terrain vehicles, and horseriding on dune ecosystems. Although not lim-ited to the tourism industry, they may be associ-ated with, or promoted by, it. Their adverseeffects can damage tourist perceptions of theIrish environment.

For the tourism industry and the preservation ofa characteristic quality of life, it is essential toprevent damage to the environment caused byactivities incompatible with the maintenance of ahigh quality image. To this end, considerationwill be given to:• implementing controls such as the designation

of certain sensitive areas, which are either inpublic ownership or recognised as importantheritage areas, as "off limits" for definedactivities;

• restricting the number of persons, vehicles,etc., involved in these activities; and

• controlling activities by limiting them toorganised events or competitions in particularareas.

The implementation of any such measures wouldlargely fall to local authorities, subject to guidanceto be developed by the Department of theEnvironment, in consultation with theDepartment of Arts, Culture and the Gaeltacht,the Department of Tourism and Trade, and theDepartment of the Marine, where appropriate.

Impacts on biodiversityIrish flora, fauna and their habitats are an impor-tant asset to tourism. Their conservationrequires a delicate balance to be struck betweenhabitat protection and planned and controlledvisitor access.

Where tourist activities are specifically related tonatural fauna, as in the case of hunting, shootingor fishing holidays, due regard must be had tothe requirements of EU nature conservationDirectives, such as the Birds and HabitatsDirectives, and of national law. Participationlimits are enforced by controlling the number oflicenses and permits issued in certain areas or

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seasons, or for certain species which are underpressure. These limits will be kept under contin-uous review and further restricted, whererequired, so as not to undermine the regenera-tive capacity of stocks of wildlife.

Pressures on the Coastal ZoneTourism and leisure pressures on the coastalzone include the building of holiday homes, car-avan parks, and golf courses, the erosion of sanddunes by recreational use such as horse trekking,and the concentration of service facilities such ascar parking and picnic areas.

A pilot tax relief scheme for fifteen designatedresort areas, which will operate until 1998, willsupport the renewal and updating of touristamenities and facilities, including approvedaccommodation and other tourism-relatedbuildings and structures.20 In support of thisscheme, the Department of the Environment hasprovided funding to extend and upgrade waterand sanitary services in nine of the designatedresorts. This will ensure that adequate highquality water and sanitary services are in placeto maximise their tourism and developmentpotential.

The annual Blue Flag Awards Scheme21 forbeaches and marinas, administered by AnTaisce, encourages the maintenance of high stan-dards in relation to bathing water quality, coastalmanagement, environmental education andinformation, and the provision of facilities forvisitors. Other measures to preserve beach andcoastal quality include:• the continuing full implementation of the pro-

visions of the Foreshore Acts in relation to pre-venting and penalising damage to beaches,sand dunes and seashore ecosystems; and

• the taking into account, in the authorisation ofaquaculture, of implications for other uses ofthe coastal zone and marine resources.

A coastal zone management policy which willaddress tourist-related pressures, amongstothers, is being developed (see Chapter 13).

Green Housekeeping

Green housekeeping, or good environmentalmanagement, is an important factor for thetourist accommodation sector. Just as industryand domestic consumers must play their part inenergy conservation, the efficient use of naturalresources (including water) and general goodenvironmental practice, similarly hotels, guest-houses and other providers of accommodationshould carry out an environmental audit of theirpractices to ensure compatibility with high envi-ronmental standards. Guidelines to the industryin this regard will be issued by the Departmentof Tourism and Trade/Bord Fáilte, following thelead of the public sector in relation to promotinggreen housekeeping (see Chapter 19).

Other tourism-related operations where greenhousekeeping will be encouraged include:• the use of energy-efficient floodlighting in

historic buildings;• energy conservation measures in tourist

offices and interpretative centres (followingthe line of the Government programme onEnergy Conservation in State Buildings); and

• the use of recycled paper and other goods inmarketing and promotion.

"The conservation and sustainable use of resources - nat-ural, social and cultural - is crucial and makes long-termbusiness sense ... The key lies in sound purchasing andprocurement and in effective waste management."

- Irish Hotel and Catering Institute22

tradeSUSTAINABLE TRADE

• supports economic prosperity while pro-tecting the global environment in all itsdiversity

• enhances social and economic equitythroughout the world

• takes account of the wider global impactof national policies regarding importsand exports

12

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An action programme towardssustainable trade

• Trade policy will be examined to ensure com-pliance with the objectives of Agenda 21 inrelation to promoting an open, non-discrimi-natory and equitable trading system, takingparticular account of the needs of developingcountries.

• Ireland supports the EU consensus on theimportance of upholding the validity of multilateral agreements (MEAs) designed to protectthe environment and of ensuring the integra-tion of sustainable development into worldtrade policies and practices.

• The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht will make any amendments to legis-lation which may be necessary to enableIreland to ratify the CITES Convention in 1997.

Introduction/Overview

Fig 12.1 Issues in Irish Trade

• Trade accounts for 63% of GNP - the second highest proportion in the EU

• Exports, almost three-quarters of which are destined for the EU, represent 72% of Irish GDP at current market prices

• The value of exports in 1995 was approximately £27.8 billion

• Imports in the same year amounted toapproximately £20.6 billion in value giving a trade surplus of over £7 billion

As a small open economy, Ireland is stronglydependent on trade, which accounts for 63% ofGNP - the second highest proportion in the EU.Exports, almost three-quarters of which are des-tined for the EU, represent 72% of Irish GDP atcurrent market prices. In 1995, their value wasapproximately £27.8 billion. Imports in the sameyear amounted to over £20.6 billion in valuegiving a trade surplus of over £7.2 billion. Abreakdown of imports and exports, by area oforigin, is given in Fig 12.2.

Fig 12.2 Value of Imports and Exports,by Area of Origin, in 1995

Area Imports ExportsValue (£m) Value (£m)

Great Britain & NI 7,292.7 7,112.0

Other EU States 4,415.7 13,155.0

NAFTA* 3,807.6 2,558.5

Rest of World** 5,096.7 4,994.8

Total 20,612.7 27,820.3

* USA, Canada & Mexico** including country unknown and unclassified

Source: Central Statistics Office1

International trade is growing. The volume ofworld trade expanded almost four times fasterthan world output in the period from 1990 to1994. The rate of growth is also increasing. Tradeexpansion over the period 1985 to 1989 was only1.8 times faster than growth in output.2

The links between trade and sustainable develop-ment have come to greater prominence in inter-national fora in recent years. Agenda 21 stated thatgreater coherence between international tradeand environment policies is necessary to promotesustainable development, recognising that anopen multilateral trading system can facilitate amore efficient use of natural resources, both inenvironmental and economic terms, and can con-tribute to lessening demands on the environment.

Many complex issues arise from the interfacebetween trade and environment, including:• how trade controls can be used to support envi-

ronmental protection without giving rise toprotectionist abuses; and

• how the international trading system can sup-port the sustainable development requirementsof developing countries.

Traditionally, trade agreements and controls havebeen product based. Environmental controls, onthe other hand, tend to focus on the processesunderlying production, and how these processesimpact on the environment. The internationalcommunity is now trying to address the tensioninherent in this difference of focus.

The extent of action which can be taken atnational level to increase trade sustainability isconditioned by the international nature of trade.As well as national action, concerted interna-tional action is necessary. Principle 12 of the RioDeclaration3 recognises that importing countriesshould avoid unilateral actions to deal withenvironmental problems outside their jurisdic-tion, and that measures to address global ortransboundary environmental problems should,as far as possible, be founded on internationalconsensus.

A number of international fora, including theOECD, UNEP and UNCTAD, are examining link-ages between trade and environment, includingthe implications of sustainable development fortrade liberalisation, and vice versa. The centralforum, however, is the World Trade Organisation(WTO), which seeks to ensure that trade and eco-nomic relations are in accordance with the objec-tive of sustainable development. At the heart ofthe debate is the need to strike a balance betweenthe dynamic for greater trade liberalisation andthe requirements of protecting the environmentand promoting sustainable development. TheWTO Committee on Trade and Environment,

which commenced work in 1995, has the specifictask of analysing the relationship between tradeand environmental measures, in order to promotesustainable development, and to make appro-priate recommendations on any changes to themultilateral trading system which are necessaryto give effect to this objective.

The Committee reported to the first MinisterialConference of the WTO in Singapore in December1996, where it was acknowledged that full imple-mentation of WTO Agreements will make animportant contribution to achieving the objectivesof sustainable development. The Committee willcontinue working to examine the complex rela-tionship between trade, environment and sustain-able development. Ireland shares and supportsthe EU consensus in favour of having environ-mental concerns fully integrated into the WTO,with due allowance made for developing coun-tries.

There is now increasing emphasis on definingappropriate links between trade and environ-ment, and a growing environmental conscious-ness both among individual consumers, govern-ments and international bodies. Green con-sumerism is increasingly a market reality, whichmust be accommodated within internationaltrade agreements. Irish trade will need to respondto these challenges on two fronts:

• in relation to exports, Irish products and ser-vices will have to demonstrate a high degreeof environmental awareness and protection inorder to secure and retain market share inother economies. Issues in this regard havebeen dealt with in previous chapters (e.g.Chapter 9). The Forfás report, Shaping OurFuture, identified the importance for tradedevelopment of developing a positive imageof Ireland, including the pursuit of high envi-ronmental standards;

• where imports are concerned, greater attentionwill have to be paid to the sustainability of thegoods and services imported from other coun-tries, especially in terms of the environmental

"...world trade and environment policies should be not onlycompatible but also mutually supportive."

- EU Commission4

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impact on developing economies of Irishimport requirements and policies. The conceptof ecological footprints, already referred to inChapter 3, suggests that every effort should bemade to ensure that Irish trade requirementsand policies have the lowest possible impact onthe sustainability of ecosystems in all countries,but particularly in the developing world.Examples of specific trade-related issues aregiven below.

Specific Trade Issues Related toSustainable Development

Fair tradeAgenda 21 highlighted the role of trade in pro-moting sustainable development, in particular inthe developing countries. As well as the moregeneral issue of trade liberalisation, it addressedspecific areas of importance to those countries. Ofparticular relevance is the issue of fair trade,including fair pricing for commodities such ascoffee, cocoa, sugar and tropical timber (seebelow), which provide vital export earnings formany developing countries.

Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration on Environmentand Development recognises the sovereign right ofstates to exploit their own resources. Where nat-ural resources or agricultural commodities areunderpriced in world markets, developing coun-tries may, in effect, be forced into over-exploitingtheir resources in order to generate sufficientexport earnings to support internal social andeconomic development. The underpricing oftheir export goods also contributes to the debtburden borne by many developing countries,which constrains their ability to finance theinvestments necessary for sustainable develop-ment.

The White Paper on Foreign Policy6 (1996) recog-nised the need for coherence between trade and

development issues, including the importance ofbalance between national, domestic interests andthe rights of developing countries in relation tomarket access. At international level, Ireland willseek to ensure a coherent strategy in this regard.National trade policy will be examined to ensurecompliance with the objectives of Agenda 21 inrelation to promoting an open, non-discrimina-tory and equitable trading system, taking partic-ular account of the needs of developing countries.(see also Chapter 17 in relation to OfficialDevelopment Assistance policy)

Tropical timbersIreland imported 70,000 tonnes of tropical timber(logs, sawnwood, veneer and plywood) in 1994,mainly from Ghana and the Ivory Coast. Thevalue of these imports was £37 million.7 Theincreasing emphasis in Irish forestry policy onthe planting of broadleaved (hardwood) speciesmay, in time, provide some scope to replaceimports of tropical timbers. In the long term,more tropical timber should be available fromsustainable sources. However, there will con-tinue to be a demand for many tropical timberswhich have specific properties which cannot bemet by other timbers.

Action to protect remaining rainforests must becarefully balanced to avoid approaches which,by reducing demand for, and therefore the valueof, tropical timber, may simply encourage forestclearance in developing countries and the diver-sion of land to cash crops. A more sustainableemphasis will be to develop options underwhich trade in tropical timbers and environ-mental policies are mutually supportive. Thiscould include, inter alia, support for the develop-ment and implementation of sustainable forestmanagement policies in developing countries,improving market access and transparency forforest products and services, and the develop-ment of full-cost methodologies for forest goodsand services. Certification and labelling schemesare one among many possible tools to promotesustainable forest management, but there is nointernational agreement as to their effectivenessor practicality. It is important to bear in mind,however, that most tropical forest clearance is foragricultural development, that most timber pro-

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"The development process will not gather momentum ... if the developingcountries are weighted down by external indebtedness, if developmentfinance is inadequate, if barriers restrict access to markets and if com-modity prices and the terms of trade of developing countries remaindepressed."

- Agenda 215

duction is for domestic fuelwood, that only asmall percentage enters international trade, andthat certification is an issue in only a limitednumber of markets.

The issue of trade and environment, including anexamination of the issues of labelling and certifi-cation, is among those currently being consideredby the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests, estab-lished in 1995 by the UN Commission onSustainable Development.

Trade in endangered speciesThe 1973 Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES)8 aims at protecting wild species of ani-mals and plants, through the use of inventoriesand monitoring systems for endangered andoverexploited species and controls on interna-tional trade in endangered species. TheConvention applies not only to live animals andplants, but also to derivatives and products - forexample, all commercial trade in ivory has beenbanned under CITES since 1992. Ireland is cur-rently taking steps, which may include amend-ment of legislation, to allow the ratification of theConvention in 1997. In practice, however, themain provisions of the Convention are alreadybeing implemented pending formal ratification.

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PART 4 - SUPPORTING THE STRATEGY

13 Environmental Quality14 Spatial Planning and Land Use15 The Built Environment16 Public Action and Awareness17 Ireland in the International Community

IntroductionEconomy and society are dependent on the nat-ural environment as:• the source of energy and materials for the pro-

duction of goods and services;• the sink for emissions and wastes generated

by production and consumption; and• the provider of services creating basic condi-

tions for human life and the economy,including a stable climate and water resources.

The definition of the quality and quantity ofenvironmental endowments, and the assessmentof the pressures placed upon them by humanactivity, help to determine whether or not devel-opment is sustainable. In acknowledging thatthere is uncertainty about the extent of human-induced change which the global environmentcan sustain, the European Environment Agencystated that:

"a host of warning signals provides us withincreasing evidence that the impact of human activ-ities might have already gone beyond the capabilityof maintaining the integrity and productivity ofnatural resources."2

The EPA report, State of the Environment inIreland, provides an environmental baseline forthis Strategy, and assists the review and analysisupon which policy priorities and responses aredeveloped.

Environmental Quality Environmental change is caused by naturalprocesses and human activity. With theincreasing pace of socio-economic development,human activity is now seen as exerting thegreater influence. Modern society enjoys manypositive benefits of development, notably in rela-tion to standards of living, health and welfare. It

must also address the ability of supportingecosystems to sustain the demand for naturalresources, and absorb the volume of emissionsand wastes created by it.

In the light of the major environmental trendsand features identified by the EPA, the followingsections define strategic objectives for key envi-ronmental media and themes, and outline mea-sures which are being, and will be, pursued toachieve those objectives.

Water Resources

OverviewWater is a necessary precondition for all forms oflife, and an essential element of ecosystems. Itssocial and economic uses are extensive, rangingfrom drinking water supply and industrial andagricultural use, to use as a receiving medium fortreated sewage effluents and other waterbornewastes, and as a resource for hydroelectricity, firefighting, commercial fishing and aquaculture,transport, amenity and tourism purposes.

Ireland has abundant fresh waters and richmarine resources. Although there are wide vari-ations in the availability of water throughout thecountry, in general, the state of the environmentreport has shown that quality trends, rather thanquantity, are the greater cause for concern. Inparticular, it is clear that although serious pollu-tion of inland fresh waters is gradually reducingand now affects only 0.6% of river channellength surveyed, the trend towards slight andmoderate pollution has increased over the pasttwenty years3, and now affects 28% of monitoredriver channel length. These conditions arebrought about by excessive inputs of nutrients(see Chapter 5). Tackling the problem of eutroph-ication calls for innovative approaches.

Strategic ObjectivesA sustainable water policy must be based onprotection, management and prudent use ofwater resources in the interests of optimised

Chapter 13Environmental Quality

"In general terms, the available data indicate that thequality of the Irish environment is good and comparesfavourably with most other Member States of the EU. Ina period of economic growth, the environment in Irelandrequires particular attention to secure its protection andto ensure that development is sustainable."

- Environmental Protection Agency1

environmental quality, and economic perfor-mance and efficiency. The objectives of thisStrategy for Irish water resources are to:• protect and improve quality so as to

- eliminate, as far as possible, serious pollu-tion of rivers,

- reverse and minimise slight and moderatepollution,

- reverse and minimise eutrophication,- maintain marine water quality generally, in

particular abating localised pollution inestuarine and coastal waters,

- quantify and establish the current qualitystatus of groundwater resources, and

- ensure that groundwaters may be used, asrequired, as sources of drinking water sup-plies and for other beneficial uses;

• manage water resources effectively, allowingbeneficial development and use compatiblewith preservation of good quality; and

• secure the provision of efficient water supplyand waste water services of sufficient qualityand quantity to protect public health and meetconsumer and economic development needsin a cost-effective way.

ActionsThe achievement of water quality objectivesrequires concerted and new action on the part ofpublic authorities and of all users and con-sumers of water. Many important measures,already being pursued, will be continued inassociation with new and additional actionsunder Parts III and IV of this Strategy.

LegislationWater quality will be protected by enforcementof existing legislation, and the development andimplementation of new regulations.

• New regulations will be made in 1997 underthe Water Pollution Acts setting water qualitystandards for a range of polluting substances,including phosphorus. Observance of thesestandards will be an objective of the effluentdischarge licensing control system and will

guide local authorities and the EPA in devisingand implementing management strategies todeal with diffuse sources of pollution,including those from agriculture.

• New regulations, to be made under the WasteManagement Act, 1996, will, inter alia, applyhigher environmental standards to waste dis-posal facilities which should consequentlylead to better protection of water resources.

• The Fisheries (Amendment) Bill, when enacted,will establish a streamlined process for the reg-ulation of aquaculture which will ensure thatthe industry's continued development takesplace in accordance with high environmentalstandards (see also Chapter 7).

• The Dumping at Sea Act, 1996, established astrict regime governing the dumping of sub-stances at sea. The Act prohibits the incinera-tion of substances or material at sea, and thedisposal at sea of low, intermediate or highlevel radioactive wastes and toxic, harmful ornoxious substances. Disposal at sea of sewagesludge will be prohibited from 31 December1998. The Act will enable Ireland to completeratification of the OSPAR Convention in 1997.

• The UN ECE Convention on Protection andUse of Transboundary Watercourses andInternational Lakes will be ratified in 1997.

Management and ProtectionWater quality management plans have for manyyears been the basic tool for advancing strategicwater quality protection requirements at localand regional level. New approaches, as well asreinforcement of existing policies and practices,are now necessary.

• An integrated catchment management initia-tive will be launched in April 1997, and imple-mented by local authorities with relevantinterests, to reverse deteriorating waterquality trends in selected catchments,

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including water bodies shared with NorthernIreland.

• Supporting the catchment management initia-tive, Cohesion funding has been approved foran integrated series of projects to improvesewage treatment and collection facilities intowns in the Lough Derg, Lough Ree, LoughSwilly, Lough Erne, River Suir, River Boyne,River Liffey, and River Barrow catchments.Works costing over £65 million have beenapproved for the first stage of these catchmentprojects. Cohesion applications have also beensubmitted for a number of other catchments.Ongoing assessment of the impact of thesewage investment in the catchments, as wellas the identification of other point and diffusesources of pollution, will be carried outthrough the implementation of monitoringand management programmes, for whichCohesion funding has already been securedfor a number of catchments. Provision will bemade for the involvement of relevant interestsin the preparation and implementation ofthese projects, so that the necessary cross-sec-toral approach will be ensured.

• An updated methodology for the preparationof water quality management plans is cur-rently being prepared by the EPA. This will beutilised to review all water quality manage-ment plans over the next five to ten years.

• A thorough review of discharges to waters willbe undertaken by the EPA to assess, in partic-ular, discharges of nutrients and of toxic andpersistent substances. This will be completedby 1998.

• A national groundwater programme will be established under EPA coordination toquantify groundwater resources, establishtheir current quality status, and make recom-mendations for their protection and sustain-able use for water supply purposes.

• Marine discharges of all dangerous sub-stances, in particular organohalogens that arepersistent, toxic and bioaccumulative, will bereduced by the year 2000 (as required by theOSPAR Commission) to levels which will notharm the marine environment.

• The achievement and maintenance of full com-pliance with statutory water quality objectivesand standards for drinking waters, bathingwaters, groundwaters, shellfish waters, fresh-water fish and wastewaters will be pursued bypublic authorities, particularly through legalenforcement.

• R&D activity will be harnessed to increaseunderstanding of natural processes and tostudy the impact of human activities on waterresources.

The above measures will be complemented byaction in the agriculture sector, in particular inregard to nutrient management planning, thepromotion of the Code of Good AgriculturalPractice to Protect Waters from Pollution byNitrates, and adherence to revised phosphorusand nitrogen application rates for grassland toreduce losses contributing to eutrophication (seealso Chapter 5).

Water ServicesDuring the 1990s, the Government's objective forthe provision of water services has been toensure that adequate, environmentally well-managed water and waste water services aregenerally available to domestic users and to sup-port economic development. This objective isbeing achieved through a significant increase inthe annual capital allocation by Government forwater services, from a base of £74.5 million in1992 to an estimated £155 million in 1997, anincrease of almost 110%. The allocations for 1998and 1999 will be significantly higher based onthe level of Cohesion Fund commitmentremaining to be allocated to water servicesschemes. The emphasis on the achievement of

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this objective will be maintained, with a partic-ular focus on cost and environmental efficiency,and on resource conservation. At the same time,it is recognised that the water services capitalprogramme must be progressively increased toprovide the infrastructure required into the nextcentury. Investment will be increased to £180-£200 million a year over the period 2000-2005.

• The programme for providing improved ser-vices for wastewater collection and disposaland for treatment and disposal of sewagesludge will be continued. This programme isaimed at attaining compliance with therequirements of the Urban Waste WaterTreatment Directive4 and the implementingRegulations.

• Secondary sewage treatment is being providedfor all qualifying discharges to rivers, estuariesand coastal waters. Where necessary, the levelof treatment will be extended to includenutrient reduction or tertiary treatment, par-ticularly in the case of discharges affectinglakes which are subject to eutrophication. Theinvestment programme will also ensure thatIreland's excellent record under the Blue Flagsfor Beaches scheme is maintained.

• Alternative sludge treatment and disposalfacilities will be provided in Dublin to allowthe dumping of sludge at sea to be ended byDecember 1998.

• Continued improvements in the quality ofpublic and group water supplies will be pur-sued to further increase the levels of compli-ance with drinking water quality standards forall health-related parameters.

• Public investment in water supplies will bemaintained to meet economic development,domestic and environmental needs. This willinclude phased implementation of a numberof large-scale projects such as the DublinWater Strategy.5

• In recognition of the need for active leakagecontrol, and a more intensive focus on watermanagement and conservation by localauthorities generally, the Department of theEnvironment is developing a programme forthe promotion of water conservation. Thisincludes:- a requirement for a "water audit" as part of

all water supply capital projects;- capital funding for water conservation pro-

jects including active leakage reduction,infrastructure such as district metering,telemetry, GIS systems, as well as training;and

- a commitment by all local authorities tolong-term active leakage control.

Guidance on water conservation and leakagedetection will be provided to local authorities.

• Pricing policies will be developed to promoteconservation by major industrial and commer-cial water users.

The Coastal Zone

Extent and qualityThe coastline of the State, including its islands, isapproximately 7,100 km in length. Around 3,000km are classified as soft, including sandybeaches and glacial cliffs, and some 1,500 km ofthese are at risk from coastal erosion.6

The coastal zone, a highly productive ecosystem,is susceptible to pressure from development andencroachment, pollution, increasing recreationaland tourism use, competition for space and over-exploitation of marine resources, as well as ero-sion. It is an area which requires special atten-tion in order to promote its sustainable usethrough the balancing of the various demandson coastal resources.

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Strategic concernsThis Strategy recognises:• the ecological wealth and sensitivity of the

coastal zone;• the need for integrated assessment of coastal

zone development issues;• the diversity of habitats, and of development

uses, in the coastal zone; and• potential threats to sustainable development

in the coastal zone.

Current actions to protect and secure sustainabledevelopment of the coastal environment arewide-ranging and include:• selective investment in coastal protection

works under the Environmental Services OP8;• major ongoing investment in the treatment

and disposal of coastal sewage discharges;• participation in programmes to meet obliga-

tions under international conventions(including MARPOL and OSPAR), and bilat-eral cooperation with the UK in regard to Irishand Celtic Sea issues;

• designation and protection of coastal habitatsand biodiversity;

• legislative protection through the ForeshoreActs, which are one of the primary means ofensuring orderly and environmentally accept-able development in the coastal zone; and

• legislative developments, and measures toprotect and improve coastal and estuarinewater quality, as outlined in the above sectionon water resources.

Coastal zone management strategyThe coastal zone is on the one hand relativelyfragile, with many resources which are non-renewable, and on the other hand intensivelypopulated and highly attractive to development.There is considerable scope for conflict and com-petition between coastal zone uses. A coastalzone management strategy study, commissionedby the Departments of the Environment, theMarine, and Arts, Culture and the Gaeltacht tomake recommendations for a national policy forthe coastal zone, will be completed shortly.10

There will be a public consultation process,leading to the initiation of a strategic approach toa comprehensive national policy for the sustain-able use of the coastal zone, covering such areasas:• marine environmental protection and resource

management;• development, planning and land use;• coastal protection; and• conservation of habitats and biodiversity.

Landscape and Nature

Key Considerations In Ireland, as elsewhere in Europe, few areas oftruly natural habitat remain, as the landscapeand ecosystems have been altered by centuries ofhuman activity, affecting the survival, conditionand distribution of plant and animal species.Increasing development throughout the 20thcentury has placed greater pressure on environ-mental resources and put in question the balancebetween resource use and conservation.Sustainable development now requires a newrelationship between human activity and thenatural world.

The EPA has assessed Ireland's record in pro-tecting its natural heritage over the past decadeas "satisfactory but with room for improvement".11

There are many threats, including those frompollution, over-exploitation, destruction of habi-tats, erosion, drainage, the location and nature ofdevelopment activity, urbanisation, and conflictrelated to sporting and recreational uses. Key

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"[This] vital zone ... holds the vast majority of ourImportant Bird Areas along with 64 species of conserva-tion importance and five Annex 1 Habitats under the EUHabitats Directive."

- Irish Wildbird Conservancy7

"Generally we are not dealing with a single pressure on aresource, but with a mosaic of pressures, some enforcingeach other, some cancelling each other out, some com-bining in a synergistic manner. Yet in our research or man-agement plans, we tend to focus only on one, or a selectnumber of these pressures."

- K. Dubsky9

concerns now are to:• define a comprehensive policy with regard to

natural heritage and biodiversity;• protect the quality of landscapes, ecosystems,

habitats, species and genetic resources;• achieve better integration between natural

heritage concerns, physical planning and sec-toral development policies; and

• improve knowledge and information on thequality and condition of endowments and onnature protection and conservation require-ments.

In meeting the above concerns it is important torecognise that:• nature extends beyond boundaries; while the

designation of areas for special protection pur-poses fulfils an essential function it should becomplemented by wider protection and con-servation activity;

• some impacts are unavoidable, but can beminimised by - applying sustainable development

principles,- securing sustainable use of resources,- promoting a full appreciation of what is rare

and priceless in the natural world, and- use of the precautionary principle; and

• the natural heritage is everyone's heritage, andits protection and conservation depend onaction by, and the behaviour of, communitiesand individuals, as well as Government,public authorities, and economic actors.

Promotion and appreciation of the national her-itage is now reinforced by the functioning of theHeritage Council, established under the HeritageAct, 1995.

Actions and prioritiesThe primary statutory support for habitat andnature protection has been the Wildlife Act, 1976.The Fisheries Acts, 1959 to 1995, also play a sig-nificant part in the protection of fish species. AWildlife (Amendment) Bill, currently beingdrafted, will be introduced in 1997 to updatenational law, and in particular to provide a statu-

tory basis for Natural Heritage Areas (NHAs).The Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht has prepared draft NHAs which willbe taken into account by planning authoritieswhen considering planning applicationsin/adjacent to NHAs, and which are included inREPS, allowing increased grant-aid to applicantswhose lands are within the NHAs.

Council Directive 92/43/EC on the protection ofnatural and semi-natural habitats and of wildflora and fauna has also been transposed intoIrish law by the European Communities (NaturalHabitats) Regulations, 1997. The Regulations willallow for the definition and protection ofapproximately 400 proposed Special Areas ofConservation (SACs), covering 550,000 hectaresor some 5% of land area. Irish SACs will formpart of the European-wide programme Natura2000, which seeks to protect the best remainingexamples of national and European natural heritage. Areas in the Burren, blanket bogs,heaths and upland grasslands account for overtwo-thirds of the land area to be included inSACs. The areas involved will be farmed in asustainable manner, with certain restrictionsrelated, for example, to stocking levels and theprevention of drainage, and with appropriatecompensation to farmers for loss of income andadditional costs. Many sites have also been des-ignated as Special Protection Areas requiredunder the Birds Directive for the conservation ofcertain bird species and their habitats, and fur-ther sites will be designated.

A new National Parks and Heritage Bill will bepublished in 1997, to provide statutory recogni-tion for national parks, national historic parksand national gardens. Policy and objectives inthese areas are being reviewed and managementplans for their sustainable development and useare being prepared.

Many programmes for the conservation of bio-logical diversity are already in place. Ireland rat-ified the UN Convention on Biological Diversityin March 1996.12 A National Biodiversity Plan to

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reflect its requirements on the conservation andsustainable use of biological diversity, and drawtogether all of the policies and programmeswhich already contribute to its objectives, isbeing prepared by the Department of Arts,Culture and the Gaeltacht. This will reinforcesectoral integration requirements, and make spe-cific recommendations for national action to con-serve biological diversity and use its compo-nents in a sustainable manner. Some examplesof threats to biodiversity are indicated in Fig 2.1.The Plan will be published in 1997.

Measures under physical planning legislationare also critical in the protection of scenic land-scapes and natural features. Planning authori-ties should give wider consideration to thedesirability of making Special Amenity AreaOrders (SAAOs) in appropriate cases, to protectareas of outstanding natural beauty, of specialrecreational value, and in the interests of natureconservation. An SAAO outlines a planningauthority's reasons for protecting the area inquestion. Many developments which areexempt under the Local Government (Planningand Development) Acts and regulations requireplanning permission in an SAAO. TheDepartment of the Environment will issue plan-ning guidelines on the protection of high amenitylandscapes.

While ongoing research and information activi-ties are outlined in State of the Environment inIreland, significant gaps are also identified.Knowledge is fundamental to the sustainablemanagement and use of the natural heritage andthe conservation of biological diversity. This infor-mation base depends, among other things, on:• good inventories of ecosystems, habitats,

species and genetic diversity, and linkage ofthese to environmental and sectoral datasystems;

• understanding of ecosystem structure andfunctions, and of the impacts of humanactivity;

• assessment of carrying capacity for habitats

and scenic areas; and• long-term monitoring of biodiversity trends

and identification of early warning signs ofunsustainable trends.

These issues will be more fully dealt with in theBiodiversity Plan, which will identify prioritiesin that area and provide appropriate fundingmechanisms.

Waste Management

Waste management policy and instrumentsIrish waste policy, in line with the EU approvedhierarchy of waste management options, seeksto promote waste prevention, reuse and recy-cling, and to apply high environmental stan-dards to waste disposal activities. A range ofinstruments and measures has been developedto promote a more sustainable approach to wastemanagement, including:• the Waste Management Act, 1996, which

- provides a comprehensive statutory frame-work for the management of waste,

- places an obligation on agricultural, com-mercial and industrial operators to take allreasonable steps necessary to prevent orminimise waste arising from their activitiesor products, including steps to be taken atdesign stage of a product,

- provides for a wide range of measuresto be applied to promote and support wasterecovery,

- prohibits the holding, transport, recovery ordisposal of waste in a manner which causesor is likely to cause environmental pollution,

- provides for the establishment by EPA of aToxics Release Inventory, and

- provides for penalties of up to £10 millionand 10 years imprisonment and for liabilityfor clean-up costs;

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"While the generation of waste is an inevitable consequence of domestic andeconomic life, it is now well recognised that the quantities of waste producedby developed countries, including Ireland, are unsustainable."

- Environmental Protection Agency13

• the introduction of Integrated PollutionControl licensing under the EnvironmentalProtection Agency Act, 1992, which applies tocertain waste activities and places emphasison waste minimisation for all licensable activities;

• the adoption of a Government StrategyRecycling for Ireland14 in 1994, which estab-lished targets for waste recovery up to 1999;

• the establishment of REPAK15, an industrysponsored initiative for the coordination andfinancing by industry of systems for recyclingpackaging waste (see also Chapter 9);

• the provision of £18.4 million in grants, co-financed by the EU under the EnvironmentalServices OP16, to assist better waste planningand the provision of facilities for waste recoveryand hazardous waste management; and

• publication of a report by the ESRI on the eco-nomics of solid waste management.17

Strategic objectives

Waste is one of the most problematic areas ofmodern environmental management. The issuesassociated with its generation and disposal areinextricably linked with present-day economicactivity, industrial development, lifestyle andconsumption patterns. In working towards moresustainable practices, the acceptance of appro-priate responsibility on a shared basis of all sec-tors of society will be a major general objective.Particular objectives will include:• a stabilisation and reversal of the growth in

waste production; there is some evidence thatwaste quantities in Dublin have already sta-bilised - in the short term, to 1999, the goal is tostabilise municipal waste arisings generally at350 kg/year per capita, and in the longer term, to2010, to reduce these wastes by 20%, forexample, by regulation and cost internalisation;

• reuse and recycling activity will be intensifiedas far as is practicable, both through applica-tion of producer responsibility (as evidenced,

for example, by REPAK) and measured actionsby public authorities (see Fig 13.1) - the currentoverall objective of diverting 20% of municipalwaste from landfill, by recycling, by 1999 willcontinue to be pursued, and higher targets willbe established for subsequent years, includingan increase from 27% by 2001 to at least 50% inthe recovery rate for packaging waste by 2005;

• the improved planning and organisationalarrangements, provided for in the WasteManagement Act, 1996, will be implementedquickly;

• higher environmental standards will beapplied to landfill and other waste disposaloperations by a new licensing system to beoperated by the EPA; this will be commencedfrom 1 May 1997 and applied progressively;

• better waste statistics will be compiled (aprocess already underway with the publicationin 1996 of the EPA National Waste Database) toprovide more reliable baseline data and tomeasure performance in future years;

• greater emphasis will be placed on the scopefor action by all consumers to minimise waste,and to use recyclable products; and

• the use of economic instruments to reducewaste, promote reuse/recycling, and increasemanagement efficiency will be explored;already a deposit refund system is to apply tothe sale of farm plastics.

Fig 13.1 Alternative Waste Disposal

As an example of the options available,Limerick Corporation is developing asystem to direct organic waste (some 40%of municipal waste) from landfill to com-posting. The system will involve the oper-ation of a segregated waste collectionsystem and a major composting facility.Grant assistance from EU Structural Fundsfor capital expenditure is being fundedunder the Operational Programme forEnvironmental Services, 1994-99.

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"....our growing waste mountains are in many ways a reflection of the consider-able economic growth of recent decades but they are not a necessary part ofindustrial progress."

- John Dunne, Director General, IBEC18

Current Government policies in respect of haz-ardous and clinical wastes will be continued:• primary responsibility for proper treatment of

hazardous waste will continue to lie with theholder and/or producer of the waste;

• EU co-financed assistance will be provided forhazardous waste management facilities whichare available to multiple users; however, asalready announced, Government assistancewill not be provided for contract hazardouswaste incineration facilities;

• non-incineration facilities will replace olderincinerators for healthcare risk waste; and

• planning, enforcement and other functions inrelation to hazardous waste are assigned toEPA under the Waste Management Act, 1996.

Waste has also been identified as a priority areafor the development of indicators to measureprogress in prevention, reuse/recycling and safedisposal. Taking account of EPA recommenda-tions in this regard, some waste production anddisposal trends are identified in the tables inAppendix I.

Waste management and BSEMajor challenges were presented to the meatindustry in 1996 arising from concerns associ-ated with BSE. Waste management implicationshave been assessed, so that the arrangements forcontrol of rendering and, in particular, of speci-fied risk material (SRM) (comprising the brainand spinal cord from cattle and sheep and repre-senting some 8% of total offal), are satisfactory inrelation to environmental protection.

The waste management strategy in relation tooffal includes the following elements:• all rendering plants which produce meat and

bone meal (MBM) for use in animal feedstuffare to be upgraded urgently to operate high-pressure batch systems;

• all SRM will be processed into MBM at a ded-icated rendering plant; this MBM can be safelystored without risk to public health or theenvironment pending destruction;

• in the short-to-medium term, MBM containingSRM will be held in secure storage in Irelandpending disposal in appropriate facilitiesabroad; and

• the cost of removing and destroying SRM isexpected to be met by the meat industry.

Strategic waste management requirements willcontinue to be assessed in light of the developingsituation and of new information emerging inrelation to treatment of this waste stream.

Air Quality

OverviewState of the Environment in Ireland and the EPA'sAir Pollutants in Ireland, 1984-94, have providedan up-to-date assessment of air quality inIreland, concluding that:• national emissions of some pollutants and

greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide(CO2), are increasing, but there have beennotable reductions in the case of others, suchas sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide(CO) and smoke;

• there has been very little overall changedetected in annual mean deposition of air pol-lutants over recent years; and

• road traffic has become potentially the greatestsource of air pollution generally, and attentionmust focus on traffic related pollutants as anew challenge in terms of air quality control.This is notwithstanding the fact that Ireland isrelatively unaffected by transit traffic which isa significant factor in increasing vehicle emis-sions in countries of continental Europe.

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"Given Ireland's small population and lack of heavy industry, the level of pollu-tant emissions is low compared to most European countries. Irish emissionsof those pollutants receiving most attention, e.g., SO2, NOx, and CO2, accountfor typically one percent of the respective totals for EU countries as a whole.Trends in emissions in Ireland are broadly similar to those in other countriesand there is general compliance with emission limits imposed by a variety ofinternational emissions reduction agreements."

- Environmental Protection Agency19

Strategic objectivesGood air quality is essential to human health andwell-being. Air quality and emissions are alsoimportant influences on the condition of ecosys-tems and on the built environment. While sub-stantial national legislative controls are in place,the transboundary and global impacts of airemissions require that many abatement strategiesmust be pursued by international cooperation.As part of this Strategy the Government will:• maintain, and if possible improve, local air

quality, particularly in urban areas, so as tominimise any health risk to the urban popula-tion and improve the quality of urban living;and

• ensure that Ireland meets international obliga-tions on air quality and is active in support ofinternational action in relation to climatechange, ozone depletion and transboundaryair pollution.

These objectives will be addressed substantiallythrough strategic action in the energy and trans-port sectors. The following measures will sup-plement that action.

Urban smoke controlApart from transport, the major threat to urbanair quality has been the burning of coal fordomestic heating purposes. Serious smoke pol-lution in Dublin, with regular breaches of airquality standards, led Government in 1990 toban the sale, marketing and distribution of bitu-minous coal in the built up area of Dublin.While no other urban area has developed air pol-lution problems to this degree, a similar ban wasextended to the Cork City area in 1995 when itbecame clear that air quality standards werebeing approached, though not exceeded.

The Minister for the Environment, in associationwith the EPA and the relevant local authorities,will continue actively to respond to threats to airquality deriving from the use of coal. The mon-itoring process will be maintained, and all neces-sary measures taken to address any developingair quality problems.

Low level ozoneLow level, or tropospheric, ozone is formed via aphotochemical oxidation process; nitrogenoxides (NOx) react with volatile organic com-pounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight toproduce ozone. The ozone precursors (NOx andVOCs) are emitted during fossil fuel combustionand various industrial processes. Transport andpower generation are the main sources of NOx

while transport and solvent use are the mainsources of VOCs.

Low level ozone is now monitored at six sitesnationally, and arrangements are in place for theissuing of public warnings by Met Éireann duringozone pollution episodes.20 Marginal exceedancesof the EU population information threshold of180µg/m3 occurred at three stations (Cork,Monaghan and Kilkenny) in the untypical hotsummer of 1995, but there were no exceedances ofthe population warning threshold of 360µg/m3.

The meteorological conditions which can lead toenhanced production of ozone in Ireland alsofavour the transport of ozone and its precursorsfrom other parts of Europe. Because of this, indeveloping abatement measures, strategic atten-tion centres on international actions in both EUand UN ECE frameworks to reduce precursoremissions, mainly from transport and powergeneration.

In addition, eight countries in North-WesternEurope, including Ireland, have agreed to coop-erate on forecasting, public information andadvice, and on a range of short and long-termprecursor abatement measures to deal with theparticular circumstances of ozone formation intheir countries. As part of this agreement,Ireland and the UK will share ozone monitoringsites, exchange monitoring data on a real timebasis and cooperate in forecasting ozoneepisodes.

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AcidificationSulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides(NOx) are the main precursors of acid rain. Thedeposition of these pollutants is low over mostof Ireland, but significant in some eastern areas.

Acidification is not, so far, an appreciableproblem overall in Ireland, and there is littlechange in annual mean deposition amounts ofemissions. There is an identified need for morestudy of the impacts of acidifying depositions,and this is being taken into account in the EPA'snew national air quality monitoring programme.Under the Environmental Services OP, a researchproject on the determination and mapping of critical loads for sulphur and nitrogen, as well as critical levels for ozone, is also beingundertaken.

As in the case of ozone, acid deposition has aconsiderable transboundary aspect. At least 50%of the annual deposition of sulphur and up to90% of nitrate are imported into Ireland fromother countries. Ireland, therefore, will continueto participate actively at EU and UN ECElevels in the development of abatementstrategies.

Ambient air qualityAn EU framework Directive on ambient airquality has now been adopted. This Directivewill lead to a series of subsidiary Directiveswhich will not only impose stricter standards forpollutants, e.g. NOx, already the subject of regu-lation, but will also, over time, extend regulationto a wide range of other pollutants (see alsoChapter 10).

Ireland is supporting the development of thesenew air quality standards and, in parallel withthis process, the EPA is preparing a national airquality monitoring programme.

The new Directives are likely to feature arequirement that the public be informed whencertain pollution levels occur, as happensalready in relation to low level ozone. This willrepresent a significant strengthening of publicinvolvement in air quality issues.

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Role of Land Use PlanningUrban and rural landscapes are constantlychanging as a result of the interaction betweenthe natural world and human developments.Spatial planning and land use policies, which ofnecessity have long time frames, seek to promoteorderly development to:• ensure that the use of land as a resource has

regard to the common good;• meet the needs of society for housing, food

and materials, economic and social infrastruc-ture, places of work, amenities and recre-ational facilities;

• support socio-economic policies concernedwith, for example, balanced regional develop-ment, social integration, urban renewal andthe maintenance of strong rural communities;and

• balance competing needs and prevent andminimise adverse impacts of human activitieson the environment.

Land use planning can support the objectives ofsustainable development in a number of ways:• efficiency in the use of energy, transport and

natural resources may be encouraged throughthe careful location of residential, commercialand industrial development, and controls onthe shape, structure and size of settlements;

• the planning process can also promote themost effective use of already developed areas;

• the protection and enhancement of the naturalenvironment, including unique or outstandingfeatures, landscapes and natural habitats canbe secured; and

• new development needs can be accommo-dated in an environmentally sustainable andsensitive manner.

The pattern of land use and the shape of thelandscape are being influenced by many forces,including changing agricultural practices,increased afforestation, the continuing expan-sion of urban settlements, one-off rural housing,increasing private car ownership, increasedtourism activity, new forms of commercial andbusiness development, coastal erosion and min-eral extraction. Visual amenity is also beingaffected by many forms of development and thelocation of infrastructure, including electricitytransmission, telecommunications masts andnew renewable energy generation methods suchas wind farms.

Sector specific issues associated with the integra-tion of sustainable development concepts andland use policy are discussed in the relevant sec-toral chapters of this Strategy. In addition, how-ever, it is important that this Strategy shouldensure that planning and sustainable develop-ment policies are consistent and mutually reinforcing.

The Development PlanPhysical planning policies and controls have infact a longer established history in Ireland thanenvironmental regulation and remain one of theprincipal instruments of environmental protec-tion. The very title of our physical planning leg-islation - the Local Government (Planning andDevelopment) Acts, 1963 to 1993 - foreshadows theconcept of sustainable development by acknowl-edging the need for development in equilibriumwith the local environment. The physical plan-ning system has also been extremely importantin Ireland in encouraging and facilitating publicawareness of environmental issues and publicparticipation in them.

The statutory framework for land use planninginvolves a responsibility on each local authority(County, County Borough, Borough and UrbanDistrict Council) for the determination of policyin its area through the development plan, and forapplying that policy, through planning control,

Chapter 14Spatial Planning and Land Use

"Land is subject to many competing uses or functions and,being a finite resource, conflicts often arise between them... The way that land is used has a primary influence onthe type of pressures which are allowed to act on the envi-ronment."

- European Environment Agency1

in deciding on planning applications andenforcing planning decisions.

The development plan is intended as the mainpolicy instrument for ensuring proper planningand development. While considerable scopealready exists for reflecting sustainable develop-ment objectives in the development planprocess, a new sense of direction and strongerpolicy integration are needed. The following ini-tiatives will support and complement the imple-mentation of this Strategy:

• planning and development legislation will beamended to require planning authoritiesexpressly to take account of sustainable devel-opment considerations in the elaboration oftheir development plans. The amendmentwill be designed to exert a practical influenceon the delivery of sustainable developmentpolicies in the economic sectors and in respectof the built and natural environment;

• to promote understanding of national policypriorities, encourage consistency of approachand raise awareness, the Department of theEnvironment will continue the publication ofits series of Land Use Guidelines for planningauthorities, developers and the public.Guidelines on the planning aspects of wind-farms2 and of telecommunications antennaeand support structures3 were finalised in 1996.Draft Guidelines on forestry development4

were published in January 1997, for publicconsultation, and further drafts on highamenity landscapes, the scope and content ofdevelopment plans, and archaeology will alsobe issued for public consultation in 1997.Priorities for further Land Use Guidelines willbe kept under review and will include theoperation of development control and enforce-ment, and protected habitats;

• in forthcoming Guidelines on the scope andcontent of development plans, planningauthorities will be encouraged to take a more

strategic view of settlement patterns, develop-ment needs and major infrastructural services,combining, in an appropriate manner, thestatutory five yearly review of the develop-ment plan with a coherent longer-term rollingplan. State funding for infrastructure develop-ment will not be provided in the event ofoverzoning, to avoid excessive suburbani-sation and inefficiencies in the use of land,energy and transport;

• under the Programme for reform of localgovernment, Better Local Government - AProgramme for Change5 (1996), RegionalAuthorities will be assigned a role in settingout strategic planning guidelines to berespected by the constituent local authoritiesin drawing up their development plans. Thisprocess is intended to start with the Dublinand Mid-East Regions; and

• greater recognition will be given to the qualityand character of the countryside. Sustainabledevelopment of rural areas involves respectfor nature and natural systems, conservationof habitats, species and features of ecologicalinterest, and protection of the environment, aswell as the creation of economic opportunityand the maintenance of social fabric. The rela-tionship between the development plan andother forms of special designation, such asNatural Heritage Areas or Special ProtectionAreas, will be clarified in the forthcoming Billto amend the Wildlife Act, 1976.

Development ControlThe development control functions exercised byplanning authorities and An Bord Pleanálaimpact on land use management on a day to daybasis. The system is designed to ensure timeli-ness, good quality decisions, public participa-tion, openness and proper enforcement. Thesystem must, however, remain responsive tochange and in this regard, a review of develop-ment currently exempted from developmentcontrol will be carried out.

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The use of land for agriculture or forestry is, ingeneral, exempted development under the LocalGovernment (Planning and Development) Actsand therefore not subject to planning permis-sion. However, a development for which anEnvironmental Impact Assessment is required -at present, afforestation exceeding 70 hectares -requires planning permission. Certain types ofsmaller agricultural buildings are also exemptsubject to conditions regarding restrictions onsize and distance from public roads and fromhouses, schools and churches.

Agricultural activities have been one of the maindeterminants in shaping the landscape in termsof field patterns, walls, hedges and woodland.While it would not be feasible to bring day today agricultural activity within the developmentcontrol system, it will be appropriate to reviewthe exemption for agricultural activities toensure that its extent and scope are compatiblewith sustainable development. For example, thephysical planning implications of agri-tourismneed to be considered to ensure that, where nec-essary, such developments are brought underplanning control.

Environmental Impact AssessmentEnvironmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for majordevelopments is now an integral and valuable partof development consent and land use managementprocedures. In transposing the EU Directive onEIA6, Ireland established thresholds for all projectcategories (whether mandatory or discretionary inthe Directive) at levels which reflect national envi-ronmental conditions and are comparatively strin-gent in EU terms. In addition, with very limitedexceptions, the planning authority has power torequire EIA for projects which fall below the statedthresholds where the authority considers that adevelopment would be likely to have significanteffects on the environment.

The exceptions referred to above are afforesta-tion, peat extraction and intensification of agri-culture, which, if not subject to EIA, are

exempted development under the Planning andDevelopment Acts. While the overall approachhas resulted in significantly higher numbers ofEIAs being carried out in Ireland per head ofpopulation than in other EU Member States, it isrecognised that in relation to afforestation andpeat extraction the thresholds originally fixedwere too high. The threshold for forestry wastherefore reduced with effect from October 1996and it is also intended shortly to reduce the peatextraction threshold.

EIA will continue to play an important part inthe approach to sustainable development,through its identification of concerns in the inter-action between development and environmentand its role in reconciling the socio-economicaspirations of society with the ability of the nat-ural environment to sustain them.

Efforts continue to be made to improve thequality of Environmental Impact Statements(EISs) and of assessment generally. The EPA, in1995, published Draft Guidelines on theInformation to be Contained in EnvironmentalImpact Statements and accompanying AdviceNotes on Current Practice.7 Following a two-yearperiod of review and evaluation in day-to-daypractice, it is the intention of the EPA to issue theGuidelines formally under Section 72 of theEnvironmental Protection Agency Act, 1992. In themeantime, they are of practical use to allinvolved in preparing and evaluating EISs byproviding an agreed basis for determining theadequacy of EISs, within the context of estab-lished development consent procedures.

EU Environment Ministers have now reachedagreement on a common position on a draftDirective to clarify and strengthen the provisionsof the 1985 EIA Directive. It is envisaged that thenew Directive will come into force at the end of1997. The draft Directive provides for the align-ment of the Directive, with regard to trans-boundary environmental impacts, with theConvention on Environmental Impact

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Assessment in a Transboundary Context8 - the"Espoo Convention". Ireland will shortly ratifythis UN ECE convention.

Strategic Environmental AssessmentThe term Strategic Environmental Assessment(SEA) is used to describe the environmentalassessment of plans and programmes and can beextended to include the assessment of policies.SEA is, by its nature, a more general assessmentthan that carried out in EIA which is project specific (see also Chapter 19).

A proposal for a Council Directive on the assess-ment of the effects of certain plans and pro-grammes on the environment was published bythe European Commission in December 1996.The proposal covers land use plans and pro-grammes, including sectoral land use plans in sec-tors such as transport, waste management, waterresource management, industry, telecommuni-cations, tourism or energy. The Department of theEnvironment is currently assessing the proposalfor a Council Directive in consultation with otherrelevant Departments and intends to adopt a con-structive Irish position.

Integrated Pollution ControlLand use planning alone cannot deal with all of the issues relating to the environmentalimpact of industry and mineral extraction. Theincreasing complexity of major industrial activi-ties and processes - and of corresponding envi-ronmental control possibilities and techniques -have underlined the need also for a more spe-cialised approach to activities involving complexindustrial processes or otherwise involvingpotentially significant impact on the environ-ment. Given the relatively small number of suchactivities, it was appropriate that specialisedexpertise for addressing them should be devel-oped nationally through the EnvironmentalProtection Agency, established in 1993, and itsIntegrated Pollution Control (IPC) licensingsystem. This approach is now being extended(under similar provisions of the Waste

Management Act, 1996) to the licensing of majorwaste management facilities.

The separation of planning and environmentalcontrol functions in respect of activities whichrequire an IPC/waste licence avoids, as far aspossible, duplication of effort between regulatoryauthorities, and gives developers flexibility inregard to the timing of the relevant applicationsfor new development. The arrangements alsoensure that the highest standards are applied incontrolling potential pollution from new andexisting development and they allow a consistentapproach to these activities throughout the State.

Unavoidably, however, the separation of planningand IPC/waste licensing procedures may some-times create an artificial divide when dealing witha project as a whole. It also clearly separates landuse considerations, properly a function of plan-ning authorities, from environmental pollutionconsiderations, which, for the relatively smallnumber of complex activities concerned, needmore specialist consideration. The operation ofthese complementary procedures will be keptunder review and further adapted, as appro-priate, in the light of experience.

Territorial Integration of SustainableDevelopmentAbove all, it should be the function of the physicalplanning system to achieve integration of sustain-able development on a territorial basis. The needfor territorially integrated sustainable develop-ment is recognised, for example, in the EuropeanCommission's Sustainable Cities Project, and theEuropean Sustainable Cities and Towns Campaignsupported by major European networks of localauthorities, as well as in coastal zone management(see Chapter 13), as a leading strategy for spatialplanning in littoral areas. Support for these andother integrated approaches will be providedthrough the Irish physical planning system.

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IntroductionThe built environment both affects and is affectedby the natural environment, using water, energy,land and materials, providing goods and services,and, as settlement intensifies, generatingincreasing wastes and emissions, traffic and noise,and potentially diminishing the quality of life.Urban settlements, however, also offer potentialeconomies of scale, and can achieve environ-mental and social sustainability, with good plan-ning and design, balanced development andlower consumption of resources. The impacts ofeconomic activity on human settlements areaddressed, as appropriate, in the sectoral chaptersof this Strategy. This chapter focuses on sustain-able development issues associated with the builtenvironment, including urban policy, conserva-tion, quality design, construction and housing.

Ireland was one of up to 200 UN Member Statesand organisations represented at the HABITAT IIconference in Istanbul in June 1996, which wasdevoted to the agreement of a common agendafor the attainment of the objectives of adequateshelter for all and sustainable human settle-ments in an urbanising world. The conferencegave expression to its agreement through theadoption of the comprehensive HABITATAgenda. The Government is committed toensuring that its policies in relation to housingand the urban environment take full account ofthe provisions of this Agenda, and will alsowork in this regard with EU partners to agreecommon approaches, where appropriate.

Urban Development

Urban development dynamics have greatlychanged in Ireland. In addition to the migrationof people from the country to the town, the cen-tres of cities and towns have been subject todepopulation with a consequent fraying of theurban fabric. The trends towards less intensiveurban patterns together with the consequentincreasing separation between home, work andtown centre have exacerbated the growth in pri-vate car traffic. This has led to increased energyuse and emissions of air pollutants, and has mil-itated against the effectiveness of public trans-port networks. The following actions will coun-teract these trends and promote more sustain-able development patterns.

• There will be closer coordination of transportand land use planning so as to increase the useand efficiency of public transport, rather thanprivate cars, particularly in the larger cities.The Dublin Transportation Initiative (DTI)noted that:"cities which have little or no influence on land usedevelopment policies beyond their administrativeboundaries experience difficulty in providing highquality and accessible public transport systemswithin their catchment areas."4

• The Department of the Environment will takean initiative to promote higher residential den-sities, particularly in redeveloping brownfieldsites and in proximity to town centres, publictransport nodes and access points, in consulta-tion with local authorities, the architectural,planning and auctioneering professions andthe house building industry. There has been inrecent years an increased emphasis on infilland inner city social housing and the urban

Chapter 15The Built Environment

"We must make, and remake, our built environment sothat to shelter, light, heat and cool ourselves does notdestroy our planet."

- Architects' Council of Europe2

"The overall human settlement objective is to improvethe social, economic and environmental quality of humansettlements and the living and working environments ofall people ... Urban settlements ... generate 60% of grossnational product and, if properly managed, can developthe capacity to sustain their productivity, improve theliving conditions of their residents and manage naturalresources in a sustainable way."

- Agenda 211

"To avoid unbalanced, unhealthy and unsustainable growth of human settle-ments, it is necessary to promote land-use patterns that minimise transportdemands, save energy and protect open and green spaces. Appropriateurban density and mixed land-use guidelines are of prime importance forurban development."

- HABITAT Agenda3

renewal incentives have promoted privatesector development in designated inner cityareas.

• The proposed Department of the Environmentguidelines on development plans (see Chapter14) will stress the need to ensure a cleardemarcation between urban and rural landuse, to help prevent urban sprawl, encouragemore sustainable development patterns inlarger settlements, and help maintain the rurallandscape.

• Local Agenda 21 initiatives by local authoritiescan bring together many critical urban poli-cies, which influence sustainable developmentof urban settlements, including those onhousing, environmental servicing, traffic man-agement, open space and parks and recre-ational and amenity services.

The Tidy Towns Competition, for which theDepartment of the Environment assumedresponsibility in 1995, represents a practicalopportunity for local people to promote the sus-tainable development of towns and villages.Following an in-depth review the competitionhas been given a wider focus to encompass thetotality of the urban environment, includingwildlife, natural amenities, and landscaping.The Department of the Environment has in 1997begun to provide a range of support services toassist Tidy Towns Committees in addressing thenew criteria.

Urban Regeneration

The principles of sustainable urban developmentdictate that there must be continued evolution ofpolicies which seek to bring redundant andderelict land and buildings back into active use.

Returning land and buildings to active use initself meets sustainable objectives: it reuses avail-able resources, contributes to energy efficiency,sustains the urban fabric, reduces the need todevelop greenfield sites, and protects the coun-tryside. Sustainable urban regeneration must gofurther than this by promoting uses that are sup-portive of urban life as a whole. Policies forachieving sustainable urban regeneration willhave as key elements:

• Integrated strategic economic and socialplanning to link measures and programmesfor urban renewal on an integrated basis toaddress the physical, economic, social andenvironmental regeneration of urban areas.

• Ecological principles will be applied in devel-oping measures for more efficient use of water,heat, energy and light in buildings and to sep-arate and recycle/reuse waste effectively, withincreased emphasis on adequate open spacefor outdoor recreation and on planting andlandscaping.

• Improving accessibility of areas in need ofregeneration which tend to be isolated frommainstream activities in cities and towns:good public transport linkages are particularlyimportant in this regard.

• Environmental upgrading: under the Urbanand Village Renewal Sub-Programme of theOperational Programme for Local Urban and RuralDevelopment, 1994-996, investment will con-tinue in a range of measures to promote therejuvenation of towns and villages, rehabili-tate the built environment and restore andconserve important heritage buildings.

• Design flexibility so that buildings aredesigned or adapted in a way which allows foras many uses, and as much flexibility of use, aspracticable. Sustainable urban regenerationalso requires a high degree of flexibility in theapplication of zoning and planning policies to

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"The challenge of urban sustainable development is to solve both theproblems experienced within cities and the problems caused by cities,recognising that cities themselves provide many potential solutions."

- European Commission, Expert Group on the Urban Environment5

encourage a greater range of leisure facilitiesin town centres, the use of upper storeys forresidential purposes and the conversion ofout-moded buildings to new uses, e.g. obso-lete commercial buildings to residential use.The Guidelines on Residential Development inDesignated Tax Incentive Areas7 were aimed atpromoting significant improvements in thisarea. These will be reviewed by theDepartment of the Environment in the light ofexperience.

• Open spaces: within cities the main justifica-tion up to now for retaining open spaces hasbeen to fulfil social functions such as the pro-vision of meeting places, recreation areas,sports and entertainment facilities and generalamenity value. While the need for these facil-ities will continue, open space can also fulfilvarious environmental functions in terms ofsurface water management, maintenance ofbiodiversity and improved air quality.Accordingly, from a sustainability perspective,there is need for a new emphasis on the envi-ronmental and ecological, in addition to thetraditional social and amenity, roles of openspaces within the urban fabric.

• Mechanisms and resources to overcome crit-ical barriers so that planned urban regenera-tion objectives can be achieved.

• A partnership approach involving cross-sec-toral consultation and participation betweenlocal authorities and business and communityinterests and representative organisations.

A Consultancy study on the impact, effective-ness and cost of the tax-based urban renewalschemes in designated areas was completed in1996.8 The study recognised the value, in termsof sustainability, of renewing inner urban areas.While concluding that the schemes have beenhighly successful in directing investmenttowards the renewal of such areas, it recom-mended an approach to future policy based onthe key elements referred to above. A consulta-

tion process in relation to the study has con-cluded and proposals for future action are beingdeveloped.

Following the enactment of legislation by theOireachtas, the Dublin Docklands Authority is tobe established on 1 May 1997, to lead the socialand economic regeneration of the DocklandsArea of Dublin.

Urban-Generated Housing in Rural AreasAlthough the predominant demographic charac-teristic of many rural areas is one of populationdecline, leading to vacant dwellings, there is, insome areas, severe pressure of demand for one-off housing to meet the needs of people workingin nearby towns and cities. There is also demandto build tourist housing in scenic areas.

Growing demand for housing in the countrysidefrom people working in cities and towns is gen-erally unsustainable because:• being separated from all other activities which

the householder normally has resort to, suchas work, shops, schools and entertainment,one-off housing is a large utiliser of energy;

• most one-off houses are served by individualseptic tanks, raising concerns for groundwaterprotection;

• there are increased roads and transport costs;and

• there is a negative impact in terms of the urbanfabric of towns.

In general, there must be a presumption againsturban-generated one-off rural housing adjacentto towns. The Planning Acts enable local author-ities to grant permission for dwellings for certaincategories of person whose occupation requiresthem to be rurally based, thereby catering forgenuine needs. However, certain principlesshould apply to all such development. Theseinclude:• development along national primary and sec-

ondary roads should not be allowed for trafficsafety reasons;

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• the need to preserve outstanding landscapesand views of special importance should berecognised;

• the ability to integrate one-off housing into thelandscape should be emphasised, throughgood design, good use of site and use ofappropriate building materials;

• the site should be suitable for sewage disposaland drainage; and

• rehabilitation of derelict houses should, in cer-tain instances, be encouraged as a more sus-tainable option than the construction of a newdwelling.

Conservation of the Architectural HeritageAs with the natural environment, there is nowmuch greater awareness of the value of con-serving our built environment. The refurbish-ment of older buildings, while ensuring theretention of detail and character, revitalises citiesand towns, supporting their aesthetic value andgiving them a distinctive identity.

The report of the Inter-Departmental WorkingGroup - Strengthening the Protection of theArchitectural Heritage9 - was published inSeptember 1996. The report contains a compre-hensive set of recommendations for the protec-tion of the architectural heritage, including rec-ommendations relating to legal, administrativeand financial aspects. The Minister for theEnvironment:

• is now preparing extensive new legislativeproposals along the lines recommended in thereport; and

• is working with the Minister for Arts, Cultureand the Gaeltacht on a joint package of admin-istrative and financial measures to create afully effective framework for protecting thebuilt heritage.

The proposed legislation will include:• an obligation on local authorities to maintain a

formal record of protected buildings as part ofthe development plan;

• using the National Inventory of Architectureas a resource for local authorities;

• ensuring that, where a building is protected,the whole of the building, including interiorand curtilage, is safeguarded;

• an active role for local authorities in ensuringthat protected buildings are not endangeredby neglect; and

• provisions in relation to special streetscapesand other features of interest which need to beprotected.

The conservation and restoration of urban archi-tecture and heritage buildings has also beenaddressed in the Urban and Village RenewalSub-Programme of the Operational Programme forLocal Urban and Rural Development. TheConservation Measure of this Sub-Programmeprovides financial support of up to 50% to localauthorities, civic trusts and conservation groupsto promote various urban conservation mea-sures in towns throughout the country. Theseries of conservation booklets published by theDepartment of the Environment in 1996 isproving to be a valuable resource in terms ofgiving advice on a wide range of conservationissues and setting out principles of best conser-vation practice.

Following the recent review, additional flexibilityin relation to the design and construction ofbuildings is being incorporated into the BuildingRegulations. As a result, designers will have thefreedom to adopt more sympathetic and appro-priate approaches to the refurbishment or con-version of existing buildings. This will, in partic-ular, facilitate the refurbishment or adaptation ofarchitecturally valuable buildings for new uses.

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Building Design and Construction

Buildings consume land, energy, water andmaterials, and create waste. Sustainablebuilding:• optimises energy performance and reduces

CO2 emissions through, for example, locationto maximise use of natural light and heat,good thermal insulation, and energy-efficientspace and water heating;

• uses renewable materials, reduces use of non-renewable materials, and avoids use of syn-thetic materials which affect indoor air qualityor comfort;

• promotes lower consumption of resourcesthrough the use of efficient components andfittings, such as low water consuming flushtoilets, and water recycling systems in indus-trial premises;

• is designed flexibly to facilitate adaptation tochanging uses in the interests of maximisinglifespan; and

• encourages reuse of existing buildings, and ofdemolition spoil.

The Minister for the Environment launched awide-ranging strategic review of the construc-tion industry in March 1996. As part of thereview, the Minister asked the Strategic ReviewCommittee (SRC) to consider how the industrycan optimise its contribution to the goal of sus-tainable development. Success in this respectwill involve balancing the short-term perspec-tive of market forces by the longer-term consid-erations associated with sustainability.Sustainability principles must underlie theimplementation of future strategy for the con-struction industry.

Energy Efficiency in BuildingsThe Building Regulations and the associatedTechnical Guidance Documents contain adviceon how energy conservation requirementsshould be met. Since the introduction of theRegulations in 1992, insulation levels are esti-mated to have increased by up to 50%. Overallenergy use in new buildings is estimated to havebeen reduced by up to 20% as a result, generatingannual savings of up to £100 (1996 prices) for theaverage house. It is also estimated that, by theyear 2000, the new standards will result in areduction of about 2% in CO2 emissions arisingfrom the heating requirements of buildings gen-erally.11 Further amendments to be made inregard to insulation standards arising from therecent review of the Regulations will yield addi-tional savings in the order of 5% of energy use forspace heating in respect of buildings.

The revised Technical Guidance Document will,for the first time, incorporate an optional EnergyRating System for new houses. This provides ameasure of the energy requirement for space andwater heating for standard conditions of usageand is expressed in terms of the energy require-ment per unit floor area. In addition to showingcompliance, this rating can be used to convey tohouse-buyers the advantages of levels of energyefficiency which surpass the requirements of theRegulations. Where the development providesadditional insulation, the effect will be clearlyshown in an improved rating. Thus, theenhanced energy efficiency is made transparent,providing meaningful information to the poten-tial purchaser and a marketing advantage to thedeveloper. The Irish Energy Centre which wasset up to take a lead role in Ireland's energy pro-gramme is developing a software package tofacilitate the design professions in using theEnergy Rating System.

Fifty-eight houses have been completed and afurther 500 are to be built as part of a project sup-ported by the EU Thermie initiative to encouragethe use of energy-efficient and environmentally

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"The basic principles of sustainable design are quitestraightforward: minimise artificial lighting, heating andmechanical ventilation; avoid air-conditioning; conservewater; use site and materials wisely; recycle where pos-sible. A great deal can be achieved by intelligent designand without using untried technologies."

- GREEN DESIGN: Sustainable Building for Ireland10

friendly building practices.12 The projectinvolves local authority, voluntary and privatehousing. The houses are innovative energy-effi-cient homes, built to give maximum comfort tothe occupants and to cause minimum pollutionof the atmosphere by incorporating tried andtested modern technologies.

Housing authorities were requested in 1996 toassign a high priority to energy conservationwithin their housing programmes and todevelop and implement an effective energy con-servation programme for their housing stock.

Complementary MeasuresIn order to promote water conservation, theDepartment of the Environment will formallyrequest the National Standards Authority ofIreland (NSAI) to revise the existing IrishStandard (I.S. 70:1970 - Water-Closet Cisterns forDomestic Use) to make provision for a flush toiletwater cistern involving substantially lower waterconsumption. Following consultation at nationaland EU level, the revised standard should beoperational by the end of 1999.

Ensuring sustainability in the long-term willrequire the use of a range of measures to com-plement the regulatory approach and reinforceor, where necessary, correct short-term marketforces. In particular, within the framework ofthis Strategy, measures to be pursued willinclude:• encouragement of voluntary codes of practice;• use of voluntary, or mandatory, environmental

performance assessment;• improvement of scientific and technical

knowledge; and• use of fiscal instruments.

As pointed out in GREEN DESIGN13, "design fordurability is superior to design for recycling. Andrecycling is superior to waste."

Sustainable Housing

The basic principles of sustainability in building,referred to above, increasingly inform policydecisions in regard to:• the design, quality and location of new

housing; and • the maintenance, refurbishment and improve-

ment of the existing housing stock.

In the housing context, the concept of sustainabilityhas a social as well as an environmental dimension.Positive measures to counteract social segregationand to promote tenant participation and involve-ment contribute to this social dimension.

Fig 15.1 Major Redevelopment for Ballymun

In March 1997, the Minister for theEnvironment and the Minister for Housingand Urban Renewal announced a major rede-velopment of the Ballymun housing estate,costing about £180 million. This will be thecentral element in an integrated strategic planfor the economic and social development ofBallymun. The tower and spine blocks of flatswill be demolished progressively over eightyears and replaced with a self-sustainingurban centre for the 20,000 people who willcontinue to live in, and around, the area. Theplan will include arrangements for consulta-tion with, and involvement of, the local com-munity in its implementation.

New HousingThe current high level of house building consumesan estimated 2,000-2,300 hectares of serviced landannually. In recent years, the greater emphasis oninfill developments and increased apartmentbuilding in the private housing sector has resulted

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"The design of the built environment is recognised ashaving an impact on people's well-being and behaviourand, thereby, on people's health. Good design in newhousing and in upgrading and rehabilitation is importantfor the creation of sustainable living conditions."

- HABITAT Agenda14

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in higher density developments and a consider-ably more intensive use of land by the housing pro-gramme. Apartments currently represent about20% of new housing completions and around 40%of completions in Dublin.15 Nevertheless, much ofthe land absorbed by the housing programme isgood agricultural land located on the fringe ofurban areas or in rural areas. Housing demand islikely to remain at a high level as, relative toWestern European norms, the housing stock issmall in relation to the population. Future devel-opment must be as prudent as possible in the con-sumption of land and demand for services.

Local authorities have been requested by theDepartment of the Environment to develop, as faras possible, infill sites for local authority housing toenable new housing to be integrated with existingcommunities. This has fundamentally changed thenature of the local authority housing programme.

Existing Local Authority HousingA number of schemes exist to assist local author-ities to improve substandard housing andupgrade the physical environment in certainolder local authority housing estates. The mostsignificant of these, the Remedial Works Schemeintroduced in 1985, enables local authorities tocarry out major improvement works to substan-dard elements of their rented housing stock, cer-tain pre-1940 dwellings and inner city flat com-plexes. Since 1985, some 6,500 units have beenimproved, with capital investment of some £155million by 1996, and a further £18.7 million hasbeen provided for the programme in 1997.

An Estate Improvement Programme, with £3million in funding over two years, has beenintroduced in 1997 arising from the first report ofthe Ministerial Task Force on Measures toReduce the Demand for Drugs. This Programmewill assist local authorities in tackling environ-mental and related problems of severely run-down urban housing estates and flat complexes.It will help to eliminate or modify certain unde-sirable aspects of the design and layout ofestates, carry out improvement work to enhancethe living environment for tenants and establish

improved estate management arrangements.This new Programme will be focused on "pri-ority areas" in Dublin - both City and County,and in the Cities of Cork and Limerick.

There are a number of important sustainabilityaspects to these schemes: • the quality of existing substandard housing is

improved and its lifespan expanded;• environmental improvement works are car-

ried out in conjunction with the structuralworks to the dwellings, to renew and improvegeneral living conditions and the visual attrac-tiveness of the estate; and

• there is consultation with tenants at every stageof the project and they have a continued partic-ipation in management of the improved estate.

The Social DimensionA strategy to counteract social segregation inhousing was first set out in A Plan for SocialHousing16 (1991). The policy was to replace the tra-ditional, almost exclusive, reliance on the localauthority house building programme as theresponse to social housing needs with a range ofoptions, including an expanded voluntary housingsector and new measures to assist marginal homeowners, such as the shared ownership system.

In order to mitigate the extent and effects ofsocial segregation in housing and to improvesocial mix, local authorities are encouraged toprovide new housing in smaller developmentsand, where possible, to avoid adding to existinglarge scale local authority housing estates. Theyhave been requested to:• consider purchasing existing or new houses, as

an alternative to new building by the authority;• avoid large concentrations of single class

houses and encourage the achievement of agood social mix; and

• make existing lands owned by authoritieswhich are suitable for housing available toindividuals, voluntary bodies and co-ops.

These policies were further accentuated in thelatest housing policy document Social Housing -The Way Ahead17 (1995).

As indicators of the success of these policies:• less than 10% of new local authority housing

built in 1994 and 1995 was on greenfield sites;and

• the purchase of existing housing accounted forover 16% of the total housing programme in1994, and 23% in both 1995 and 1996.

Fig 15.2 Social Integration in PracticeHousing at South Douglas Road, Cork

A recent housing development at SouthDouglas Road, Cork, is a good example of howlocal authorities can influence the creation ofcommunities with a mix of housing tenures.

Cork Corporation, with the NationalBuilding Agency, carefully planned the devel-opment of a sixty acre site to illustrate therange of housing options that can be success-fully achieved in a single location. Thenorthern edge of the site was bounded byexisting private housing and new privatehousing was built on Corporation land to thewest. At the southern extremity of thelands, the Corporation provided housingsites at low cost to a voluntary housingagency to develop 30 houses and a commu-nity centre. The Corporation developed 104local authority houses, in four phases,catering for a range of needs by providingtwo, three and four bedroomed houses, anumber of which were specifically designedfor people with disabilities. The Corporationalso provided low-cost housing sites to per-sons in housing need and arranged for theconstruction of 16 houses for sale under theshared ownership system.

Apart from the range of housing to meet dif-ferent needs, the Corporation provided sitesfor Nemo Rangers Gaelic Football Club, arunning track for Tramore Athletic, publicopen space, and a playing pitch for the localcommunity school in this location.

Tenant ParticipationSustainability in housing requires tenant partici-pation and empowerment. Good housing man-agement must convey to tenants that they have agenuine stake in their home and in their neigh-bourhood. Tenant participation has been anotable feature of the voluntary housing RentalSubsidy Scheme since its introduction in 1991.Local authority housing management nowinvolves a greater emphasis on tenant and stafftraining, and tenant participation, in order tohelp foster strong communities in local authorityhousing estates.

A Housing Management Group comprisingsenior officials of local authorities and theDepartment of the Environment has been estab-lished to identify and promote best practice inthe housing management area. This Group hasalready established a consultation process toenable tenants to contribute to its work. TheGroup's first Report18 (December 1996) specifi-cally endorsed the potential benefits of tenantinvolvement and set out general guidelines onbest practice in this area.

Future Housing PolicyFor the future, housing policies should continueto develop in a direction which promotes moresustainable settlement formation and buildingpractices, encourages housing that is closer tothe centre, which is more amenable to publictransportation options and which achievesgreater social integration.

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Introduction/OverviewIndividual members of the public often expressconcern about environmental problems, bothnational and international. Growing awarenessof the implications of climate change and otherglobal environmental issues is paralleled by con-cern about national developments such as:• increasing production of waste and the

difficulties involved in its disposal;• the pollution of inland waters by agricultural

or industrial emissions;• the use and depletion of natural resources; and• the problems of road congestion with resultant

air pollution and noise caused by increasingvehicle numbers.

Fig 16.1 Europeans and the Environment,19952

Is protecting the environment and fighting pollutionan immediate and urgent problem?• 76% of Irish people said Yes (up from 70%

in 1992)Which should get priority - economic development or environmental protection?• 68% of Irish people said that while economic

development must be ensured, the environmentmust also be protected (up from 59% in 1992)

"Serious environmental damage", according to Irishconcerns, was caused by• factories which release chemicals into the air

and water (68%)• storage of nuclear waste (48%)• oil pollution of seas and coasts (44%)• industrial waste (43%)• excessive use of herbicides, insecticides and

fertilisers in agriculture (37%)• rubbish in the streets, in green spaces and

on beaches (29%)• sewage (28%)• air pollution from cars (24%)

Public concern about the natural environment,and unsustainable practices which threaten ordamage it, is well developed in Ireland.However, this concern is not always translatedinto action at individual and consumer levels tosupport solutions to these problems.

Large problems are often the sum of individualactions and choices, and can be ameliorated bysmall, incremental steps which change indi-vidual consumer behaviour (e.g. minimising andrecycling household waste, leaving the car athome, conserving water and energy).Encouraging and educating consumers on howto take these steps is an objective of Governmentpolicy on sustainable development.

Fig 16.2 Consumer Interactions with the Environment

General consumption/purchasing• consumer demand has the potential to influ-

ence significantly the market and productionEnergy consumption• the domestic sector accounts for 28% of

energy consumption in Ireland, second onlyto transport (31%)

Emissions to air• the domestic sector accounts for one-third

of national energy-related CO2 emissionsWater consumption• the growing household demand for water,

particularly in urban areas, has led to occasional shortages of supply

Transport• increasing transport volume, including over

990,000 private cars, contributes to trafficcongestion

Waste production• total household waste production is estimated

to be over 1,300,000 tonnes per annum - 11.5%of the total non-agricultural wastes in 1995

Chapter 16Public Action and Awareness

"It is on the level on which we lead our daily lives - in the distance and way wemust travel to work, in the amount of rubbish we generate - sustainability willstand or fall. And it is to this that we should turn our attention."

- An Taisce West Cork3

"For consumers, concern for the environment now tran-scends the physical surroundings of where they live, toinclude the food they eat, the products they use, wherethey go on holiday, and the sort of world their children andgrandchildren will inherit."

-Forfás Shaping our Future1

Consumer Interactions with theEnvironmentSustainable consumption

The concept of sustainable production and con-sumption has been referred to in Chapter 9,largely in the context of production. It is, how-ever, also relevant to domestic consumption andconsumer demand. Maintaining the choice of awide variety of goods, available all year round(even if this means importing seasonal foodsfrom the far side of the globe, with significanttransport implications) feeds the industrial pro-duction cycle. Advertising and marketingstrategies suggest that ever more consumergoods are essential for the modern home.Against this background, the purchasing powerof the "green" consumer has the potential to be asignificant force for sustainability.

Individual action in response to growing aware-ness of the environmental implications oflifestyle has included the development of greenconsumerism, i.e. discrimination on the part ofthe consumer in favour of environmentally-friendly products and services. This is particu-larly evident in northern European countries,where consumers are prepared to pay more forgreener (or organic) products or services. The1995 survey Europeans and the Environment con-cluded that "changing consumption habits is a stepthat Europeans are prepared to take to curb or evenstop the deterioration of the environment".5 Thisconsumer willingness provides economic oppor-tunities for companies whose products or ser-vices have perceived environmental advantages.

The informed consumer can exert considerablepressure on producers, suppliers and retailersregarding the type of goods produced for sale,including their content and method of produc-tion, packaging and facilities for disposal. Thispressure can affect many sectors of the economy,including agriculture (through demand fororganically-produced food), and industry (bydemand for longer-life and energy-efficienthousehold appliances, less use of toxic chemicalsin products and processes, and less packaging).Consumer pressure can affect services as well asgoods, including repair and conversion, trans-port and tourism. Other areas where consumerbehaviour and preferences can influence moresustainable consumption and productioninclude:• demanding and supporting goods which

are less materially-intensive, e.g., productswhich are eco-efficient in their design andmanufacture;

• using durable rather than throwaway prod-ucts, repairing and recycling goods wherepossible; and

• leasing, instead of buying, large householdappliances, and buying services rather thanpurchasing goods.

Production and consumption are at the core ofpresent day economic activity, and are the dri-ving forces of modern lifestyles. Ultimately, theend consumers of goods and services can createa major impetus for sustainable development byinformed and aware choices. To improve infor-mation on the environmental impacts of goods,and reinforce opportunities to choose themost environmentally-friendly goods, theGovernment will ask the Director of ConsumerAffairs to consider new arrangements for pro-viding full and authoritative environmentalinformation to consumers. The Office ofConsumer Affairs will also be asked, in consul-tation with the Departments of Enterprise andEmployment and the Environment, to prepare aCode of Practice on green marketing, to whichproducers and retailers may voluntarily subscribe.

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"In a world with finite resources and environmental limits, affluent con-sumers will need to use less of the world's resources, so other consumersmay claim their rightful share of the Earth's resource wealth.Consumption patterns in the Northern Hemisphere need to change sothat consumer standards are maintained or improved, while lessresources are used and less waste and pollution are created."

- Erna Witoelar, President, Consumers International4

The EU Eco-label Scheme was introduced undera 1992 Regulation as an information aid for con-sumers, setting criteria for categories of productswhich establish their environmental credentials.To date ecological criteria have been set for 12product groups: washing machines; dish-washers; soil improvers; toilet paper; paperkitchen rolls; laundry detergents; double-endedlight bulbs; single-ended light bulbs; bed linenand T-shirts; copying paper; indoor paints andvarnishes; and refrigerators. The EU is com-mitted to the concept as a visible sign to con-sumers that manufacturers are taking environ-mental issues into account. The Eco-labelScheme is currently under review and the possi-bility of extending it to the services sector isbeing examined.

Energy consumptionThe implications for sustainable development ofIreland's increasing energy consumption havealready been analysed in Chapter 8. The contri-bution of the residential sector, at 28% of totalenergy consumption in 1993, makes it secondonly to transport as the largest sectoral consumerof energy.6 The residential sector (includingemissions from electricity generation which isconsumed in the sector) accounts for approxi-mately one-third of national energy-relatedcarbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. In effect, Irishhomes represent the single biggest contributor toemissions of CO2, a major factor in globalwarming and climate change.

The financial costs of domestic energy consump-tion are illustrated in figures prepared by theIrish Energy Centre; the average householdenergy bill is estimated at £675 per year (1995prices), which indicates a total annual energycost for the 1.15 million Irish homes of over £750million. The Centre also estimates that averageenergy costs in an uninsulated house are £2.80per day, or over £1,000 a year. Simple conserva-tion measures which can save energy, andthereby reduce these costs are outlined in Fig16.3. The message is clear; energy wasted ismoney wasted.

Fig 16.3 Examples of Home Energy Conservation Measures

Measure Typical Typical cost payback

period

Hot water cylinder £10 2-4 monthsinsulation

Draught-proofing £55 1-3 years (average house)

Attic insulation £135 approx. 3 (150 mm.) years

Cavity wall £300-£500 3-5 years insulation

Source: Irish Energy Centre7

The potential for Irish consumers to save energyin the home is also highlighted in an ESRI studyon energy conservation in the home, publishedin 1993.8 This showed that:• only 66% of households had attic insulation

(described by the Irish Energy Centre as one ofthe most cost-effective ways of achievingenergy savings in the home);

• only 59% had lagged their hot water tanks(which can save 30% of the energy used to heatwater); and

• only 32% had double glazing.

While these figures represented an improvementover the position reported by An Foras Forbartha ina previous (1985/86) survey9, they demonstrate thatthere is still significant scope for further savings indomestic energy consumption. The savings benefitthe consumer financially, while the environmentbenefits from the effects of reduced energy con-sumption, including lower CO2 emissions.

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Water consumptionDomestic water requirements are increasingthroughout most of Europe. This increase ispartly associated with changes in householdstructure and in living patterns (e.g. the trend istowards smaller households, which tend to beless resource-efficient). Increased availabilityand use of domestic appliances such as washingmachines and dishwashers, arising fromimproved economic conditions, results in agreater volume of water used and ofsewage/waste water produced. Greateremphasis on personal hygiene leads to increaseduse of water in baths and showers. Gardeningpractices such as the use of hosepipes and sprin-klers also increase pressure on water resources,particularly during summertime when theseresources are at their most limited.

Water losses through leakage and other faults inthe supply system have been identified as amajor factor in shortages and ability to meetgrowing demand, as well as an inefficiency inthe economics of water supply and treatment.The domestic contribution to these water lossesis often underestimated, yet a dripping tap orleaking water fitting can waste many thousandsof litres of water in a year. It has been estimated11

that domestic losses in the greater Dublin area,for example, amount to approximately 5% oftotal supply. While modest in the overall contextof water losses, this represents some 60 litres perproperty per day. Distribution losses are beingaddressed by the public authorities concerned.Individual consumers can save water by simplemeasures such as fixing leaks and drippingtaps, choosing more water-efficient washingmachines/dishwashers when purchasing theseappliances, and economising in the use of waterfor gardens.

Questions are being raised in a number of coun-tries and organisations - particularly by environ-mental NGOs - about the possibility of usingeither untreated or "grey" (recycled) waterwithin the domestic setting. While all water sup-plied to households meets the high standardsspecified for drinking water quality, only a smallpercentage of this water is actually used fordrinking or cooking. Most is used for bathing,washing clothes and other goods, flushing toiletsand other miscellaneous uses such as washingcars and watering gardens. A dual supplysystem, which would allow the use of untreatedor recycled water for these latter purposeswould have the potential to save water and alsoeconomise on both the costs of treatment and theuse of chemicals. However, a duplicate systemwould be expensive to install, and might not beeconomically justifiable. In all likelihood, this isnot an option in the short-term. A more practi-cable alternative would be for consumers torecycle water within their households, forexample, by using rainwater and water fromwashing for garden purposes or for car washing.

Transport

People, as consumers of transport, also have asignificant impact on growth in the transportsector and its environmental implications,including energy consumption. With over990,000 private cars registered at the end of 1995and car sales in excess of 100,000 units during1996, private transport is placing increasingpressure on the environment and sustainability,in terms of air pollution, congestion, noise, etc.,as detailed in Chapter 10.

Consumer action to ease these pressures can takemany forms; transport volume growth can becurbed by the use of alternatives to private cars.These may include:

Chapter 16 Public Action and Awareness

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"Domestic and commercial water requirements, in urban areas, amount toapproximately 250 litres per person per day."

- Environmental Protection Agency10

"A cyclist can travel 1,600 miles on the energy equiva-lent of one gallon of petrol."

- Global Action Plan Ireland12

• using public transport, where this is anoption. This Strategy places emphasis onbetter public transport options and traffic man-agement measures, particularly in urban areas;

• choosing to walk or cycle, especially for shortjourneys; where safe cycling facilities are notavailable, consumers can actively seek them,for example, by participating in the local plan-ning and development process. The DublinTransportation Initiative set out criteria for thedevelopment of cycle facilities and empha-sised the importance of creating an efficientand convenient network of such facilities; thebasis of their approach was that the overallaim of cycling policy should be to increase theshare of travel undertaken by bicycle; and

• making car-pooling arrangements with col-leagues for commuting to work, with neigh-bours for school runs or shopping trips, withfriends for social occasions; this cuts down onthe number of cars on the roads and increasesthe efficiency of car transport.

Where cars are used, there is also considerablescope for consumers to use unleaded, ratherthan leaded petrol, and, when buying new cars,to choose more efficient and less pollutingmodels.

Waste

While the contribution of the domestic sector tothe overall waste stream, at 11.5% of total non-agricultural wastes, is relatively modest, it is partof the noticeable trend of increasing amounts ofwaste produced by Irish society. Domestic wasteis biogenic in composition and has, therefore, apotentially greater impact on the environmentthan more inert wastes, such as constructionwastes. Domestic and commercial waste increased

by around one-third over the past decade.

A continuing increase in waste production is notsustainable. Improved recycling rates and betterdisposal practices can reduce environmentalimpacts, but volume is the first issue for sustain-ability. Waste minimisation/reduction at sourceis paramount, followed by recovery, reuse andrecycling, with disposal as the final resort.

Previous chapters have addressed wastes pro-duced by the main economic sectors, principallyagriculture and industry. However, the role ofindividual consumers and households in, firstly,minimising waste production, and secondly,reusing and recycling waste material, is alsoimportant. At present, only a very low propor-tion of domestic waste is recycled; the vast bulkof consumer waste goes directly to landfill.

The national recycling strategy Recycling for

Ireland (1994) focuses on the possibilities of recy-

cling domestic and commercial waste, and will

divert 20% of this waste to recycling by 1999.

Government policy is to provide for the sup-

porting infrastructure to meet this target; this

includes expanding the number of collection

points to a total of 500 multi-material sites,

including 20 civic amenity sites for this purpose

in the short-term and 75 in the medium-term.

Consumers must play their part in availing of

the opportunities provided. This consumer sup-

port is evident in relation to existing recycling

schemes, such as Kerbside in Dublin which now

involves some 42,000 households.

Past surveys of public attitudes to the environ-

ment have identified litter as a major concern,

Chapter 16 Public Action and Awareness

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"Almost everybody in Ireland contributes to the growingwaste stream and so must bear a share of responsibilityfor what is produced."

- Environmental Protection Agency13

"... it is estimated that, theoretically, between 70 and 80 per cent of the house-hold and commercial waste stream is either recyclable or re-usable. This figurereduces to about 60 per cent when the practical problem of contamination isaccounted for."

- Environmental Protection Agency14

possibly because it is the most widespread and

visual example of waste production. The

Government launched the national Action

Against Litter15 campaign in 1996, and is com-

mitted to sustaining it over the next two years.

The campaign is an integrated approach to a key

environmental issue which is readily amenable

to individual and community action. It includes

the promotion of awareness of, and a more

responsible attitude to, litter to motivate the

public to tackle the problem. Local and national

voluntary groups are being invited to participate

actively in the campaign, which will also target

measures at specific groups such as motorists,

shoppers, public transport users and leisure

groups.

Legislation will be strengthened; a new Litter

Pollution Bill, which will replace the Litter Act,

1982, is progressing through the Oireachtas and

when enacted, will be vigorously implemented.

This will broaden the powers of local authorities

to deal with litter polluters and place a renewed

emphasis on the responsibility of individual citi-

zens for litter control. Penalties for litter pol-

luters will also increase. Clear goals will be

agreed for improving local authority perfor-

mance in preventing and controlling litter with a

strong emphasis on effective enforcement of leg-

islation.

Fig 16.4 Europeans and the Environment,1995

Within Ireland, the greatest concerns of therespondents were1. pollution of rivers and lakes; pollution of

seas and coasts; and industrial waste2. harm caused to animals, plants and the

natural habitat; pollution of agricultural origin (insecticides, pesticides, slurry, etc.); andrisks connected with the use of nuclear power

3. air pollution; and possible risks for the environment from the development of biotech-nologies

In the respondents' immediate environment, the greatest causes of complaint were1. the amount of traffic2. waste disposal3. drinking water quality4. air pollution 5. damage to landscape

Supporting Consumer Responsibility forthe EnvironmentThere is an ongoing need to increase public sen-

sitivity to environment and development prob-

lems and at the same time to encourage indi-

vidual involvement in their solution. Personal

environmental responsibility must be encour-

aged to create greater motivation and commit-

ment towards sustainable development. To

achieve these aims, Agenda 21 set as an objective:

"to promote broad public awareness as an essential

part of a global education effort to strengthen atti-

tudes, values and actions which are compatible

with sustainable development".16

Chapter 16 Public Action and Awareness

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Fig 16.5 Europeans and the Environment,1995

What did/would Irish respondents do to protectthe environment?• avoid dropping paper and waste on the ground

(89%) • save energy, e.g. by closing doors/windows and

using less hot water (60%) • buy environmentally friendly products, even

if they were more expensive (43%)• save tap water (42%)• sort household waste for recycling (39%)• use less-polluting transport than a private

car (28%)

The role of community and environmentalgroupsGrowing environmental awareness reflects localconcerns about environmental quality andresources, growing media coverage of the envi-ronment and the campaigning activities of com-munity and environment groups. Advances inthe understanding of environmental sciences,increased material prosperity and a level of glob-alisation which underlines the interconnected-ness of environmental systems and resourceshave also contributed to this heightened envi-ronmental awareness, which encompasses worldenvironmental issues such as climate change aswell as local concerns more directly amenable toindividual action.

The Clean Up The World Campaign17 was devel-oped in Australia in 1989, and has operated inIreland since 1993 under the coordination of theDublin Healthy Cities Project. Based on theprinciple of "Think Globally - Act Locally", thisinitiative unites people in over 1,000 citiesaround the world in carrying out a simultaneousclean-up of their local environs on one weekendeach year. Activities undertaken to date inIreland have included the clean-up of rivers,woods, beaches and local areas, as well as graffiti removal, tree planting, exhibitions, street

theatre and competitions. The aims of the cam-paign include raising awareness of local envi-ronmental issues, particularly in relation towaste minimisation, recycling and waste man-agement, and serving as a catalyst for permanentchanges in attitudes and behaviour. The annualevent also helps to instil respect for the environ-ment in participants and can make the introduc-tion of more sustainable policies and practices,such as recycling, more acceptable to consumers.

The GAP Household ECOTEAM Programme

... is designed to guide and support individuals in taking effective action forthe environment through:• reducing waste;• improving water and energy efficiency;• improving transport efficiency;• becoming eco-wise consumers; and• empowering others through home,

workplace and community action.

Global Action Plan (GAP) originated in the UnitedStates in 1990 to help householders to adopt sus-tainable lifestyles. The central principle is thatindividual action can make a difference, and thatthe actions of individuals are greatly enhancedby teamwork and the provision of proper sup-port structures. People work together in teamsof 4 to 10 households and, with guidance, learnsimple and practical ways of reducing theirimpact on the environment by taking action athome and in their community. Teams estimatetheir impact on the environment before and afterthe programme by conducting a householdaudit. GAP is now operating in the UnitedStates, the Netherlands, Sweden and the UnitedKingdom and is being developed in Canada,Belgium, Finland and Poland. The GAPapproach has now been launched in Ireland,with the assistance of the Department of theEnvironment and a number of local authorities,as a practical contribution towards the achieve-ment of Local Agenda 21 objectives.

Chapter 16 Public Action and Awareness

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Local authorities should support similar indi-vidual and community activities within theirfunctional areas, which can contribute toenhancing consumer awareness and actionachieving sustainable development. TheDepartment of the Environment will developinnovative mechanisms to continue support forspecific environmental projects carried out inpartnership, including a new EnvironmentPartnership Fund(see Chapter 19).

Environmental awareness and education

Progress in solving environmental problemsdepends fundamentally on the values, attitudesand behaviour of individuals in relation to their environment. These, in turn, can beformed and informed by processes of awarenessand education.

Access to environmental informationEnvironmental education and awareness mustbe viewed in the broadest context, whichincludes access to information and the dissemi-nation of information to the public. The informaland non-academic aspect of enhancing environ-mental awareness in this way embraces thewhole population, not just those in formal edu-cation. An essential element in encouragingpeople to change their behaviour is to makeinformation readily available. This will promoteunderstanding of the long-term benefits of envi-ronmentally-friendly behaviour maximising thesustainability of our natural resources.

The Access to Information on the EnvironmentRegulations, 1996, implement a number ofimprovements in the statutory guarantee ofaccess to environmental information. In linewith Government commitments to improveaccess to information generally, theseRegulations will be reviewed in the context

of the new Freedom of Information legislation. In particular, a system for appeals incases where access to environmental informationis refused will be implemented by the end of 1997. The Department of the Environmentwill prepare a Code of Good Practice on IssuingEnvironmental Information, for implementingauthorities.

The publication in 1997 of the first PollutionEmissions Register, and the making of regula-tions under the Waste Management Act, 1996, toprovide for a Toxics Release Inventory (seeChapter 9) will provide additional sources ofinformation relating to the environment. Inaddition, the forthcoming publication by theDepartment of the Environment of a comprehen-sive list of public rights to information from localauthorities (in accordance with the commitmentin Better Local Government) will further enhanceaccess to information.

"The successful implementation of recommendationsarising from the Strategy will require the full involvement ofthe general public. In this regard, the Strategy should leadto the production of a concerted programme of education,training and awareness raising."

- Earthwatch/Friends of the Earth Ireland19

ENFO - The Environmental Information ServiceOver 345,000 people have visited the headquar-ters of ENFO since its establishment by theDepartment of the Environment in 1990.20

Increasing attendance levels and the volume ofqueries received are indicators of increasingawareness of environmental issues in the com-munity as a whole and of the success of ENFO.

ENFO provides information to its target groups- the general public, schoolchildren, students,NGOs, and industry and business interests - ina variety of ways, including a query-answeringservice, information leaflets, a video-lendingservice, exhibitions, lectures and other activi-ties. The facilities available at the ENFO centreare comprehensive and include an extensivereference database with on-line access to inter-

Chapter 16 Public Action and Awareness

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"The sustainable future of our cultural and physical life depends upon the edu-cation of the public".

- An Taisce West Cork18

national databases. On-line connections to theENFO database are also now in place in 36public libraries, spread over 26 counties,where they are available for use by membersof the public. ENFO has also established a siteon the Internet.

ENFO will continually review its services, inconsultation with its organisational and indi-vidual customers, so as to maximise theirvalue and impact. The Department of theEnvironment will continue to support anddevelop the role of ENFO as a core resource inthe area of environmental awareness building.Measures to be taken in this regard will include:

• accelerating development of the ENFOInternet service, through the further develop-ment of an integrated site to include access tothe ENFO database and links with the EPAand the European Environment Agency;

• enhancing linkages between ENFO and theCounty Library Services, replacing the currenton-line database access with an Internet-basedservice and also providing a CD-ROM data-base service; and

• inviting local authorities to appoint environ-mental information officers and to draw onENFO as a key resource in the provision ofenvironmental information.

Environmental education

The formal education system also has a crucialrole in promoting environmental awareness.The potential of the education system to informattitudes and behaviour from an early age can

be a major force in support of consumer under-standing and acceptance of sustainable devel-opment.

Environmental education not only promotesmore responsible citizens by making them awareof problems but can provide them with the skillsto participate in environmental management.This will be assisted by a more practical,dynamic and operational approach to environ-mental education. The overriding objectivesshould be to lay the foundations for a fullyinformed and active participation of the indi-vidual in the protection of the environment andthe prudent, rational use of natural resources.

Education will continue to play a vital role inprotecting the environment and all stages of theformal education system should contain an envi-ronmental component. Environmental educa-tion can provide a sound basis for sustainabledevelopment and it should be integrated into all educational systems. To achieve this theobjective should be to:

• make environment and development educa-tion available to people of all ages;

• work such concepts into all educational pro-grammes with analyses of the major issues;and

• involve schoolchildren in local and regionalstudies and activities on environmental issues,and the environmental and economic impactsof resource use.

Even simple activities such as nature walks andnature study tables can be developed to encom-pass broader issues such as improvements toschool premises, gardens and parks, energysaving and recycling. These local projects can berun with the support, financial and otherwise, ofthe local authorities. In addition, each educa-tional institution should carry out an internaleco-audit.

Chapter 16 Public Action and Awareness

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"Environmental education should be included in, andshould run throughout, the other disciplines of the formaleducation curriculum at all levels - to foster a sense ofresponsibility for the state of the environment and toteach students how to monitor, protect and improve it."

- The World Commission on Environment andDevelopment21

The need to develop identification with sustain-able development in children from an early age isrecognised. The education system has a key roleto play in this process, both in terms of devel-oping a fully integrated environmental dimensionacross the curriculum and in terms of promotingresponsible environmental behaviour amongyoung people in the school and its environs.

A Green Schools award scheme is being intro-duced to Irish schools in 1997 by An Taisce; thisis part of a European-wide programme coordi-nated by the Foundation for EnvironmentalEducation in Europe (FEEE). The scheme, whichis being run in Ireland in conjunction with localauthorities, will be judged on a combination of aschool's commitment to environmental educa-tion and the greening of the school itself. TheDepartment of Education will, in consultationwith the Department of the Environment, sup-port the awards scheme which recognisesschools that make a particular effort to supportsustainable living.

At the higher educational levels, environmentaleducation can also be effectively implementedthrough integrating environmental educationconcepts, skills and strategies throughout theexisting general curriculum. This has a two-foldadvantage:

• firstly, integration of environmental educationwould enhance existing programmes withoutcompeting for limited curriculum time andresources; and

• secondly, environmental education shares sub-ject content and intellectual processes withmany other disciplines such as the sciences,sociology and communications.

The third level sector has demonstrated a strongcommitment to maintaining and enhancingenvironmental quality and a keen interest inresponding to the needs of industry in the area ofenvironmental protection and design. Positiveaction and awareness, understanding, and theprotection of the environment are integral tomany other areas of study (e.g. CERT andtourism related courses). The sector is also activein the field of environmental research.

The Departments of Education and theEnvironment will further strengthen bilateralcontacts on environmental education matters andwill set up a liaison committee to discuss mattersof mutual interest. Consideration will be given toappropriate measures relating to curriculum,teacher training (both pre- and in-service) andprovision of appropriate resources. In particular,Education Boards and schools will be directed bythe Minister for Education to include in theirEducation Plans and School Plans, required bythe new Education Bill, an environment policystatement in relation to the content of educationalprogrammes and the management of facilities.ENFO will be promoted as a key resource andschools will be invited to capitalise on growing ITfacilities by linking into ENFO's developingInternet service. Greater links between ENFOand the Regional Education Centres (formerlyTeachers Centres) will also be developed.

Chapter 16 Public Action and Awareness

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"In order to ensure the future wellbeing of our total environment, natural andman-made, it is necessary to enlist the support of our children. It is they, andfuture generations, who will one day inherit the overall responsibility of caringfor our environment."

- Report of the Inter-Departmental WorkingGroup on Environmental Awareness22

Corporate citizenshipThe need for heightened public awareness ofenvironmental threats and opportunities is asrelevant to the corporate as the individual cit-izen, to Government as to the private sector. Allorganisations create an environmental impact ascorporate citizens of their communities which isdistinct from any licensable emissions whichmay result from their core activities. It is essen-tial, therefore, that awareness of environmentaleffects among organisations and employees isnot confined to the private lives of individualsbut extends into their corporate lives. So, forexample, awareness of the need to conserve, toreuse and to recycle should be promoted so thatit is seen to be as relevant in the workplace as inthe private lives of employees. Details of theapproach being adopted by Government in rela-tion to its own staff are given in Chapter 19.

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Chapter 16 Public Action and Awareness

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IntroductionRecent decades have seen intensified interna-tional cooperation in relation to the environ-ment; this is now reflected, inter alia, in some 180international conventions relevant to the envi-ronment and sustainable development. Thisinternational cooperation is driven by increasingconcern about global problems (such as climatechange, ozone layer depletion, deforestation andloss of biological diversity), as well as by thetransboundary dimension of many environ-mental problems. The environmental impacts ofthe increasing globalisation and liberalisation oftrade (see Chapter 12) also underline the needfor global cooperation in relation to environ-mental protection and sustainable development.

There is a growing emphasis on environmentalissues in the work programmes of internationalorganisations, including the United Nations(UN), the Organisation for EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD) and theWorld Trade Organisation (WTO). Environmentpolicy and legislation have been developing atEuropean Union level for the past 25 years andexert a major influence on environmental stan-dards and objectives at Member State level. Inaddition, the EU, acting alongside its MemberStates, plays an influential and progressive rolein wider international fora such as the UNCommission on Sustainable Development andOECD.

Active participation in international cooperationfor the environment is now an integral part ofIrish foreign policy, as set out in Chapter 13 ofChallenges and Opportunities Abroad1, the WhitePaper on Foreign Policy published in 1996. Inaccordance with the Declaration on theEnvironment2 adopted by the European Councilmeeting in Dublin in June 1990, Ireland partici-pates fully in efforts at UN and EU level tocombat regional and global environmental prob-lems and to advance sustainable development.Ireland is committed to cooperating in the use ofworld resources in a manner which benefits boththe global environment and the economies of thedeveloping countries.

United NationsIreland was one of some 130 countries whichparticipated in the UN Conference onEnvironment and Development (UNCED) heldin Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. At UNCED,agreement was reached on:• the Rio Declaration on Environment and

Development, a charter of basic principles forsustainable development;

• Agenda 21, a global plan of action to addressthe challenge of sustainable development intothe 21st century, which calls on countries tofollow practical action programmes in theirown environment and development policies;

• two major new international conventions onClimate Change and Biological Diversity;

• the commencement of negotiations for a con-vention on Desertification (subsequentlyadopted, and signed by Ireland); and

• a Statement of Principles on Forests, which out-lined a number of principles for conservation,management and sustainable development ofall types of forests.

Framework Convention on Climate Change This Convention seeks to address the globalthreat of climate change, and to develop con-certed action to mitigate its adverse environ-mental, economic and social consequences. Allparties to the Convention are required to under-take general commitments, including the prepa-ration of national inventories of greenhouse gasemissions and the adoption of national pro-grammes for mitigating climate change. Theseobligations have been fulfilled by Ireland, whichis also participating in current efforts tostrengthen its provisions (see Chapter 8). TheConvention entered into force in 1994.

Convention on Biological DiversityThis Convention, which has been ratified byIreland, aims at protecting global biodiversity.One of the major commitments required of par-ties to the Convention is the preparation ofnational plans for the protection of biologicaldiversity; Ireland's plan is currently being pre-pared by the Department of Arts, Culture and theGaeltacht and will be completed by end-1997.

Chapter 17Ireland in the International Community

Forestry PrinciplesThe statement of principles on forestry, outlinedat Rio, is being developed internationally by anintergovernmental panel, established at the thirdsession of the Commission on SustainableDevelopment. At European level, progress islargely being advanced through the Helsinkiprocess, which commenced at the 1993Ministerial Conference on the Protection ofForests in Europe (see Chapter 6). Ireland is par-ticipating actively in this process.

UN Commission on Sustainable DevelopmentThe Commission on Sustainable Development(CSD) was established to promote and monitoreffective international follow-up to the Rioagreements. Its work includes internationalcooperation in such sectors as trade, the environ-ment and sustainable development as well ascooperation in the transfer of environmentallysound technologies. The Commission meetsannually to review progress on the objectivesagreed at Rio.

Ireland originally attended meetings of the CSDas an observer, but was elected to full member-ship in 1996, and commenced a three-year termof office on 1 January, 1997. This will enableIreland to play an important role in formulatingpolicy on the protection of the global environ-ment, and in particular, to participate fully in thepreparations for the UN General AssemblySpecial Session to be held in June 1997 to reviewprogress since UNCED.

Global Environment Facility (GEF)The GEF is the primary funding mechanism forenvironmental measures having global environ-mental benefits, including the areas of climatechange, biological diversity, international watersand ozone depletion. It will act as the interimfinancial mechanism for the Conventions onClimate Change and Biological Diversity.Ireland is committed to subscribing £1.64 millionto GEF over the four years which began in 1996.

Other UN developmentsMany of the objectives of UNCED have beenparalleled and enhanced since 1992 by othermajor UN conferences which have focused, inparticular, on the social aspects of sustainabledevelopment. These included the Conference onPopulation and Development (Cairo, 1994), theWorld Summit for Social Development(Copenhagen, March 1995) and the FourthInternational Conference on Women (Beijing,September 1995). More recently, the SecondInternational Conference on Human Settlements(HABITAT II), held in Istanbul in June 1996, alsoaddressed many related issues. Ireland has par-ticipated in all of these conferences, which reflecta growing international awareness of the inter-dependence of social, economic and politicalissues and of the links between these issues andsustainable development.

Ireland also participates in Environment forEurope, a pan-European cooperation processinvolving 49 countries, coordinated by the UNEconomic Commission for Europe (ECE). Underthis process, an Environmental Programme forEurope seeks to improve environmental condi-tions throughout Europe, and to promote theconvergence of environmental quality and poli-cies. At the request of the first Conference ofMinisters, held in Dobris Castle in the thenCzechoslovakia in 1991, a comprehensive assess-ment of the pan-European environment was car-ried out by a Task Force led by the EuropeanEnvironment Agency. Their report, Europe'sEnvironment: The Dobris Assessment, published in1995, assessed the pressures and human activi-ties impacting on the European environment,and analysed prominent environmental prob-lems of concern to Europe as a whole. The nextMinisterial Conference in the Environment forEurope process will be held in Denmark inMay 1998.

Chapter 17 Ireland in the International Community

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Development Cooperation

Ireland is currently working towards the UNtarget of increasing development assistance to0.7% of GNP.4 In 1996, Ireland's OfficialDevelopment Assistance (ODA) programmeamounted to £122 million, or 0.31% of GNP.While still below the UN target, this is above theOECD country average of 0.27% of GNP.5 It alsorepresents a doubling of the Irish aid pro-gramme, in relation to GNP, since 1992, when itstood at 0.16% of GNP. The Government is com-mitted to increasing ODA by 0.05% each year inorder to meet the UN target.

Ireland's development cooperation objectives are:• to reduce poverty and promote sustainable

development in some of the poorest countriesof the world;

• to assist in establishing and maintainingpeace in developing counties by fosteringdemocracy, respect for human rights, genderand social equality and protection of theenvironment;

• to respond promptly to emergencies andhumanitarian disasters, both natural andhuman-made, as they occur, and to supportpreventive measures so that such emergenciesmay, so far as possible, be avoided; and

• to contribute to building civil society andsocial solidarity.

These objectives reflect an overriding concernabout sustainability in its widest sense (environ-mental, economic, financial institutional andadministrative). The strong emphasis on the con-cepts of partnership and participation, with apreference for making the maximum possibleuse of locally-available resources, is also inaccordance with the tenets of Agenda 21. The

basic objective of these programmes is toenhance the quality of life and productivity ofpoor people, thereby empowering them to dealwith their problems. A key concern is that activ-ities initiated with ODA support should becapable of being integrated into, and sustainedby, the local environment. Ireland also supportsthe efforts being made in international financialinstitutions to resolve the problems causedby the heavy burden of debt carried by manydeveloping countries.

In 1996, 61% of Irish ODA allocations were tar-geted to bilateral aid, and 35% to multilateral(including EU) aid; the remaining 4% wasaccounted for by administration costs andother items.

Bilateral aidSome 42% of bilateral aid, or approximately one-quarter of Ireland's total ODA, is targetedtowards six priority countries (Ethiopia, Lesotho,Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Mozambique).This helps to give the ODA programme a clearpoverty focus, supporting basic needs (primaryhealth care, basic education and rural infrastruc-ture) and capacity-building at national, regionaland, increasingly, at local levels.

Multilateral aidA significant part of Ireland's ODA is allocatedin the form of mandatory contributions to multi-lateral development and finance organisations;these include the EU, the World Bank Group andthe UN agriculture and food agencies. In thecase of the EU, Ireland contributes both to theEuropean Development Fund (the fundingmechanism for the developing countries ofAfrica, the Caribbean and the Pacific (ACP)under successive Lomé Conventions) andthrough the General Budget of the Communityto other EU aid activities. Voluntary contribu-tions are also made to various UN developmentagencies and programmes. Ireland takes a directinterest in the work of these multilateral agenciesin order to ensure that they perform effectively

Chapter 17 Ireland in the International Community

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"It is increasingly recognised that development assistancealone is not enough; development policy must takeaccount of a range of factors including human rights, tradeand investment, the arms trade, debt, the role of women,population and the environment."

- White Paper on Foreign Policy3

and that their funds are used in the most efficientmanner possible.

Promoting food security and sustainable agricultureIn 1995, the Irish Aid Advisory Committee(IAAC) initiated a project towards the develop-ment and establishment of an agreed policy forIrish Aid in the areas of Sustainable Agriculture,Rural Development and Food Security. In itsSeptember 1996 report to the Minister forForeign Affairs, Irish Aid and Agriculture, IAACrecommended, inter alia, that the following beadopted as a strategy statement for Irish Aid:

"The strategic objective of Irish Aid in relation tofood security and sustainable agriculture is todevelop programmes and policies in partnershipwith developing countries so as to contribute toincreasing the effective and sustainable use of nat-ural resources in such a way that the food securityand livelihoods especially of the poorest in thosecountries are enhanced; and to develop such programmes in a way that is empowering for thebeneficiaries."6

The Government has accepted this recommenda-tion as being in line with official policy.

Countries in transitionIreland also supports and participates in pro-grammes providing finance and technologytransfer to countries in transition, in particular,the PHARE and TACIS programmes. ThePHARE programme aims at supporting Centraland Eastern European countries to the stagewhere they are ready to assume the obligationsof membership of the EU, by financing environ-mental and nuclear safety projects. The TACIS programme fosters the development of the NewIndependent States and Mongolia; it requires theintegration of environmental considerations intoall sectors, and encourages environmental insti-tutional capacity-building in these countries.

The European UnionThe Treaty on European Union (the MaastrichtTreaty), which entered into force in November1993, considerably strengthens the capacity ofthe Union to deal with environmental problemsand to promote sustainable development.

The EU has developed a comprehensive policyon environmental protection and sustainabledevelopment. The Fifth Action Programme onthe Environment, Towards Sustainability, adoptedin 1993, set out a programme of action, includingintegration of environmental considerations intoall other policy areas, particularly the five keyareas of agriculture, energy, industry, tourismand transport, and a broadening of the range ofinstruments used for environmental protection.

Following the publication of a progress report inJanuary 1996, the EU Commission submitted aproposal for co-decision by the EnvironmentCouncil and the European Parliament on anAction Plan to intensify the Programme. Thiswas a priority during the Irish Presidency of theEU, and political agreement on the proposal wasreached at the Council of Environment Ministersin December 1996.7

Intergovernmental ConferenceThe question of strengthening the environmentprovisions in the Treaty on European Union(TEU) has arisen in the context of theIntergovernmental Conference (IGC), whichcommenced in March 1996. Both nationally andin its recent Presidential role, Ireland has taken asupportive stance on the strengthening of theTEU to improve both the Union's responsecapacity to challenges to the environment, andits ability to integrate environmental considera-tions into other policy areas.

Draft texts in this regard were prepared underthe Irish Presidency of the EU and were sub-mitted to the Dublin Summit (December 1996).The proposed text would, inter alia, make theachievement of sustainable development an

Chapter 17 Ireland in the International Community

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explicit objective of the Union. This includes bal-anced and sustainable economic development,as well as a high level of protection of the envi-ronment and improvement of its quality, amongthe tasks of the Community, and highlight theneed to integrate environmental protectionrequirements into the definition and implemen-tation of all Community policies. Formal negoti-ations to conclude agreement on revision of theTEU are continuing under the Dutch Presidency.

European Environment AgencyThe European Environment Agency (EEA),was established in October 1993 to provideobjective, reliable and comparable informationat the European level, to support policy-makers and to provide better environmentalinformation to the public.

Ireland is represented on the Agency'sManagement Board, and on its Scientific (advi-sory) Committee. The Environmental ProtectionAgency acts as the national focal point for theEEA, and has an important coordinating role

between the EEA and national networks.Ireland also participates in a number of theEuropean Topic Centres established by the EEA.Teagasc is co-leader of the European TopicCentre on Soil, which was established in 1996. The Environmental Protection Agency is a partner in the Topic Centre on Inland Waters. In addition, Forbairt is a member of ENERO (the European Network ofEnvironmental Research Organisations) which is included in the Air Emissions Topic Centre.

OECDAs part of the Organisation's work, a pro-gramme of environmental performance reviewswas instituted in 1992, whereby member coun-tries submit themselves for peer review of theirenvironmental policies and performance. WhileIreland has assisted in the performance review ofother countries, it has not yet been the subject ofreview. Ireland will invite this OECD review for1998, if this can be accommodated within thework programme of the EnvironmentalPerformance Review Group.

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Chapter 17 Ireland in the International Community

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PART 5 - IMPLEMENTING AND MONITORING THE STRATEGY

18 Monitoring and Indicators19 Implementation and Review

“It is very difficult to derive widely acceptable definitionsas to when sustainability has been achieved. But it ispossible to identify performance indices which can tell uswhether we are moving away from, or in the direction of,sustainability."

- F.J. Convery, "Assessing Sustainability in Ireland - a Synthesis"1

IntroductionSustainable development indicators are a meansof measuring progress over time towards, or away from, sustainability. The PolicyAgreement for a Government of Renewal statesthe Government's commitment to work towardsa new set of indicators of sustainable economicdevelopment, taking account of environmentaland social factors, and to be used alongside existingmeasures of economic activity such as GDP.

In declaring this commitment, the Governmentrecognised that conventional measurements ofnational economic activity and wealth do notconsider the environmental implications andimpacts of development. There are two aspectsto the task set by the Government:

• suitable indicators must be devised; and

• they are intended in the long-term to qualify,from a sustainable development perspective,the standard information of traditionalNational Accounts.

Both aspects will be developed within the framework of this Strategy.

The Purpose of IndicatorsIndicators are a means of assimilating informa-tion to improve communication and enabletrends to be understood. Several kinds of indi-cators may be used to fulfil particular functionsand measure the quality/quantity of environ-mental resources:

• state of the environment indicators reflectenvironmental quality;

• stress indicators reflect development effects; and

• performance indicators may be used to eval-uate long-term achievements in environ-mental management and protection.

Sustainable development indicators introduce anew dimension to the provision of information,in that they seek to describe and measure keyrelationships between economic, social and envi-ronmental factors. In all cases, indicators bothquantify and simplify information, therebymaking it more accessible to policy-makers andthe public.

International ContextAgenda 21 recognised that "in sustainable develop-ment, everyone is a user and provider of informa-tion".2 Despite the wealth of data and informa-tion already in existence, "finding the appropriateinformation at the required time and at the relevantscale of aggregation"3 was a difficult task. Agenda21 acknowledged that institutional capacity tointegrate environment and development, and todevelop relevant indicators, was lacking at bothnational and international levels, and advocatedthat the concept of sustainable developmentindicators should be further progressed.

Substantial work on the development of indica-tors has been under way for some time in theOECD, and more recently within the EU, the UNCommission on Sustainable Development andthe World Bank. The OECD has identified aCore Set of Indicators on the State of theEnvironment. Attention is now focusing on themeans of defining and measuring indicatorswhich will link economic growth and physicalenvironmental impacts. No single conceptualframework has yet emerged. The UN is seekingto build international consensus on a suitablerange of indicators for purposes of Agenda 21.While a standard approach would facilitate comparison across countries and maintain aglobal perspective, indicators must also addressnational development frameworks, and addvalue to policy and action in the appropriateenvironmental and socio-economic contexts.

Chapter 18Monitoring and Indicators

Alongside this work, it is increasingly recog-nised that national accounts, which measure thenational income from economic activity and donot take account of the environmental implica-tions of that activity, cannot illustrate whethereconomic growth is sustainable or not. Thereare, however, substantial difficulties in pro-ducing environmentally adjusted, or "green"accounts.

National ContextApart from national accounts aggregates andstandard macro-economic variables, such asGDP, inflation rates, employment levels and bal-ance of payments figures, use of indicators is notwell developed in Ireland. Environmental mon-itoring systems provide quantitative and quali-tative information clearly identifying someunsustainable trends in current growth patterns.But a systematic framework within which envi-ronmental trends can be evaluated and key con-clusions widely communicated has not yet beendevised.

An important development, however, has beenthe inclusion of a series of macro-development,sectoral and environmental indicators in theCSF. It is a primary objective of the CSF toenhance economic performance through sustain-able growth and development. The indicatorsare being measured having regard to quantifiedforecasts for 1999, and they represent a firstattempt to make the relationship between struc-tural funds' assisted economic growth and envi-ronmental sustainability more tangible. Theirmeasurement, therefore, has significance in thecontext of this Strategy as well as for purposes ofthe CSF. Indicators which are relevant in a sus-tainable development context include:

Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development4

unit 1992 1999serious pollutionfrom agriculturalwaste

km of river 32 28

number of fish killsdue to agriculture

recorded kills 22 15

gross forestryoutput

IR£m 93 prices 108 185

Fisheries5

1993 1999value volume value volumeIR£m tonnes IR£m tonnes

fish landings 98.0 254,300 118.0 301,000

aquaculture production 40.4 27,060 103.1 69,140

Tourism6

1993 1999visitors in theoff-peak periods 70% 75%

Transport7

1993 1999

rail passenger numbers 7.90m 8.70m

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Energy8

1993 1999energy intensity (TPER/GDP) 80% 75%

primary energysupply by source %- coal 211 18- peat 141 10- oil 491 53- natural gas 151 17- renewables/hydro 21 2Energy suppliedfrom renewables - +75(MW)

1 1992 Figures

Environment9

1993 1999

compliance with EUstandards in relation topublic or group watersupplies based on thedrinking water Directive(80/778/EEC) 94% 100%

proportion of urbanwaste water being treatedin accordance with therequirements of the urbanwaste water treatmentDirective (91/271/EEC) 20% 80%

dumping of sewagesludge at sea 40% 0%

recovery rate forpackaging waste 10% 25%

level of recyclingof municipal solid waste 8% 15%

The above indicators were identified for objec-tives which lend themselves to quantification;where this was not possible they were supple-mented by qualitative goals in OperationalProgrammes. It was also recognised that externalfactors could influence the indicators and thatthey should be kept under review and amendedif necessary. Certain trends, indicating a basis foramendment, have now been identified in theEPA's State of the Environment in Ireland andsome new targets have resulted from specificpolicy developments since 1993. For example:• agricultural activities now account for some

31%, or 24 km, of recorded serious water pollution;

• the number of fish kills due to agriculture was18 in 1996;

• over 100 MW of electricity from renewableenergy sources will be installed by the end of1999; and

• the rate of recycling of packaging wastes willbe increased to 27% by 2001.

As part of the mid-term evaluation of all struc-tural fund operations, which commenced in thesecond half of 1996, a detailed examination ofindicators in each Operational Programme isbeing undertaken to examine how well theyserve their purpose and whether they need alter-ation or amendment.

Approaching the Developmentof IndicatorsIn approaching the development of indicators, itis important to identify the characteristics ofgood indicators, as well as the limitations associ-ated with their use. These are only partly attrib-utable to current gaps in information.

Successful indicators are readily understand-able, representative of key environmental poli-cies and concerns, and capable of illustratingtrends over time. They must be scientificallyvalid, analytically sound, measurable and verifi-able. They depend significantly, therefore, on

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the availability of adequate, good quality datawhich is updated at regular intervals. Methodsfor aggregating data and composing indicatorsneeds to be clear and unambiguous.

There are many difficulties involved inpreparing sustainable development indicators;so far, most attention has focused on environ-mental indicators, where the OECD Pressure-State-Response (PSR) framework provides awidely accepted model. This recognises causeand effect relationships; human activities exertpressure on the environment, and change itsstate in terms of the quality and quantity of nat-ural resources. Society then responds to thesechanges through environmental, economic andsectoral policies.

The PSR framework provides a means ofgrouping information on the environment; thereis much similarity in the choice of environmentalthemes at international level, and EPA hasadvised on prioritisation of themes in an Irishcontext in State of the Environment in Ireland (seebelow). Experience suggests that data is mostreadily available for pressure indicators andleast available for response indicators.

Environmental indicators do not adequatelymeasure progress towards or away from sustain-ability. Interrelationships between environment,economy and society are more complex than thelinear PSR framework allows; this is now beingfurther amplified by a closer focus on economicdriving forces as the anterior cause of environ-mental pressures.

ESRI Study on IndicatorsIn 1995, the Department of the Environmentrequested the ESRI to advise on the issues andoptions arising in connection with theGovernment commitment to the preparation ofsustainable development indicators. The resul-tant study was published by the ESRI in April1996.10 It contains separate essays on environ-mental and social indicators as an integrated

approach to these areas has not yet emerged.While there are difficulties with information and monetary evaluation, three main types ofenvironmental indicators are discussed.

Environmental indicators for individual themesMost international work has focused on thisarea, forming a foundation for the developmentof more sophisticated indicators in the future.The indicators can be expressed in physicalterms and the choice of themes may reflect envi-ronmental aims and priorities at national,regional or local levels. The OECD's core set ofindicators11, and ongoing work by Eurostat onPressure Indices, use individual themes; manysuch indicators could be assembled for Ireland.

Environmentally-adjusted (or green) nationalincomeThis would extend the measurement of nationalincome to take account of important environ-mental considerations. National income is ameasure of economic activity rather than well-being. It ignores the depletion of natural assetsand the negative impact on welfare of environ-mental damage which has not been remedied. Italso reflects "defensive expenditure", i.e. expen-diture to prevent or correct pollution - and main-tain the status quo environmentally - as outputrather than costs.

There are no easy ways to adjust nationalaccounts. Monetary valuation of depletion anddegradation, judgement on whether/the extent towhich human-made capital can substitute for nat-ural assets, and methodologies for dealing withdefensive expenditures in an integrated frame-work are still largely at an experimental stage.

National sustainability indicatorsThese are related to green national income andhave similar data requirements, but go furtherin terms of estimating national change in assetsover time. The national savings rate adjusted fordepletion and degradation of environmentalassets would be the appropriate national sus-

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tainability indicator to use alongside GDP.Where the change in assets, measured by theadjusted savings rate, is positive when averagedover a period of years, society is on a sustainablepath. However, the difficulties of measurementassociated above with green national incomealso arise here. In both cases, measurementswhich rely on monetary valuation cannot easilyinclude aspects of environmental sustainabilitywhich have no price.

As the Government intends that sustainabledevelopment indicators should take account ofsocial as well as environmental factors, the ESRIaddressed the issues associated with the selec-tion and quantification of social indicators.National income does not adequately measurewelfare; the essential purposes of social indica-tors are to focus on the distribution of economicresources, and to extend traditional economicmeasurements to include non-economic aspectsof social life.

While a comprehensive set of social indicatorswould require considerable additions to existingdata sources, a List of Social Indicators devel-oped by the OECD12 provides a useful startingpoint for the development of social indicators forIreland. This contains 33 indicators coveringhealth, education, employment, quality ofworking life, distribution of income and wealth,leisure, physical environment, social environ-ment and personal safety. It is broadly applic-able across developed countries and generallyfeasible in measurement terms.

A Work Programme towardsSustainable Development IndicatorsThe Government will now build on the workalready undertaken and in train to develop sus-tainability indicators for purposes of the moni-toring and implementation of this Strategy. Indoing so, it will take account of the recommen-dations made by the ESRI and EPA, and theoutput of the National Sustainability IndicatorsForum13 (April 1995). The Department of the

Environment, the Department of Finance andthe CSO, as appropriate, will participate inrelated work at EU, OECD and UN Commissionon Sustainable Development levels, with partic-ular reference to the developing EU frameworkfor the integration of environmental and eco-nomic systems and the preparation of environ-mental accounts as a satellite to nationalaccounts.

A phased approach will begin with the prepara-tion of a series of national environmental qualityindicators, to be developed by EPA by 1998. Thiswill take account of the EPA's conclusion, in Stateof the Environment in Ireland14, that initial priority begiven to three themes - eutrophication, the urbanenvironment and waste. In the meantime workwill proceed on the longer-term areas includingresearch, data assembly, methodology develop-ment and monetary valuation necessary toapproach the measurement of sustainability indi-cators and the preparation of satellite environ-mental accounts. Progress will be reported annu-ally as part of the annual review of the Strategy.

It is clear that the quality of underlying data willdetermine the quality of indicators, and that theavailability of data in a number of areas is animmediate constraint. Equally, to fill gaps effi-ciently, and ensure that the environmental datacollected meet national requirements for eco-nomic policy analysis and monetary valuation,there is a need for good liaison between theagencies involved. The EPA has primary respon-sibility for the coordination of environmentaldata, while the CSO has overall responsibility for statistics, in particular, economic and socialstatistics and national accounting data.

The CSO, following consultation with EPA, theDepartment of the Environment and the ESRI,has assessed requirements arising from aEurostat project on the integration of environ-mental accounts in a national accounts matrix. Itwill commence a work programme in 1997 to

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formulate a methodology for the preparation ofsatellite environmental accounts in a nationalaccounting framework. This will have regard tothe emerging work at EU level.

Given their existing responsibilities, EPA andCSO will have a primary role in the collectionand coordination of environmental data and offi-cial statistics to develop suitable indicators and,ultimately, satellite environmental accounts. Theoverall work programme will be coordinated bythe Department of the Environment, which willbe assisted by a Steering Group, with represen-tation from EPA, CSO, relevant GovernmentDepartments, ESRI and the research community.The Group will be convened in 1997.

A preliminary series of economic and environ-mental trend tables, reflecting the priorities ofthis Strategy and the recommendations alreadyreferred to above, is included in Appendix I, forillustration and discussion. Work towards thedefinition of indicators will be refined as infor-mation systems and methodologies are devel-oped, and as consensus grows internationallyabout the choice of themes for international comparisons.

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IntroductionAchieving sustainable development willinvolve: • the active engagement of economic actors and

society; • support at all levels of Government and in the

Oireachtas; and • participation by the public at community and

individual levels.It will also be facilitated by good spatial plan-ning, and the inclusion of sustainability concernsin urban and built environment policies.

This chapter identifies the approaches to be pur-sued, and the instruments to be developed, byGovernment and public authorities generally,and by socio-economic sectors, in support of sus-tainable development. These will be designed to:• reinforce the new directions provided by the

Strategy;• emphasise the need for leadership and exem-

plary action at all levels of Government;• create a foundation for good partnerships with

non-governmental interests;• create new, innovative opportunities for sus-

tainability initiatives; and• support a comprehensive and long-term

process of conversion to a sustainable devel-opment path.

Structures

Joint Oireachtas Committee on SustainableDevelopmentThe Government will propose that the JointOireachtas Committee on SustainableDevelopment should become a standingCommittee of the Oireachtas to oversee relevantpolicy development and the implementation ofthis Strategy. New terms of reference will be pre-pared to broaden the remit of the Committee inthis regard, and, in particular, to enable it effec-tively to discharge a supervisory and monitoringrole. The Committee should regularly hear fromMinisters and Departments/Agencies abouttheir progress in implementing the Strategy and

will develop its own assessments and reports. Itwill retain its current powers to send for persons,papers and records; engage specialist services;publish evidence and related documents; invitesubmissions; and discuss and draft proposals forlegislative changes.

National Sustainable Development CouncilThe Government will establish a NationalSustainable Development Council to facilitateparticipation by economic, social and environ-mental interests in the achievement of sustain-able development, and to promote better consul-tation and dialogue on key sustainability issues.The Council will be independently chaired, andwill include wide representation from the socialpartners and NGOs. Relevant GovernmentDepartments and Agencies, as well as Regionaland Local Authorities, will also participate. TheCouncil's work, which will begin in 1997, will besupported by the Department of theEnvironment, which will provide necessaryback-up services.

The Sustainable Development Council will:• generally advise Government on the imple-

mentation of policies and actions under thisStrategy, and assist with the Strategy moni-toring and review arrangements;

• review reports prepared periodically by TaskManagers appointed to operationalise theStrategy at sectoral level;

• review implementation of Agenda 21 and theRio Agreements, and prepare/contribute tonational reports to the UN Commission onSustainable Development;

• promote information exchange and dialogueamong the participants to reinforce thenational commitment to sustainable develop-ment; and

• increase public awareness and work towardsthe creation of a sustainable developmentethos throughout society.

In discharging its functions, the Council will joina growing network of national councils or sim-

Chapter 19Implementation and Review

ilar entities within the EU and at a wider interna-tional level, with mutually beneficial interactionin the pursuit of sustainable development.

Management and organisation

The Government's Strategic ManagementInitiative (SMI) emphasises the need to gobeyond traditional structures to achieve moreeffective delivery of policies. In developing SMI,more appropriate mechanisms were examinedfor cross-Departmental action on a number ofissues; these involved the long-acknowledgedneed to integrate consideration of the environ-ment into Government decision-making at allrelevant levels.

International experience of environmental inte-gration shows it to be a complex task, still in itsformative stages. No definitive structural orinstitutional solutions have so far been identifiedinternationally. However, it is clear that thecapacity of Government to formulate environ-mentally-sustainable economic and social devel-opment plans and programmes should beenhanced and supported. Environmental inte-gration will therefore be designated as a“Strategic Result Area” in the context of SMI.

Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) isbecoming a recognised means of advancing inte-gration of environmental considerations into keypolicy areas. The Government recognises itspotential as an integration tool, and a means ofstrengthening preventive rather than remedialaction. Accordingly, in addition to supportingSEA of land use plans and programmes (seeChapter 14), proposals will be brought forwardwithin three years to develop an SEA system formajor plans and programmes, likely to have sig-nificant environmental impacts, in the sectorscovered by this Strategy.

The Government will designate relevantGovernment Departments as Task Managers tolead in the development of the more detailedprocesses and measures necessary fully to oper-ationalise the Strategy across the economic sec-tors discussed in Part III. The EPA will be desig-nated as Task Manager to monitor and report onenvironmental quality trends in the context ofstrategy implementation, and the Department ofthe Environment (which will coordinate thereporting programme overall) will have a similarrole in respect of the balance of the Strategy,including spatial planning, the built environ-ment and the development of sustainable devel-opment indicators.

The role and functioning of Departments as TaskManagers, and the better internalisation of envi-ronmental considerations into their work, will besupported by:• Environment Units to be maintained or pro-

vided in all Departments and Agencies, whoseremit has significant, or potentially significant,environmental implications; and

• further development of the Green Network ofGovernment Departments2, to be undertakenunder the coordination of the Department ofthe Environment, so as to deepen cross-departmental awareness of the environmentalagenda.

A timetable for progress reporting by TaskManagers will be set out by the Department ofthe Environment, in consultation with theNational Sustainable Development Council,having regard to the annual reporting agenda ofthe UN Commission on SustainableDevelopment and other international require-ments. All reports will be provided to theCouncil for comment; together with any suchcomments this will provide a basis for periodicreview by Government, and the re-direction,rebalancing or updating of the Strategy asappropriate. Task Managers may also berequested to discuss progress on relevant aspectsof the Strategy with the Council at any time.

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“.... many of the most pressing issues which must be addressed require theexpertise and commitment of a variety of Departments and Agencies in orderto achieve a successful outcome.”

- Strategic Management Initiative: Delivering Better Government1

Annual review of the Strategy, as envisaged bythe Programme for a Government of Renewal3, willbe addressed through the process outlinedabove.

Better Environmental Practice in thePublic Sector There is a special obligation on the public sectorto demonstrate good environmental perfor-mance as part of the services which it delivers.

The public sector is a major consumer of naturalresources. Adoption of green housekeeping inthe interests of environmental sustainability canalso enhance the quality of service to the publicand produce administrative savings. The GreenGovernment Guide5 (published in 1996) isdesigned to:• promote a progressive approach to the envi-

ronmental management of each GovernmentDepartment;

• integrate green housekeeping into eachDepartment's management strategy; and

• demonstrate a basis for extending the conceptof green housekeeping to the wider publicsector and the private sector.

The office environment is demanding on manyresources, including energy, water, paper, equip-ment and consumables for this equipment.Green housekeeping is directed primarily atrealising benefits for the environment throughreductions in the consumption of naturalresources, emissions/discharges and waste gen-erated. But Departments can also expect pro-gressively to increase savings in their adminis-trative costs, e.g. energy costs, paper and othermaterials costs, reduced storage requirements,etc. Green housekeeping involves taking con-servation and demand management as central

principles, so that quantities used are always theminimum consistent with the efficient runningof the office. A key element of this initiativeinvolves Government Departments formulatingenvironmental management plans for theirorganisations.

The proposals for green housekeeping are complementary to the measures recommendedin the Government's Programme for EnergyConservation in State Buildings.6

Good environmental management inGovernment Departments must serve as amodel for the extension of green housekeepingto the wider public sector. In the longer term, itwill also allow Departments to progress to amore formalised system of environmental man-agement and audit along the lines of the EU'svoluntary Eco-Management and Audit Scheme(EMAS). This would involve the carrying out ofan environmental audit, preparation and publi-cation of an environmental statement, on-goingreporting on, and the improvement of, environ-mental performance, together with independentverification and review.

The public sector can exert a positive influenceon the production of environmentally-friendlygoods and services through the integration ofenvironmental considerations in public procure-ment policy. A range of purchasing policies tominimise waste and emissions, save energy andgive preference to environmentally-responsiblesuppliers and products is outlined in the GreenGovernment Guide. The Government willexamine what further steps should be taken, by1999, to develop a policy for environmentally-sustainable public procurement.

Local GovernmentA major programme for the renewal of localgovernment, Better Local Government - AProgramme for Change, was launched by theMinister for the Environment in December 1996.Setting a path to the new millennium for the

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“The public sector will lead the way in demonstratingbest environmental management practice. This willinclude formulating environmental management plansincorporating waste minimisation, green purchasing andrecycling policies.”

- Policy Agreement for a Government of Renewal4

progressive renewal and revitalisation of localgovernment, the Programme is based on coreprinciples of• enhancing local democracy,• serving the customer better,• developing democracy, and• providing proper resources.It "seeks to move progressively towards a systemwhich provides efficient services; embraces localdevelopment in all its forms; has an input to otherpublic bodies whose actions impact locally; and thestrength of which lies in its local democratic mandateand genuine partnership with the local community".7

A reformed local government system will sup-port this Strategy by enabling local authorities atregional and local levels, in terms of the effi-ciency of their structures and operations, andtheir leadership of and interactions with localcommunities, to participate more effectively inthe achievement of sustainable development.

Regional Authorities The Regional Authorities, established on1 January, 1994, provide a focus for regionallybased coordination• between different areas and sectors,• between local and other public authorities/

agencies, and • in the provision of public services.The membership of the Regional Authoritiesconsists of county/city councillors from theregion, who are appointed by the constituentlocal authorities. Each Regional Authority hasestablished an Operational Committee, whichincludes the relevant county and city managersand executives of various public agencies. Inaddition, for EU purposes, a wide range of inter-ests is represented on a special monitoring com-mittee to assist the Regional Authority inreviewing the implementation of EU Structuraland Cohesion Fund programmes in its area.

This Strategy places importance on the regionaldimensions of sustainable development.Previous chapters have referred, for example, toregional coordination of land use policy and

development planning, the need for a catchmentbased approach to water pollution, regionallybalanced economic development, the implica-tions of dispersed population and economicactivity for transport policy, and regionalimpacts of tourism and forestry development. Anumber of structural measures are identified inBetter Local Government to provide better sup-porting systems and increase the level of com-mitment of public bodies, including local author-ities, to the work of the Regional Authorities.These measures will help to underpin the coor-dinating and representative roles of the RegionalAuthorities8, which will be relied upon to:• provide a regional perspective on environ-

mental issues and resources, includingstrategic waste management, regional waterquality and coordination of water services,groundwater resources, the coastal zone,uplands and scenic landscapes;

• promote coordination among existing organi-sational and institutional structures to helpsecure the most beneficial, effective and effi-cient use of resources; where developmentpressures threaten the sustainability of envi-ronmental resources, the Regional Authoritiesmay provide appropriate fora for achievingthe best balance regionally between develop-ment and sustainability;

• promote partnership between serviceproviders on the Operational Committees,semi-State bodies, and business and develop-ment organisations to secure a unified vision regarding sustainability targets at the regionallevel; and

• review local authority Local Agenda 21 initia-tives to ensure consistency across the regionand monitor implementation actions.

Having regard to the framework of the Strategyand the findings of State of the Environment inIreland, and building on Local Agenda 21 initia-tives in their areas, Regional Authorities, incooperation with the various interests repre-sented on the Operational Committee, will alsobe asked to:

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• identify and define sustainability priorities fortheir regions within the framework of thisStrategy;

• recommend appropriate implementationmechanisms based on the involvement ofbodies at regional level; and

• assist in the development of regional sustain-ability indicators relevant to conditions intheir regions.

To start promoting action on these lines, a seriesof Regional Sustainability Fora, involving theRegional Authorities, will be organised in 1997by An Taisce, with funding from the Departmentof the Environment and the European Union.Effectively, Regional Authorities will haveongoing responsibility for the regionalisation ofthis Strategy. Local authorities will be asked toreport regularly to the Regional Authorities onthe implementing and supporting actions takenby each authority.

Local AuthoritiesBetter Local Government emphasises that localauthorities have an important role both as envi-ronmental protection authorities and as agentsfor sustainable development. As to the former,the role of local authorities in providing andmanaging infrastructure services, implementingenvironmental regulations, monitoring, and pro-viding information is now balanced in importantrespects by that of the EPA. Formal supervisionby EPA will make local authorities more trans-parently accountable for the proper environ-mental management of the services they pro-vide. Implementing Better Local Government willinvolve the following actions, underway orplanned, in addition to those already identifiedelsewhere in this Strategy:• increased emphasis on the provision of sup-

port and training services to improve the man-agement and maintenance of water services;

• consolidation of responsibility for water andwaste water services at county/city level;

• intensification and improvement by localauthorities of their environmental perfor-

mance, in particular under guidance beingdeveloped by EPA;

• adoption of environmental management plansand development of information policy state-ments as a commitment to openness and trans-parency in providing environmental informa-tion;

• provision of more accessible and user-friendlymonitoring data; and

• continued promotion of environmental aware-ness activities and campaigns, where appro-priate jointly with community/NGO interests.

Local Authorities and Local Agenda 21

In 1995, the Department of the Environment pre-pared Guidelines on Local Agenda 21 for localauthorities, inviting them to develop this processfurther in their own functional areas, building onexisting policies, plans and programmes andbringing forward appropriate initiatives. TheGuidelines offered recommendations for thedevelopment of an environmentally responsibleethos throughout local government organisa-tions, the incorporation of Local Agenda 21 aimsin current policies and actions, and the develop-ment of information, consultative and participa-tive arrangements in the community.

Better Local Government acknowledges the LocalAgenda 21 process as an important means bywhich local authorities can promote sustain-ability in their areas with the involvement oflocal communities. There is no single, prescribedresponse to Local Agenda 21; however, theGuidelines recommend:• leading by example; local authorities should

"green" their own performance and operationsthrough, for example, pursuing green house-keeping measures and adopting environ-mental management systems;

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"Building on the strongly representative character of the local governmentsystem, on its key functions ... and on the opportunities for coordinationoffered by the regional authorities, Local Agenda 21 can give new emphasisand direction towards the goal of sustainable development."

- Minister's Foreword: Guidelines on Local Agenda 219

• integrating sustainability considerations intopolicies and functions, for example, in regardto planning, urban development, housing andtraffic management; and

• leading and facilitating action in the commu-nity, through the provision of information, and dialogue and partnerships with busi-ness/industry and voluntary/NGO intereststo promote sustainable development.

The Government is now requesting all localauthorities to complete a Local Agenda 21 fortheir areas by 1998. This can be advanced by, forexample, building on the suggestions made inthe Guidelines, or participating in the EuropeanSustainable Cities and Towns Campaign (byadopting and signing the Aalborg Charter(1994)) or in other Local Agenda 21 initiatives bythe International Council for LocalEnvironmental Initiatives (ICLEI). The role oflocal government in the achievement of sustain-able development will be supported by:• the development, by the Department of the

Environment in consultation with localauthorities, of an Eco-Management and AuditSystem for local government; and

• advice and assistance from the EnvironmentalProtection Agency.

Non-Governmental OrganisationsIreland has many highly committed non-govern-mental organisations (NGOs), who provide afocus for public involvement in environmentalprotection, and support socio-economic devel-opment nationally and internationally. TheNGO movement is an effective contributor toenvironmental action and, like Government, iscommitted to the pursuit of sustainable develop-ment policies. Voluntary groups also play a keyrole in local environmental action, maintainingdialogue with local government, State agencies,business and industry, promoting environmen-tally responsible behaviour throughout commu-nities, and encouraging change by householdsand individuals.

There are numerous separate organisations ofdifferent scale and range, and with different

agendas. However, NGOs are also forming andparticipating in networks which promote sharedinvolvement and increase the effectiveness ofaction.

Government will continue to act in, and develop,partnership with the NGO movement. In partic-ular, a new Environment Partnership Fund willco-fund sustainable development projects to beundertaken by local authorities and NGOs inpartnership at local level.

Ongoing action will include, as appropriate:• sponsoring NGO organisations/networks

to undertake national, regional and local environmental protection campaigns;

• improving the flow of information on environ-ment and development issues;

• providing for inclusion of NGO representationin national delegations to major internationalfora; and

• increasing NGO representation in national andofficial fora concerned with environment anddevelopment issues.

Instruments

The Need for New ApproachesSustainable development requires conditionswhere economy and society can more fully shareresponsibility for the environment. In creatingthose conditions, a balance must be achievedbetween traditional (mainly regulatory) controlsand new approaches which may have the poten-tial to meet environmental objectives more flex-ibly and cost-effectively.

RegulationIrish environmental policy has traditionallyrelied heavily on legislative instruments for pur-poses of implementation. This position is rein-

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"Non-governmental organisations ... possess well-estab-lished and diverse experience, expertise and capacity infields which will be of particular importance to theimplementation and review of environmentally soundand socially responsible sustainable development ..."

- Agenda 2110

forced by the need to give effect to the extensivebody of EU legislation; EU derived provisionsare estimated to comprise some 80% of the envi-ronmental legislation of Member States. Majordevelopments, such as the enactment of theEnvironmental Protection Agency Act, 1992; theestablishment of the Agency in 1993 and thecommencement of integrated pollution controllicensing in 1994; and the enactment of the WasteManagement Act, 1996, have substantiallyupdated environmental legislation. For activi-ties with significant polluting potential inte-grated, rather than single medium, controls arein general preferable.

Strong emphasis will continue to be placed onregulations which offer clear and reliable meansof defining and maintaining standards for envi-ronmental and public health protection, as wellas the quality and quantity of emissions to envi-ronmental media. Short-term priorities include:• the completion of detailed regulations under

the Waste Management Act, 1996, to implementwaste licensing and support recycling activity;

• the complete phase-in of integrated pollutioncontrol licensing of activities scheduled underthe Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1992,and the amendment of that Act to give effect tothe European Council Directive (96/16/EC)on Integrated Pollution Prevention andControl; and

• the enactment and vigorous implementationof the Litter Pollution Bill.

Within this overall emphasis, Government willalso have due regard to the relationship betweenregulation and competitiveness, and to the com-mitment in Partnership 2000 in regard to thedevelopment of a national strategy to improvethe quality of regulation and reduce the admin-istrative burden.

Legislation must also be effectively enforced.The Government will continue to resource theEnvironmental Protection Agency to supportand supervise local authority statutory environ-

mental functions, and to advise Ministers of theGovernment, as appropriate, for the purposes ofenvironmental protection. It will also supportefforts at EU level to improve the implementa-tion of Community environmental law.Penalties for breaches of environmental regula-tions will be regularly updated.

Economic InstrumentsHowever reliable in the definition of standardsand other environmental objectives, traditionalforms of regulation control rather than preventpollution. Because it must be clearly and widelyprescribed, regulation may lead to inefficienciesin some instances.Conservation of the environment must be inter-nalised both in economic sectors and the fiscal

regime, while maintaining the competitivenessof the economy. Means and methodologies forsuch internalisation are largely at a develop-mental stage, but are driven by a range of con-siderations, including:• concerns about the cost-effectiveness and

inflexibility of environmental regulation;• growing recognition of the cost and other effi-

ciencies which may be associated with eco-nomic instruments, which create an incentiveto better environmental performance and canpromote technological innovation;

• rising estimates of environmental externalitiesand their economic impacts;

• the revenue raising potential of environmentaltaxes and charges, which may be used to fundfurther environmental improvements, or reduceother taxes, including taxes on labour; and

• increasing realisation that a mix of policyinstruments (environmental and economic)may offer the best long-term approach toachieving environmental goals.

Chapter 19 Implementation and Review

page 189

"New economic instruments are ... emerging which are more sensitive to envi-ronmental needs; new approaches to regulations are emerging that are moreflexible (and thus more cost-effective). The result is that the emphasis willincreasingly be on finding combinations among economic and regulatoryinstruments, rather than choosing between them."

- OECD11

As noted in State of the Environment in Ireland,several economic instruments for environmentalprotection (including taxes, charges and subsi-dies) have been in operation in Ireland for sometime, although, in general, the use of such instru-ments is not widespread here. The Governmentis now developing a more concerted approach tothe use of economic instruments in the interestsof sustainable development and application ofthe polluter pays principle. This will increase theuse of economic instruments where this canachieve efficiency gains without compromisingenvironmental and economic policy objectives.

Internationally, tax policy has become a commonroute for applying economic instruments. In thecontext of the 1996 and 1997 Budgets, theGovernment has given a new recognition to thekey role of the taxation system in environmentalpolicy. Taxation measures with environmentaladvantages were adopted in the 1997 Budget:• excise duties on petrol and diesel were

increased;• the VRT refund scheme for car scrappage was

extended to the end of 1997; and• a three-year improved capital allowance for

farm pollution control was announced.

Green taxation policy is of growing relevanceworldwide, and the European Commission isdeveloping framework proposals for aCommunity-wide energy tax regime. Againstthis background, an Environmental Tax Groupin the Department of Finance, with representa-tion from relevant Departments and Agencies, is

undertaking a complete examination of possibleoptions for environmental taxation for purposesof future budgets. This will develop a mediumto long-term policy on environmental taxationand seek to structure a progressive shift in taxa-tion from labour to polluters. It will involve twoapproaches:• removing anomalies or distortions in the cur-

rent system of taxation and subsidies,including those which hinder labour-intensiveenvironmental activities, to ensure that thestructure of existing arrangements does not have significant adverse effects on theenvironment; and

• developing new measures to secure moreenvironmentally-friendly behaviour acrosseconomic sectors.

An economic approach to environment policymust have a broader focus on market-based aswell as fiscal instruments. In the light of imple-menting policy elsewhere, and developing EUpolicies, strategic options will include pricing ofresources and services, emissions trading andproduct and emission charges. In the design ofinstruments for application, particular attentionwill be paid to issues related to environmentaleffectiveness, economic efficiency and publicacceptability.

Chapter 19 Implementation and Review

page 190

Strategic Framework

Economy

1 General Government Deficit and GeneralGovernment Deficit as a Percentage of GDP

2 Consumer Price Index

3 General Government Debt as a Percentageof GDP

4 Trends in Gross Domestic Product (GDP)and Gross National Product (GNP)

5 Percentage change in GNP and GDP (Volumechange)

6 Unemployment

Population and Housing

7 Population in Ireland

8(1) Annual Infant Mortality Rate

8(2) Birth Rate

9 Life Expectancy

10 Population Living in Towns of 1,500 orGreater

11 Housing Completions

12(1) Housing Stock (Dwellings)

12(2) Dwellings per 1,000 Population

Strategic Sectors

Agriculture

13 Land Cover in Ireland (excluding NorthernIreland)

14(1) Gross Agricultural Output

14(2) Commodity Value as a Percentage of GrossAgricultural Output, 1995

15 Livestock Numbers

16 Trend in P fertiliser use and soil P availability

17 Consumption of nitrogenous fertilisers

Forestry

18 Afforestation

19 Broadleaves and Conifers in EU NationalForest Estates

20 Broadleaf Afforestation

21 Timber Production

Marine Resources

22 Bathing Water Quality Monitoring Results forSea Water Bathing Areas

23 Total Allowable Catch

24 Growth in Aquaculture Production

Appendix ISome Economic, Social and Environmental Trends

Appendix 1

page 192

Energy

25 Energy Demand and Economic Growth(GDP)

26(1) Energy Consumption

26(2) Energy Intensity

27 Fuel Mix in Total Primary EnergyRequirement

28 Total Final Energy Consumption by Sector

Transport

29 Vehicle Numbers

30 Heavy Goods Vehicles

31 Ratio of Road Travel to Population

32 Estimated Millions of Vehicle Kilometres ofTravel in Ireland, 1995

Tourism

33(1) Overseas Tourist Numbers

33(2) Overseas Tourism Revenue

33(3) Overseas Tourists by origin

34 Employment Sustained by Tourism (full-timejob equivalents)

35 Domestic Tourism Numbers

Supporting the Strategy

Environmental Quality

Water

36 River Water Quality (recent trends)

37 River Water Quality (long-term trends)

38(1) Lake Water Quality

38(2) Lake Water Quality (by surface area)

39 Bathing Water Quality Monitoring Results(Freshwater Bathing Areas)

Waste Management

40(1) Household and Commercial Waste collectedby, or on behalf of, Local Authorities(Landfilled)

40(2) Quantities and Composition of Waste in1995

41 Recycling Rates for Materials Recovered fromthe Household and Commercial WasteStream

42 Estimated Hazardous Industrial WasteArisings

Air

43 CO2 Emissions

44 SO2 Emissions

45 NOx Emissions

46 VOC Emissions

47 CO Emissions

48 Smoke Emissions

The General Government Deficit (GGD) is ameasure of the Government's annual borrowingand a measure of its fiscal policy.

Maintaining the GGD at a level at or below 3% ofGDP is one of the Maastricht Treaty criteria forparticipation in Economic and Monetary Union.Strong growth rates, low inflation and buoyanttax revenues in recent years have ensured thatIreland's fiscal position meets this criterion.With the 1996 GGD outturn estimated at 1.0% ofGDP, this was the eighth consecutive year inwhich Ireland satisfied the 3% reference value.A GGD of 1.0% in 1996 compares with 8.6% in1987. The Exchequer Borrowing Requirement(EBR) in 1996 was £437 million or 1.2% of GNP -£292 million below the £729 million targeted in

the 1996 Budget. Fiscal stability over the long-term is Government policy. The 1997 Budget wasdesigned to maintain fiscal discipline while facil-itating the economy's potential for sustainableeconomic growth in the medium and long term.GGD is forecast at 1.5% of GDP for each of theyears 1997-1999. (These figures include a contin-gency provision to be included in governmentfinances under the new Multi-Annual Budgetprocess). A buoyant economy, including a resur-gence in employment, is likely to yield total taxrevenues ahead of Budgetary expectations andtherefore should not pose a constraint on gov-ernment policy.

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

1999

f **

**

1998

f **

**

1997

f **

**

1996

est

***

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

**

1990

1989

1988

*

1987

0

2

4

6

8

10

IR£(

mill

ion)

Year

General Government Deficit (GGD)

General Government Deficit (GGD)as a percentage of GDP

Per

cent

Appendix 1

page 193

Source: Department of Finance, Economic Background to the Budget, 1997, p. 3.

Table 1 General Government Deficit and General Government Deficit as aPercentage of GDP

* Exclusive of once-off tax amnesty receipts** Excluding £270 million received from the floatation of Irish Life plc.*** Dept. of Finance estimate of GGD as a percentage of GDP is 1% for 1996. **** Budget forecasts

Irish inflation averaged 1.6% for 1996, downfrom 2.4% in the previous year. Measured by EUInterim Index of Consumer Prices (IICP), infla-tion averaged 2.2% last year, compared with2.5% in 1995. The annual percentage change inthe Consumer Price Index for the year toJanuary rose by 0.9%, with the percentagechange for the period November 1996 toJanuary 1997 showing a drop of 0.5%.

Over the past decade, Ireland's inflation rate hasremained at or below 4%. Inflation is relevantto sustainable growth as economies work mosteffectively when inflation is low and stable.

High inflation rates tend to distort economicdecisions and the allocation of resources. Aconsistently low inflation rate indicates that theeconomy is on a sound sustainable growth path.Maintaining inflation below the 3% level is oneof the Maastricht criteria for participation inEconomic and Monetary Union. Inflation islikely to remain moderate over the comingyears as inflationary pressures worldwideremain subdued. Low inflation will allow the economy to continue on a sustainablegrowth path over the coming years, facilitatingsustainable development.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1999

f

1998

f

1997

f

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

Ann

ual P

erce

ntag

e C

hang

e

Year

Sources: CSO Statistical Releases and Economic Background to the Budget, 1997, p. 4.

Table 2 Consumer Price Index

Appendix 1

page 194

The ratio between General Government Debt andnational output has declined significantly overrecent years. Apart from a temporary increase inthe ratio in 1993 as a result of the currency crisis,the trend has been on a long-term downwardpath. 1996 saw a fall of almost £300 million in thenational debt in absolute terms, reflecting the rel-ative strength of the Irish pound. This was thefirst time a reduction had occurred in the nation-

al debt in almost forty years. The policy of keep-ing the Debt/GDP ratio on a downward pathincreases budgetary flexibility and is in keepingwith key factors affecting future budgetary posi-tions, in particular Economic and MonetaryUnion. The decline in the ratio is expected to con-tinue in 1998 and 1999 on an underlying basis.The above table is based on definitions ofMaastricht debt criteria and GDP.

1999f#

1998f

1997f

1996est

19951994199319921991

Year

Per

cent

0

20

40

60

80

100

10

30

50

70

90

Appendix 1

page 195

Sources: National Treasury Management Agency, Report and Accounts for the year ended 31 December, 1995, p.13, and Department of Finance, Economic Background to the Budget, 1997, p. 3.

Table 3 General Government Debt as a Percentage of GDP

# These percentages take account of new measurements of debt service, debt and GDP in 1999 for Maastricht definition purposes. The measurements have the effect of adding 0.4% to the General Government Deficit calculation in 1999. They also increase the GeneralGovernment Debt measure by 7% of GDP in 1999.

Table 4 Trends in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP)

Sources: CSO, National Income and Expenditure 1995, p. 3 and Economic Background to the Budget, 1997, p. 3.

The rate of growth of GDP/GNP is the mainindicator of how fast the economy of a country isexpanding. If growth is sustainable over time,the well-being and living standards of citizenswill increase. However, the relationship betweengrowth and sustainable development is com-plex. It is Government policy to promote eco-nomic growth, but not at any cost. Highergrowth reflected in standard growth measuresmay be the result of increased investment in pol-lution control or may involve a depletion of nat-ural resources. On the other hand, there is muchactivity to improve the environment which is notregistered in the growth figures. The growth fig-ures which have been published to date reflectmonetised transactions and do not give a truepicture of social well-being.

Traditional national income as set out in thenational accounting framework does not takeaccount of the depletion of natural resources orthe impact on welfare of environmental damagewhich has not been repaired. The measure is alsopotentially overstated by expenditures by gov-

ernment and households which are made toremedy environmental damage caused by theproduction process. The weaknesses in tradition-al accounts have led to attempts to develop"satellite environmental accounts" to integrateenvironmental considerations into the tradition-al national accounts framework. Satellite envi-ronmental accounts are intended to qualify, inthe long term, the standard information of tradi-tional national accounts and to provide a bettermeasure of total welfare. There are, however,substantial difficulties which need to beaddressed in their production. Monetary valua-tion of environmental depletion and degrada-tion, judgment on whether human-made capitalcan substitute for natural capital and methodsfor integrating defensive expenditure into thenational accounts framework remain at anexperimental stage. A EUROSTAT projecttowards a matrix for the integration of environ-mental accounts into the national accountsframework, to be carried out by the CSO, is commencing in 1997.

Appendix 1

page 196

Year

IR£(

mill

ion)

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

50,000

1999f

1998f

1997f

1996est

19951994199319921991

GDP at Current Market Prices

GNP at Current Market Prices

Strong economic growth continued in 1996.Gross Domestic Product increased by an estimat-ed 7.25% with Gross National Product rising atan estimated 6.25%. The difference between thetwo measures of growth is net factor incomefrom the rest of the world. Principal among out-flows are profit repatriation by multi-nationalenterprises and repayment of interest on the for-eign element of the national debt. Principalinflows are from European Union funding anddirect investment by multi-national firms.Manufacturing output is estimated to havegrown by approximately 9%, with significantproduction increases being recorded in the com-puter and pharmaceutical sectors.

Since the end of 1994, GNP has grown by over15% with a very substantial expansion of domes-tic demand and exports. Ireland's GDP per headhas risen from 76% of the EU average in 1991 toapproximately 100% in 1996. GNP per headhowever, a more appropriate measure of eco-nomic well-being for Ireland, is still significantlybelow the EU average. Low interest rates and

inflation, combined with modest wage increasesand tax concessions, have led to increasedgrowth and hence increased real disposableincomes. More balanced international growthhas also contributed to the improvement.Consumer expenditure has risen by more than10%, a strong indication of improved livingstandards. The strong growth record has trans-lated into a substantial increase in the number ofpeople at work.

The pattern of low-inflationary growth is set tocontinue with GDP forecast to increase by about6.5% in 1997. This would constitute a very strongperformance by international standards with aver-age growth in EU and OECD countries expectedto be around 2.5%. GNP is forecast to grow by5.5% in 1997, and 4.5% in both 1998 and 1999. Asin 1996, the domestic economy is expected tomake a greater contribution than the external sec-tor to overall growth this year. Real disposableincomes are forecast to rise by 5% for the year.

Appendix 1

page 197

Sources: CSO, National Income and Expenditure Accounts, 1995 and Economic Background to the Budget, 1997, p. 3.

Table 5 Percentage change in GNP and GDP (Volume change)

Year

Per

cent

age

Vo

lum

e C

hang

e

GNP growth

GDP growth

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1999f

1998f

1997f

1996est

19951994199319921991

Exchange is the basis of all economic activity,which generates employment. The workforce inIreland has increased from just over 1.3 millionin 1988 to 1.475 million in 1996.

The results of the 1996 Labour Force Surveypublished in January 1997, show that employ-ment increased by 46,000 between April 1995and April 1996 to a figure of 1,285,000, the high-est number of people at work in the history ofthe State. For 1996 as a whole, it is estimated thattotal employment grew by 50,000. Taken in con-junction with other macro-economic indicators,this, the third year of substantial growth in num-bers at work, is a sign of the current strength ofthe Irish economy. Budgetary forecasts indicate

that total employment may rise by approximate-ly 45,000 in 1997 and on average by 35,000 perannum over the years 1997-99. These increaseswill result from a continuation of the stronggrowth of recent years which has seen employ-ment rise by over 100,000 since the end of 1994.

Unemployment, as measured on the LabourForce Survey basis, fell to 190,000 as at April1996, a reduction of 28,000 since 1994.Unemployment on the Labour Force Surveybasis is estimated to have been 182,000 for thecalendar year 1996 and is forecast to fall to175,000 in 1998 and 168,000 in 1999.

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

19961995199419931992199119901989198819871986198519841983Year

Une

mpl

oym

ent

(Lab

our

Fo

rce

Sur

vey

Bas

is)

Perc

ent

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Unemployment - Labour Force Survey basis (mid-April)

Seasonally adjusted standardised unemployment rate

Appendix 1

page 198

Sources: CSO, Labour Force Survey, 1996, p. 24 and CSO, Statistical Bulletin, Vol LXXI No. 4, pp. 765-766, 772-773.

Table 6 Unemployment

The above table illustrates population changefrom 1841 to date. After a long period of declineup to the 1960s, the population rose substantial-ly during the 1970s. The population growth ratehas now slowed. However, preliminary 1996Census figures indicate a total population of3,621,035, the highest figure since the founda-tion of the State.

Average population density of 51 persons/sq.km is low in comparison with other EU coun-

tries. The population density varies from 100persons per sq. km in parts of the east andsouth to less than 25 persons per sq. km inmany parts of the west. Population distributiontrends over the past century have seen adecline in population in rural areas and anincrease in urban populations, both as a resultof emigration and of migration to towns. In1991, 57% of the population lived in towns with1,500 inhabitants or more compared with 28.3%in 1901 (see Table 10).

Po

pula

tio

n (m

illio

n)

Year

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1996prelim.

19911986198119791971196619611956195119461936192619111901189118811871186118511841

Appendix 1

page 199

Source: CSO, Census 96 (Planning for the Ireland of tomorrow) - Preliminary Report, p. 6.

Table 7 Population in Ireland

The infant mortality rate in Ireland was 18 perthousand in 1971. By 1995, this had fallen to6.3 per thousand, a drop of 65%. Currentinfant mortality levels are amongst the lowestin Europe although lower rates in Finland andSweden show that there is further potentialfor improvement.

Birth rate per 1,000 population has alsodeclined considerably since 1971, falling byover 40%. The trends in birth and fertilityrates indicate that in the future, Ireland's ageprofile will generally converge towards theEuropean average. The proportion of thepopulation in the 0-14 age group is above theEuropean average with the proportion in theworking age group of 15-64 years beingbelow the EU-15 average. The increase in theaverage age of the population due to takeplace over the next 15 years as a result of thedecline in fertility rates will enable conver-gence of Irish living standards with the EU-15 average.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

1984

1983

1982

1981

1980

1979

1978

1977

1976

1975

1974

1973

1972

1971

Year

Rat

e pe

r 1,

000

Liv

e B

irth

s

Appendix 1

page 200

Source: CSO, Statistical Bulletin, Vol LXXI No. 4, pp. 796-797.

Table 8(1) Annual Infant Mortality Rate

0

5

10

15

20

25

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

1984

1983

1982

1981

1980

1979

1978

1977

1976

1975

1974

1973

1972

1971

Year

Bir

ths

per

1,00

0 Po

pula

tio

n

Table 8(2) Birth Rate

Advances in medical treatment and improve-ments in standards of living have contributed tosignificant changes in life expectancy. This is anindication of a healthier population but it alsohas many social, economic and environmentalimplications. More people living longer means alarger population of elderly people relative tothose of working age.

Average life expectancy in the period 1970-72was 68.8 years for men and 73.5 for women, adifference of 4.7 years. By the period 1990-92, lifeexpectancy had increased to 72.3 years for menand 77.9 years for women, increases respectivelyof 5% and 6%. Greater longevity still is predictedin future years. Increasingly, the period duringwhich individuals can expect to live healthy,independent lives is being seen as a more impor-tant indicator than total life expectancy. The def-inition and quantification of healthy lifeexpectancy is a matter of future development.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1990

-92

1985

-87

1980

-82

1978

-80

1970

-72

1965

-67

1960

-62

1950

-52

1945

-47

1940

-42

1935

-37

1925

-27

Years

Age

Females

Males

Appendix 1

page 201

Source: CSO, Irish Life Tables, 1985-1987 and 1990-1992.

Table 9 Life Expectancy

The many changes in legally defined boundariesof towns and the practice since the 1961 Censusof including the population or environs in deter-mining town size, make it difficult to give com-parable population figures extending back overa long period of years for areas defined in the1991 Census as aggregate town or aggregaterural. In the above table, figures are given foreach Census date for aggregate town and aggre-gate rural areas as they are defined at the Censusdate in question. The practice over the recentpast has been to give strictly comparable figures

for the immediately preceding Census only, withthe exception of the 1981 Census where compa-rable figures are available for both 1971 and1979. Despite the lack of strictly comparable fig-ures, there is a clear pattern of increasing con-centration of population in towns of 1,500 andover in the period 1901-1991. In 1901, only 28.3%of the total population was in aggregate townareas whereas by 1936 this proportion had risento 35.5%. At the 1991 Census, 57% of the popula-tion lived in aggregate town areas.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

19911986198119791971196619611956195119461936192619111901

Year

Perc

ent

Appendix 1

page 202

Source: CSO, Census 1991, Volume 1 - Population classified by area, p. 10.

Table 10 Population Living in Towns of 1,500 or Greater

Department of the Environment figures for 1996indicate a continued strong performance inhousing activity. Housing completions for theyear at 33,721 increased by 10% over 1995, andrepresent the highest number of annual comple-tions ever recorded in Ireland. The lead indica-tors for private housing output during 1996showed strong growth compared with the corre-sponding periods in 1995. Continuing demandfor housing constitutes a significant pressure onland for development. The re-use of land inurban areas for housing and commercial devel-

opment can contribute to a reduction in pres-sures on the countryside to accommodate newdevelopment. Current levels of house buildingconsume an estimated 2,000-2,300 hectares ofserviced land annually. In recent years, greateremphasis on infill developments and increasedapartment building in the private housing sectorhas resulted in higher density developments anda considerably more intensive use of land by thehousing programme. In 1994 and 1995, less than10% of new local authority housing was ongreenfield sites.

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

1996*1995199419931992199119901989198819871986

Year

Co

mpl

etio

ns

Voluntary/non-profit houses 1993-1995

Local Authority houses

Private houses (includes voluntary/non-profit houses up to 1992)

Appendix 1

page 203

Source: Department of the Environment, Housing Statistics Bulletin, September Quarter, 1996, p. 9.

Table 11 Housing Completions

* Breakdown of 1996 figure between the three categories not available.Footnotes:(a) The local authority figures include demountables and pre-fabricated houses.(b) Local authority house completions for the years up to and including 1992 include a small but unquantified number of houses acquired by the

authorities. The local authority house completions from 1993 onwards do not include houses acquired by them. (c) The figures for private houses from 1993 onwards are not directly comparable with those for previous years which contained an unquantified

number of “voluntary/non-profit houses”.(d) “Voluntary/non-profit houses” consists of completions under the rental subsidy and capital assistance schemes.

The housing stock increased by 40% over theperiod 1971 to 1991, an average percentageincrease of 1.7% per annum. Over the same period,the population increased by 18.4%. Increasedlongevity, changes in household size and changesin social preference have also had an effect onhousing demand. Forecast trends in populationand household size will continue to exert pres-sures for new housing into the next century andwill increase total dwelling numbers.

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

19911981

Year

Dw

ellin

gs

1971

1,019,719

896,054

726,363

Appendix 1

page 204

Table 12 (1) Housing Stock (Dwellings)

220

230

240

250

260

270

280

290

Dw

ellin

gs

19911981

Year

1971

289

260

244

Table 12 (2) Dwellings per 1,000 Population

Source: Department of the Environment

Land cover statistics reflect a range of factorsincluding geological history, national climate,and land usage. Land cover statistics havechanged over time. By the start of the twentiethcentury, once extensive forest cover had been

virtually eliminated. Forestry now represents 8%of the land cover, and is increasing at a rate of0.33% per year. Agriculture remains the primaryland use with 68.1% of land cover.

Appendix 1

page 205

Source: CORINE Land Cover Statistics for Ireland (1989/90), excluding Northern Ireland (O'Sullivan, 1994)

Table 13 Land Cover in Ireland (excluding Northern Ireland)

Agriculture 68.1%

Wetlands including bogs 14.3%

Water 2.4%

Forests and Semi-natural 14.0%

Artificial Surfaces 1.2%

Gross Agricultural Output (GAO) is the sum offinal sales of livestock, livestock products andcrops from the "National Farm" and includes theincrease or decrease in livestock numbers over ayear. The increases in livestock numbers experi-enced in recent years have been one factor con-tributing to the steady growth of GAO.However, CSO figures (February 1997) on GAOindicate that while there was an overall increasein the volumes of output in 1996 (+1.9%), whichincluded increases in the volume of pigs (+7.2%)and of cereals (+8.5%), there was a decline in the overall value of GAO by an estimated 2.2 %.This arose particularly from declines in pricesexperienced in the cattle and cereals sectors dur-ing the year.

The breakdown of the 1995 GAO figure indi-cates that livestock related agriculture includingdairying, meat and poultry production accountsfor approximately 87% of total GAO. GrossAgricultural Product at market prices (i.e. GAOminus inputs of materials and services) for theyear is estimated to have dropped by 7.8%.

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

1996*19951994199319921991199019891988198719861985Year

IR£(

mill

ion)

Appendix 1

page 206

Sources: CSO, Preliminary estimate of output, input andincome in agriculture 1996 (January 1997 estimate);CSO, Statistical Abstract 1996, p. 76; and EireStat, theData Bank of the CSO, Ireland.

Table 14(1) Gross Agricultural Output

Sheep & Lambs 4.35%

Cattle & Calves 37.05%Milk 33.70%

Wool & other livestock products 0.33%

Turf 0.67%

Other crops 8.06%

Cereal Crops 3.85%

Horses 1.62%

Poultry & Eggs 3.85%

Pigs 6.53%

Source: CSO, Statistical Abstract 1996, p. 76.

Table 14(2) Commodity Value as a Percentage of Gross Agricultural Output, 1995

* Preliminary Estimate

Year

Liv

esto

ck N

umbe

rs (

mill

ion)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14 PoultrySheepPigs Cattle

1996199519941993199219911990

Appendix 1

page 207

Table 15 Livestock Numbers

There have been changes in recent years in farmlivestock population. During the period fromJune 1995 to June 1996, cattle numbers rose by4.2%. The number of cattle in the country is nowsimilar to the herd levels of the mid-1970s. Therewas also an expansion in the Irish pig herd, witha rise of 4.5% in pig numbers between June 1995and June 1996.

The sheep flock declined by 5.2% over the sameperiod, continuing the reduction from the peak innumbers of the early 1990s. Overstocking of sheepoccurred in the 1980s and early 1990s affecting theenvironmental quality of peatlands, heaths andwildlife habitats.

Poultry numbers changed little between June1995 and June 1996 (-0.6%) reflecting the contin-ued high consumption pattern displayed by thissector. When aggregated, total animal numbersover the four sectors have increased in recentyears. The changes in numbers between sectorshave occurred in response to EU measuresdesigned to restrict expansion of surplus pro-duction sectors. The continued expansion in ani-mal numbers over time has resulted in increasedpressure on the environment.

Source: CSO, June Livestock Survey (1990-1996).

One of the principal environmental impacts ofagriculture is the eutrophication of inland watersby Phosphorus (P) from organic (animal wastes)and anthropogenic (chemical fertiliser) sources. Pis a requirement for both plant and animalgrowth, but its application in the form of miner-al fertilisers and as manures/slurries has impor-tant consequences for water quality. Nationaltrends show a steady increase in soil P levelsbetween 1950 and 1991 when the average P levelincreased from 0.8 mg/l to 9.3 mg/l. Since 1991,the average P appears to have dropped to about8 mg/l and to have stabilised around that level.Approximately 60,000 tonnes, from a total Pinput of some 140,000 tonnes a year, is artificial.Application of artificial P has remained fairlyconstant in Ireland in the past ten years. Apart

from the environmental costs of excessive soilenrichment, there is also an economic cost wheremoney is being expended unnecessarily on min-eral fertilisers. Teagasc has estimated that savingsin excess of £25 million nationally could beachieved annually if fertiliser applications weretailored more closely to crop requirements.

A study by Teagasc/TCD on agricultural soilphosphorus losses to water has been commis-sioned under the Operational Programme forEnvironmental Services, 1994-1999. The aim of thestudy is to develop a model to predict soil P loss-es given soil type, soil P level and precipitationamounts so as to facilitate better targeting of pol-lution control resources.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1995

1990

1985

1980

1975

1970

1965

1960

1955

1951

P F

erti

liser

Use

(th

ous

and

tonn

es)

Ave

rage

So

il P

Lev

el

P Fertiliser Use

Average Soil P

Appendix 1

page 208

Note: Fertiliser year calculated on a July to June basis for the period 1951-1992, thereafter it is calculated on an October to September basis.

Source: Teagasc

Year

Table 16 Trend in P fertiliser use and soil P availability

As illustrated in the above table, consumption ofnitrogenous fertilisers has exhibited a continu-ously increasing trend over the past twentyyears reflecting increased agricultural produc-tion. As environmental awareness has increased,questions have been raised on the role of nitro-gen as a pollutant of water and air. Losses ofnitrogen to water and air in Ireland have beenestimated at over 70% of nitrogen input used.These losses can have significant environmentaleffects and represent a financial loss to farmers.Despite a close relationship between agriculturaloutput and nitrogen inputs, studies by Teagaschave indicated that efficiency in usage of nitro-gen is decreasing as quantities used increase.

Good farm management responses can reduceand prevent water pollution from agriculturalsources. The Code of Good Agricultural Practice toProtect Waters from Pollution by Nitrates, launchedin 1996, includes recommended nitrogen applica-tion rates to grasslands to prevent the pollutionof groundwaters and surface waters by nitratesfrom agricultural sources. The Code also address-es existing pollution problems from organic andchemical fertilisers containing nitrogen.Preventing build-up of nitrates in waters willmaintain and improve the quality of waters for arange of uses including drinking water supply.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1973

/74

1974

/75

1975

/76

1976

/77

1977

/78

1978

/79

1979

/80

1980

/81

1981

/82

1982

/83

1983

/84

1984

/85

1985

/86

1986

/87

1987

/88

1988

/89

1989

/90

1990

/91

1991

/92

1992

/93

1993

/94

1994

/95

1995

/96

Year

To

nn

es

(th

ou

san

d)

Appendix 1

page 209

Note: Feritiliser year calculated on a July to June basis for the period 1973/74 to 1991/92; thereafter it is calculated on an October to September basis.

Sources: Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry;N. Culleton et al, “Sustainability in Irish Agriculture” in Irish Geography 27(1), (Dublin: Geographical Society ofIreland, 1994), pp. 36-37; andM. Sherwood and H. Tunney, “Land application of manure and nutrient loading: the legislation in Ireland andEurope”, proceedings of the Environmental Impact Conference, (Teagasc/The Institution of Engineers of Ireland,Johnstown Castle, Wexford, 1991).

Table 17 Consumption of nitrogenous fertilisers

Table 18 Afforestation

Sources: Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry, Growing for the Future: A Strategic Plan for theDevelopment of the Forestry Sector in Ireland, p. 27 and Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry.

Year

Hec

tare

s

Public

Private

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

1996est

199519941993199219911990198919881987198619851984

Afforestation levels in Ireland are now estimatedat over 25,000 hectares (ha) per annum. The mostdramatic change in relation to planting has beenin private sector planting which has increasedfrom 300 ha per annum in the early 1980s to over17,000 ha in the mid-1990s. Tree planting per capi-ta is now higher in Ireland than in many otherdeveloped countries. Forest cover as a percent-age of total land area is presently increasing at arate of 0.33% per annum, a reflection of Ireland'scomparative advantage in Europe in respect ofthe rate of tree growth. Planting targets of 25,000ha/per annum were set under the currentafforestation programme.

A target of 17% of total land cover has been setfor forestry by the year 2035. Annual planting byprivate operators (including farmers) reached73% of total planting in 1995 with 85% of all pri-vate afforestation being undertaken by farmers.

Planning permission/Environmental ImpactAssessment requirements allow for the protec-tion of sensitive environments from over-afforestation.

It is estimated that up to 7,000 are employeddirectly in forestry with a further 9,000employed in related sectors.

Appendix 1

page 210

Table 19 Broadleaves and Conifers in EU National Forest Estates

Source: Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry, Growing for the Future: A Strategic Plan for theDevelopment of the Forestry Sector in Ireland, p. 10.

The predominant species in Ireland is the Sitkaspruce, representing 60% of the forest estateand 65% of current annual afforestation.Broadleaves account for an estimated 16% ofthe forest estate and 20% of the current annualafforestation compared to 3-4% in the late1980s. The predominance of Sitka spruceafforestation is due to the high growth rate of

this species of tree in Ireland in comparisonwith EU growth rates. A considerable amountof research has been carried out on the genetic,silvicultural and wood quality aspects of theSitka spruce whereas knowledge of broadleafestablishment and management has been limit-ed because of the scarcity, until recently, of suit-able sites for broadleaf afforestation.

Appendix 1

page 211

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

GreItaLuxFraSpaPortBelNethUKDenGerAusIrlFinSwe

Conifers Broadleaves

Country

Perc

ent

Trends in past afforestation have seen the pre-dominant planting of coniferous rather thannative and broad-leaved species, to the extentthat 84% of forests comprise coniferous species.The 16% of the Irish forest estate which is madeup of broadleaves is considerably less than inpractically all other EU Member States, wherethe average proportion of broad-leaved forestryis 40% of the total. The emphasis on quick-grow-ing softwoods reflected the exceptionally suit-able conditions of the Irish climate for suchspecies, supporting rapid growth and providingquick returns on investment.

Current policy places greater emphasis on theplanting of broad-leaved species, with the targetfor annual broadleaf afforestation set at 20% oftotal annual afforestation. This has particularvalue in terms of landscape, heritage, amenityand habitats. In economic terms, it also offerslong-term opportunities for the production ofhardwood timber, allowing greater diversity ofassociated industries and products.

0

5

10

15

20

25

19951994199319921991

Per

cent

Year

Private Sector

Public Sector

Appendix 1

page 212

Source: Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry

Table 20 Broadleaf Afforestation

Annual timber production in 1996 was 2.3 mil-lion cubic metres and supported some 100sawmills and three panel board mills. The valueof the contribution of the sawnwood and panelboard processing sectors to the national econo-my was estimated in 1993 at £87 million. Thevalue added to industrial input timber and

wooden furniture was estimated at £166 million.Irish forests supply around 60% of domesticrequirements for structural and constructiongrade timber, while exports, comprising some250,000 cubic metres, consist mainly of pallet-wood destined for the UK market.

State

Private

Total

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1996199519941993199219911990198919881987198619851984

Year

Cub

ic M

etre

s (m

illio

n)

Appendix 1

page 213

Source: Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry

Table 21 Timber Production

The quality of bathing water in Ireland is gener-ally very high, with most designated bathingareas (96%) complying with statutory qualityrequirements. The bathing season runs from 1 June to 31 August each year. The number of seawater bathing areas sampled in 1996 was 115, anincrease of 7 on 1995. 114 of the 115 samplingpoints (99.13%) had sufficient sampling frequen-

cy and of these, 110 (96.5%) complied withmandatory values for total coliforms, faecal coliforms, mineral oils, surface active substancesand phenols. In addition, 101 of the 114 samplingpoints (88.6%) complied with the guide valuesspecified in Directive 76/160/EEC for theseparameters.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

199619951994199319921991

Year

Per

cent

Compliance with guide values

Compliance with mandatory values

Appendix 1

page 214

Note: For 1991-95, the parameters for which the compliance rate is calculated are total coliforms and faecal coliforms. For 1996, the parameters for which the compliance is calculated are total coliforms, faecal coliforms, mineral oils, surface active substances and phenols.

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Report to the European Commission on the Quality of Bathing Waters inIreland for the 1996 Bathing Season, p. 5.

Table 22 Bathing Water Quality Monitoring Results for Sea Water Bathing Areas

While the global fish catch increased five foldbetween 1950 and 1990, it has not increasedsince. The UN Commission on SustainableDevelopment, at its fourth session in 1996,agreed that significant fish stocks at global levelare depleted or overexploited, and noted thaturgent corrective action is necessary to rebuilddepleted stocks and to ensure their sustainableuse. Long term preservation and improvementof stocks, through careful management andresponsible fishing practices, is vital for thefuture of the industry.

At EU level, the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP)already takes account of sustainability require-ments in respect of stocks, and imposes quotason certain traditionally fished key economicspecies. Total Allowable Catches (TACs) for cer-tain key economic stocks such as Mackerel,

Herring, Cod and Haddock are set each year bythe EU Council of Fisheries Ministers. TACs areessentially based on the results of analysis car-ried out by international fisheries scientists andare indicators of the health of stocks of thespecies concerned. Setting sustainable overallTACs to allow stocks to replenish is at the core ofthe conservation principles of the EU CommonFisheries Policy.

In order to maximise fishing possibilities whileensuring that conservation objectives are met,there has been significant diversification intonon-TAC species in recent years. Consequently,there has been a significant growth in the level ofIrish fish landings from 249,533 tonnes (valuedat £95 million) in 1991 to 395,853 tonnes (valuedat £129 million) in 1995.

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

199619951994199319921991

164,727

Tonn

es

Year

174,820

191,410198,285

204,935

185,244

Appendix 1

page 215

Source: Department of the Marine

Table 23 Total Allowable Catch

Table 24 Growth in Aquaculture Production

* 1999 projected figures

Source: Operational Programme for Fisheries, 1994-1999.

Aquaculture, including finfish and shellfish, is agrowing sector of Irish marine industry. It nowaccounts for 25% of Ireland's fish production,and provides employment for over 2,500 people,mainly in remote coastal communities. The esti-mated value of the output from the sector in 1995was £49 million. This represents a doubling ofthe value of aquaculture production since 1989.

The Operational Programme for Fisheries, 1994-1999, targets aquaculture as a key growth area,and the Government is committed to supportingthe sustainable development of the industry as asource of jobs and economic activity.

Appendix 1

page 216

Clams & Other Shellfish

Pacific OystersNative Oysters

Bottom Cultured Mussels

Rope Cultured Mussels

Freshwater TroutFarmed Sea Trout

Farmed Salmon

Tonn

es

1992

Year

1999*1989

0

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

This table shows the relationship betweengrowth in energy demand and growth in theeconomy (GDP). Trends in Total Primary EnergyRequirement (TPER) illustrate the relationshipbetween energy and economic growth. As thenational output of goods and services increasedin this period, energy consumption alsoincreased to meet the demands. While there areother factors which affect the level of energy con-sumption (i.e. weather patterns, energy pricemovements, etc.) economic growth is thestrongest influence of all such factors. Ireland's

energy intensity has been improving over recentyears with more units of GDP being producedfor fewer units of energy input at the margin.Average annual GDP growth over the period1980-1993 was almost 3.6% while average annu-al growth in TPER was 1.7%. However, in thefive years from 1988 to 1993, TPER grew rela-tively more quickly, probably because the stimu-lus of the huge price rises of 1973 and 1979 hadworn off. Overall, this indicates a move towardsthe decoupling of economic growth fromincreased energy usage.

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

19931992199119901989198819871986

Total Primary Energy Requirement (TPER)

GDP (constant 1985 market prices)

198519841983198219811980

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Year

IR£

mill

ion

TO

E*

(mill

ion)

Appendix 1

page 217

Source: Alison Myers, Energy in Ireland, 1980-1993 - A Statistical Bulletin.

Table 25 Energy Demand and Economic Growth (GDP)

* TOE = Tonnes of Oil Equivalent

Total Final Consumption (TFC) is the measure ofthe amounts of various fuels used after usage inelectricity production and other intermediaryprocesses have been accounted for - in otherwords, the amounts which are used by end-users as final energy.

Ireland's energy intensity rating or TFC per capitaof 2.23 compares with a European average of 2.37.The trend indicates that TFC is growing fasterthan the population growth rate. The trend ofincreasing energy consumption per capita is incontrast with the European average which hasremained steady since 1980.

TFC/GDP is a measure of Ireland's energyintensity. Ireland’s rate is on a par with theEuropean average, has been improving in recentyears and is forecast to decline further in thenext century to a level of 0.11 in the year 2010.This is a firm indication illustrating the de-link-ing of economic growth with increased energyusage. (As TFC/GDP is declining over time, thegrowth in TFC is slower than the growth rate inGDP).

TFC is measured in Metric Ton of Oil Equivalent(TOE) per thousand US Dollars at 1990 pricesand Exchange Rates.

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

1973 1979 1992 1993 1995f

2000f

2010f

TF

C p

er c

apit

a

Year

Appendix 1

page 218

Source: International Energy Agency, Energy Policiesof International Energy Agency (IEA) Countries, 1994Review, p. 304.

Table 26 (1) Energy Consumption

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

2010f

2000f

1995f

19931992199119791973

Year

TF

C/G

DP

Rat

io

Table 26 (2) Energy Intensity

Total Primary Energy Requirement (TPER) is ameasure of all energy consumed including thatlost in the transformation and distributionprocess. These processes include oil refining andthe generation, transmission and distribution ofelectricity. Overall, TPER was 24% higher in1993 than in 1980. The above graph illustratessignificant trends within primary energy con-sumption over the last 15 years. These include:

• The discovery of natural gas and its use as anatural energy source. Gas did not play anyrole in TPER in 1978. By 1993 it represented18% of TPER.

• Ireland's oil dependence declined from 75% in1978 to 49% in 1993.

• Coal increased from 9% in 1980 to 19% in 1993as a source of primary energy requirement.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Other RenewablesHydro

Natural Gas

Oil

Peat

Coal

19931992199119901989198819871986198519841983198219811980

Year

TO

E*

(mill

ion)

Appendix 1

page 219

Source: Alison Myers, Energy in Ireland, 1980-1993 - A Statistical Bulletin, pp. 5-6.

Table 27 Fuel Mix in Total Primary Energy Requirement

* TOE= Tonnes of Oil Equivalent

Total Final Consumption of energy representedby volume of Tonnes of Oil Equivalent (TOE),increased by 19% between 1980 and 1993, anannual increase of 1.35% on average over theperiod. (TFC in 1980 totalled 6,226,000 TOE; TFCin 1993 totalled 7,417,000 TOE). This compareswith growth in GDP of 58% over the period oralmost 3.6% per annum. The agricultural sectorhas only been identified as a separate consumingsector since 1990. Previously, the agriculture fig-ure was contained partially in the domestic andcommercial sector numbers. It is estimated thatthe combined residential, commercial and agri-

cultural sectors accounted for 41% of TFC in1980 and for 47% in 1993. Growth in consump-tion has been driven principally by markedincreases in energy use in the transport, residen-tial and commercial sectors. On the other hand,there were significant fluctuations in the percentage of TFC consumed in the industrialsector over the period, which exhibited a dropfrom 31% to 22% of sectoral consumption.Consumption in the transport sector increasedfrom 28% of TFC in 1980 to 31% in 1993. Energyconsumed in this sector at the end of the periodwas virtually all oil.

Industry 31%1,961,000 TOE

Transport 28%1,728,000 TOE

1980

6,226,000 TOE

1993

7,417,000 TOE

Residential 31%1,941,000 TOE

Commercial 10%597,000 TOE

Commercial 15%1,133,000 TOE

Agricultural 4%267,000 TOE

Residential 28%2,042,000 TOE

Transport 31%2,318,000 TOE

Industry 22%1,658,000 TOE

Appendix 1

page 220

Source: Alison Myers, Energy in Ireland, 1980-1993 - A Statistical Bulletin.

Table 28 Total Final Energy Consumption by Sector

Per head of population, the Irish road network isextensive compared with other European coun-tries at just over 26 km per thousand persons,92,300 km in total. Public roads are classified intothree broad categories; national primary and sec-ondary roads, regional roads and local roads.

With the increases in economic growth in recentyears, there has been a continuous increase in thetotal number of motorised vehicles using the

road network. This has caused serious trafficcongestion in certain urban areas and has con-tributed to noise and air pollution. Sustainabletransport policies require that unnecessarymovement is minimised with greater efficiencyin transport arrangements. The challenge is tobreak the link between economic growth andincreased transport requirements so that trans-port does not contribute inordinately to environ-mental problems.

0

20,0000

40,0000

60,0000

80,0000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

1984

1983

1982

1981

1980

1979

1978

1977

1976

Year

Veh

icle

s

Private Cars

Total Vehicles

Appendix 1

page 221

Source: Department of the Environment, Irish Bulletin of Vehicle and Driver Statistics 1995, p. 4.

Table 29 Vehicle Numbers

The number of Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs)on Irish roads has increased substantially overthe last 35 years. From a low level of 195 in 1960,the number of HGVs has grown on average byover 12% per annum over the period 1960 to 1995with a total fleet of some 12,116 in 1995.

89% of all freight traffic is carried on the road net-work. HGVs required for bulk freight transportimpose major demands on road network. It has

been estimated that the effect of one HGV on theroad infrastructure is equivalent to 10,000 cars.

The age of the national goods vehicle fleet is rel-evant is considering pressure on the environ-ment. At 31 December, 1995, 66% of all goodsvehicles were 4 years old and over. Mandatoryroadworthiness testing is now in force for com-mercial vehicles.

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

1984

1983

1982

1981

1980

1979

1978

1977

1976

1975

1970

1960

Year

Hea

vy G

oo

ds V

ehic

les

Appendix 1

page 222

Source: Department of the Environment.

Table 30 Heavy Goods Vehicles

Transport growth in Ireland is concentrated onthe roads. Economic growth, rising disposableincomes and an increased emphasis on personalmobility have all contributed to the increasingtraffic. Irish car ownership is around 27 cars per100 people, reflecting increases in private carnumbers of over 5.3% in 1994 and 5.5% in 1995.While still below the EU average of 43 cars per100 people, the Irish figure has increased from 22cars per 100 people in 1989.

Growth in traffic volume is reflected in vehiclekilometres of road travel. Measured per capita,this increased from some 5,990 km in 1986 toover 8,800 km in 1995, an increase of 47%.Accelerating growth exacerbates transport pres-sures on the environment, making precautionaryenvironmental measures more urgent.

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

1995**199119861981*1979

5,646 5,7785,994

7,163

8,836

Num

ber

of

Veh

icle

kilo

met

res T

rave

lled

per

cap

ita

Year

Appendix 1

page 223

Source: National Roads Authority, Traffic Station Counts and Road Travel for 1995, p.12 and CSO, Census 96(Planning for the Ireland of tomorrow) - Preliminary Report.

Table 31 Ratio of Road Travel to Population

* 1981 ratio based on 1981 Census figure and 1980 road travel in million vehicle kilometres.** 1995 ratio based on population estimate for 1995 contained in 1996 Labour Force Survey.

Estimates of vehicle kilometres of travelin Ireland in 1995 are classified by vehicletype in the chart across. Car transportaccounts for the largest percentage ofvehicle kilometres travelled. In contrast,buses account for just over 1% of vehiclekilometres travelled. Roads account for89% of all freight transport and 96% of allpassenger transport.

Motor Cycle 0.9% (278)

Cars 78.1% (24,826)

Light Goods Vehicles 12.3% (3,906)

Trucks 6.2% (1,956)

Farm Tractors 1.4% (435)

Miscellaneous 0.1% (38)

Buses 1.1% (355)

Appendix 1

page 224

Source: National Roads Authority, Traffic StationCounts and Road Travel for 1995.

Table 32 Estimated Millions of Vehicle Kilometres* of Travel in Ireland, 1995

* Rounded to nearest million kilometres.

Trends in tourism revenue and numbers havebeen increasing significantly over recent years.Total earnings from both overseas and domestictourism showed strong growth between 1985and 1995, increasing at a rate of over 9% perannum. The high rate of growth continued in1996; preliminary overseas visitor numbers areestimated to have increased by 10% to 4.6 mil-lion and earnings from overseas tourists are esti-mated to have reached £1.45 billion.Employment in the industry was forecast to riseto 107,000 in 1996, an increase of over 5,000 onthe previous year. Tourism now employs over8% of the total working population and is one of the most important sectors of the nationaleconomy.

Tourism has been identified by the Governmentas a major source of continued economic growthfor the coming years. To ensure sustainabletourism, Ireland must be able to develop thetourist sector while protecting, and where possi-ble, enhancing the environment. With overseastourist figures exceeding the resident populationfrom 1994 on, policy now focuses on increasingthe revenue value of tourism rather than thenumber of tourists.

0

1

2

3

4

5

1996 Est

199519941993199219911990198919881987198619851984

Year

Tour

ist

Num

bers

(m

illio

n)

Appendix 1

page 225

Source: Bord Fáilte, Markets, 1991-1995, Perspectives on Irish Tourism.

Table 33(2) Overseas Tourism Revenue

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1996Est

199519941993199219911990198919881987

Year

IR£(

mill

ion)

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500Other

Year

Mainland Europe

North America

Britain

199519941993199219911990198919881987198619851984

Table 33(1) Overseas Tourist Numbers

Table 33(3) Overseas Tourists by origin

Over the last number of years, domestic tourismnumbers have declined in terms of tourist trips.In 1995, domestic tourism numbers were justover 7 million, a drop of over 300,000 on 1994figures. However, increases in overseas tourismnumbers have more than offset the domesticdecline and hence, a focus must be maintainedon optimisation, taking account of environmen-tal, social and economic considerations.

Tourism provides around 8% of nationalemployment, at some 102,000 full-time equiva-lent jobs in 1995, with 107,000 forecast for 1996and 110,000 being forecast by end-1997. TheOperational Programme for Tourism, 1994-1999 isexpected to deliver an additional 35,000 full-time job equivalents by 1999. It is likely, howev-er, that these figures are an underestimation ofthe total employment impact of the tourism sec-tor, as many jobs which are supported bytourism (e.g. in the retail and leisure sectors) arerecorded elsewhere in the statistics. Tourism is agrowing force for employment; the additional30,000 tourism-related jobs created between1987 and 1994 represented half of the netincrease in employment in that period.

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

1996 Est

199519941993199219911990198919881987Year

Ful

l-ti

me

Job

Equ

ival

ents

6.4

6.6

6.8

7.0

7.2

7.4

7.6

7.8

8.0

8.2

1995

7.093

1994

7.405

1993

7.930

1992

8.118

1991

8.172

Year

Num

bers

(m

illio

n)

Appendix 1

page 226

Source: Bord Fáilte, Developing Sustainable Tourism,Tourism Development Plan, 1994-1999, and BordFáilte, Annual Report and Accounts, 1994 and 1995.

Source: Bord Fáilte, Annual Report and Accounts, 1995.

Table 34 Employment Sustained by Tourism (full-time job equivalents)

Table 35 Domestic Tourism Numbers

Appendix 1

page 227

Detailed data on Irish water quality and trendsare contained in Water Quality in Ireland, 1991-1994. These indicate that the bulk (71.2%) ofriver channel surveyed is unpolluted; 3724.5 km(28%) is slightly or moderately polluted and 77km (0.6%) is seriously polluted. As might beanticipated, the most seriously polluted chan-nels are located in the more densely populatedand intensively farmed locations within thecountry. Serious pollution is most evident in theeastern region with more than half of the sur-veyed channel length slightly or moderately pol-luted. The Cavan/Monaghan area registered44.1% of channel either slightly or moderatelypolluted whereas, in contrast, the Donegal/Sligoregion (9.1%) and the southern region (13.1 %)show lower levels of pollution.

Class A (unpolluted)9,396 Km (71.2%)

Class B (slightly polluted)2,222.5 Km (16.8%)

Class C (moderately polluted)1,502 Km (11.4%)

Class D (seriously polluted)77 Km (0.6%)

SeriouslyPolluted

UnpollutedSource: Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality in Ireland, 1991-1994.

Table 36 River Water Quality (recent trends)

Note: Baseline survey of 13,200 kilometres of channel length, 1991-1994

2,900 km of rivers/streams were surveyed in1971 and this baseline has been re-examined atregular intervals since to assess the long termtrend in river quality. There is a continuingdecline in the length of Class A waters (unpol-luted) from 84% of the total surveyed in 1971 to57% in the most recent 4 year review undertakenby the EPA. There is also a significant decline in

the length of channel which is affected by seri-ous pollution; this has been reduced from 6% ofsurveyed channel in 1971 to less than 1% in the1991-1994 survey. However, there is a five-foldincrease in slightly polluted channel and a three-fold increase in moderately polluted channelover the period since 1971.

1971 1981 1986 1990 1994

Cha

nnel

Len

gth

(per

cent

)

84.3 77.869.1

65.5

57.5

5.111.1

19.819.5

26.8

4.6 7 8.4 13.1

1.9

14.5

6 4.1 2.7 1.2

Class D(seriously polluted)

Class C(moderately polluted)

Class B(slightly polluted)

Class A(unpolluted)

SeriouslyPolluted

Unpolluted

Appendix 1

page 228

Sources: 1971 data - Flanagan & Toner, 1972; 1981 data - Clabby et al, 1982; 1986 data - Toner et al, 1986;1990 data - Clabby et al, 1992; 1994 data - Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality in Ireland, 1991-

Table 37 River Water Quality (long-term trends)

Note: Long-term trend based on surveys carried out on 1971 baseline of 2,900 km (percentage of channel length in four biological quality classes)

Appendix 1

page 229

Of 135 lakes examined in the EPA Water QualitySurvey, 104 are classed oligotrophic ormesotrophic (i.e. unpolluted), 7 are moderatelyeutrophic, 11 are strongly eutrophic, 6 are high-ly eutrophic and 7 are hypertrophic (seriouslypolluted). The highest incidence of identifiedpollution was in the north-midlands where 16 of47 lakes surveyed were polluted to some extent.In contrast, most lakes in the west and the major-ity elsewhere in the country (80%) were unpol-luted. Non-point agricultural waste sources are

of major significance in the pollution of lakes inIreland but in several cases point source dis-charges of sewage or industrial waste waters areimplicated. Water quality in Loughs Ennel,Leane and Muckno has been improved throughphosphorus removal at sewage plants discharg-ing into the lakes. An integrated catchment man-agement initiative will now be implemented toreverse deteriorating water quality trends inselected catchments.

Hypertrophic 3.3%High Eutrophic 1.7%

Strongly Eutrophic 32.7%

Moderately Eutrophic 0.7%

Mesotrophic 18.9%

Oligotrophic 42.3%

Hypertrophic 5.2%High Eutrophic 4.4%

Strongly Eutrophic 8.1%

Moderately Eutrophic 5.2%

Mesotrophic 28.9%

Oligotrophic 48.1%

SeriouslyPolluted

Unpolluted

Table 38(1) Lake Water Quality

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality in Ireland, 1991-1994.

Table 38(2) Lake Water Quality (by surface area)

The number of inland bathing areas designatedand sampled in 1996 remained at nine. Allinland water bathing areas complied with themandatory values for total coliforms, faecal col-iforms, mineral oils, surface active substances

and phenols in the 1996 bathing season. Eight ofthe nine areas (88.9%) also complied with theguide values of Council Directive 76/160/EECfor these parameters.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

19961995199419931992

Compliance with mandatory valuesCompliance with guide values

Year

Per

cent

Appendix 1

page 230

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Report to the European Commission on the Quality of Bathing Waters inIreland for the 1996 Bathing Season, p. 5.

Table 39 Bathing Water Quality Monitoring Results (Freshwater Bathing Areas)

Note: For the 1991-1995 period, the parameters for which the compliance rate is calculated are total coliforms and faecal coliforms. For 1996, theparameters for which the compliance is calculated are total coliforms, faecal coliforms, mineral oils, surface active substances and phenols.

Appendix 1

page 231

The table across indicates trends in householdand commercial waste arisings, and suggestsan increase of over 62% in eleven years,equivalent to just under 4.5% per annum.Trends in municipal waste arisings have beendifficult to establish due to the differingmethodologies used to gather waste statistics.Total municipal waste collected in 1995,including household and commercial wastecollected for recycling as well as street cleans-ing waste, has been estimated at 1,549,962tonnes. Actual household waste arisings aregreater, however, than the volume collected asa collection service is not provided to 100% ofthe population. When adjusted in this regard,actual municipal waste arisings for 1995 areestimated at 1,848,232 tonnes. Apparentincreases in municipal waste volumes are, tosome extent, a function of better reportingmethods over time. The National WasteDatabase Report suggests that the figure foractual household waste arisings (estimated tobe 1,324,521 tonnes in 1995) should be consid-ered as a benchmark for future comparisons.

0

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

19951993*1984

854,866

1,186,312

1,385,439

Year

To

nnes

per

ann

um

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, NationalWaste Database Report, 1995.

Table 40(1) Household and Commercial Waste collected by, or on behalf of LocalAuthorities (Landfilled)

* The figure for 1993 is that reported by local authorities for household andcommercial waste collected.

It is estimated that 403,729 tonnes of com-mercial waste were collected by, or on behalfof, local authorities in 1995. The table acrossillustrates the composition of this waste.

It is estimated that 981,710 tonnes of house-hold waste were collected by, or on behalf of,local authorities in 1995. The table illustratesthe composition of this waste.

Other 216,023 tonnes (22.00%)

Organics 352,159 tonnes (35.87%)

Paper 202,151 tonnes (20.59%)

Plastic 100,709 tonnes (10.26%)

Metals 33,225 tonnes (3.38%)Textiles 27,724 tonnes (2.82%)

Glass 49,718 tonnes (5.06%)

Organics 90,112 tonnes (22.32%)

Other 28,100 tonnes (6.96%)

Paper 223,222 tonnes (55.29%)

Plastic 38,274 tonnes (9.48%)Metals 4,603 tonnes (1.14%)

403,729 tonnes

981,710 tonnes

Glass 19,419 tonnes (4.81%)

Table 40(2) Quantities and Composition of Waste in 1995

Commercial Waste Household Waste

In 1993, 92.6% of the household and commercialwaste stream was landfilled and 7.4% was recy-cled. For household waste alone, 1.4% was recy-cled with the balance landfilled. The recyclingrate for commercial waste was much higher at14.5%. The figures for 1995 indicate that theoverall recycling rate for household and com-mercial waste had risen to 10.4%, with 4.3% ofhousehold waste and 15.3% of commercial wasterecycled. With regard to the 15.3% commercialrecycling rate, it should be noted that tonnagesfor commercial waste recycled and landfilled in1995 were lower than those reported for 1993and that different methods were used to estimatecommercial waste arisings and per cent recycledfor the two years. Scrap metal was included as

part of the commercial waste stream in 1993 andit is now considered that this material is betterclassified as part of the industrial waste stream.With scrap metals excluded from the commer-cial waste stream, the national recycling rate forthe household and commercial waste stream for1995 is 7.8%.

This Strategy includes among its objectives a sta-bilisation and reversal of the growth in waste pro-duction, and intensification of reuse and recyclingactivity so that 20% of municipal waste is divert-ed from landfill by recycling by 1999. Higher tar-gets will be established for subsequent years,including an increase from 27% to at least 50% inthe recovery rate for packaging waste by 2005.

0.30.1

14.4

11.2

29.2

20.5

Rec

yclin

g R

ate

(Per

cent

)

1993

1995

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Textile OrganicMetals* PlasticGlass Paper

19.2

16.5

3.3

24.2

0.0 0.0

Appendix 1

page 232

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, National Waste Database Report, 1995, p. 68.

Table 41 Recycling Rates for Materials Recovered from the Household and Commercial Waste Stream

*Scrap metal was excluded from commercial waste stream in 1995.

Appendix 1

page 233

The above table illustrates estimated hazardouswaste arisings. Surveys in 1984, 1988, and 1992show a rising trend in waste regulated under theEuropean Communities (Toxic and DangerousWaste) Regulations, 1982. Figures for other wastesare not directly comparable due to changing def-initions. The 1995 figures relate to wastes listedin the European Hazardous Waste List(94/904/EC). These figures cover wastes classi-fiable under the Toxic and Dangerous WasteRegulations, wastes not classifiable under theRegulations and aqueous wastes not included inthe provisions of the Waste Management Act,1996, as they are covered by other legislation.

Of reported hazardous waste arisings, 57.4% isdisposed by various routes, with incineration andbiological treatment being the main disposalroutes. The recovery rate for reported hazardouswaste arisings is 42.5%. Over 90% of hazardouswaste is treated in Ireland with 78.2% treated on-site and 12% treated off-site. As a percentage oftotal reported industrial waste in 1995, hazardousindustrial waste represents 3.79%. As a percent-age of total waste in 1995, hazardous waste rep-resents 3.18%. By far the greatest quantity of haz-ardous waste, as defined by the hazardous wastelist, arose in the chemicals, chemical productsand man-made fibre sector (88.4%).

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1995199219881984Year

Tonn

es (

tho

usan

d) p

er a

nnum

52,500

56,000

108,500

72,850

56,000

128,850

99,393

40,200

139,593

119,456

65,716

58,582

243,754

Aqueous wastes excluded from the provisions of the Waste Management Act, 1996

Additional Waste not classified as toxic and dangerous under the European Communities(Toxic and Dangerous Waste) Regulations, 1982 (ERU, 1993; EPA, 1996); 1995: additional waste listed in the Hazardous Waste list

Waste categorised according to European Communities (Toxic and Dangerous Waste) Regulations, 1982

Table 42 Estimated Hazardous Industrial Waste Arisings

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, National Waste Database, 1995, pp. 70-71.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the main gas generatedby human activity which contributes to climatechange. CO2 arises principally as a result of theburning of fossil fuels in the energy and trans-port sectors. The above chart represents theincrease in CO2 emissions in the 1990s. A nation-al climate change/CO2 abatement strategy waspublished by the Department of theEnvironment in 1993. It sets the objective of lim-iting the growth in CO2 emissions to 20% abovetheir 1990 levels (a net increase of 11% when the

estimated growth in carbon fixation by expand-ed afforestation is taken into account). It is nowprojected that CO2 emissions in the year 2000will be less than this target.

Negotiations are currently taking place underthe auspices of the Framework Convention onClimate Change to strengthen the Conventioncommitments in respect of greenhouse gases,including CO2, in the post-2000 period.

29.0

29.5

30.0

30.5

31.0

31.5

32.0

32.5

33.0

33.5

34.0

1995199419931990

33.9

To

nnes

(m

illio

n)

30.7

31.9

33.3

Appendix 1

page 234

Table 43 CO2 Emissions

Source: Department of the Environment/Environmental Protection Agency

Appendix 1

page 235

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) can have adverse effectson human health, vegetation, materials and cul-tural heritage. Emissions of SO2 are producedwhen fossil fuels containing sulphur are burnt.Electricity generation is the principal source ofSO2. Coal and oil produce varying amounts ofSO2 while gas produces little. Emissions of SO2

decreased by approximately 25% over the period1980 to 1995. This has mainly been achieved as aresult of a switch to low sulphur fuels in theenergy and industrial sectors, the reduction infuel oil combustion in industry and the conver-

sion of solid fuel heating systems in privatedwellings to gas or oil fired systems.

Under the Second Sulphur Protocol to theConvention on Long Range Transboundary AirPollution, which Ireland has signed, nationalemissions of SO2 should be reduced to 157,000tonnes from the year 2000 onwards (i.e. a reduc-tion of 30% on 1980 levels). Ireland will ratifythe Second Sulphur Protocol in 1997.

0

50

100

150

200

250

19951994199019851980

Year

To

nnes

(th

ous

and)

222.4

141.19

177.90 176.580164.86

Source: Environmental Protection Agency

Table 44 SO2 Emissions

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) include two gases - nitricoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).Electricity generation and transport are the mainsources of NOx through high temperature com-bustion. Short term exposure to very high con-centrations of NO2 can result in adverse affectson the respiratory system while both NO andNO2 contribute to acid rain and the formation ofground level ozone. NOx emissions haveincreased by some 49% between 1980 and 1995,

but abatement strategies are now starting toshow results. Under the Sofia Protocol, signed in1988, Ireland was required to stabilise NOx

emissions at 105,400 tonnes from 1994 onwards.A revised protocol based on the critical loadsapproach is under negotiation and will requirefurther NOx reductions after 2000. Ireland willwork towards the achievement of the emissionstandards now being developed at UN ECE andEU level.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

19951994199019851980

Year

To

nnes

(th

ous

and)

76.8

85.09

114.61 115.57 114.735

Appendix 1

page 236

Source: Environmental Protection Agency

Table 45 NOX Emissions

Appendix 1

page 237

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are a pri-mary air pollutant. The term VOC encompassesa wide range of reactive hydrocarbons and anal-ogous compounds. VOCs include the aromatics,such as benzene, which is added to high octaneunleaded petrol. The principal sources of VOCshave been identified as road traffic, petroleumdistribution and the evaporation of solvents,emissions which principally have local orregional effects. Existing information indicatesthat industry emits limited quantities of VOCs

mainly from the use of solvents. However, theEnvironmental Protection Agency has noted thatemissions of VOCs from a range of industrialprocesses have not yet been reliably quantified.Combined with NOx, VOCs form low levelozone which is damaging to both human andcrop health. An investigation of VOC and PM10

in Dublin is being funded under the R&D Sub-programme of the Operational Programme forEnvironmental Services, 1994-1999.

0

50

100

150

200

250

1993199019851980

Year

To

nn

es

(th

ou

san

d)

79.3

63.73

179.97171.22

1995

169.66

Source: Environmental Protection Agency

Table 46 VOC Emissions

Carbon monoxide (CO), one of the major air pol-lutants, is a threat to human health. Emissionsarise mainly as a result of the use of motor vehi-cles, with lesser amounts arising from residentialand commercial combustion. Existing data indi-cate that industry emits limited quantities of this

pollutant. The effects of CO are principally localand regional. An EU Framework Directive on airquality has been adopted; it will be followed bysubsidiary Directives which will specify air qual-ity standards for a number of pollutants, includ-ing CO.

100

200

300

400

500

199319911990

Year

To

nnes

(th

ous

and)

428.98402.18

326.81

1995

295.43

Appendix 1

page 238

Source: Environmental Protection Agency

Table 47 CO Emissions

Appendix 1

page 239

Smoke emissions have been reduced in thecourse of the 1990s. Apart from transport, themajor threat to urban air quality has been theburning of coal for domestic heating purposes.Serious smoke pollution in Dublin led to the banof the sale, marketing and distribution of bitumi-nous coal in the built up area of Dublin. A simi-

lar ban was extended to the Cork City area whenit became clear that smoke emissions wereapproaching, though not exceeding, air qualitystandards. Concentrations of smoke havedeclined with the introductions of the bans ineach city.

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

199319911990

Year

To

nnes

(th

ous

and)

40.86

40.14

35.27

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Air Pollutants in Ireland - Emissions, Depositions and Concentrations,1984-1994.

Table 48 Smoke Emissions

Appendix 1

page 240

Animal and Plant Health Association

An Taisce Economic Policy and International Group

An Taisce West Cork

Association of Consulting Engineers of Ireland

Bahá'í Information Office, Dublin 4

Ballylickey Tourist and Development Association,Co Cork

Mr Noel J Brady, Architect, Dublin 6

Mr Tony Carey, Enniskerry, Co Wicklow

Ms Maeve Clarke, Douglas, Cork

Clean Technology Centre, Regional TechnicalCollege, Cork

Conference of Religious of Ireland Justice Office

Cork Environmental Alliance Ltd

Mr R V Cortlandt Herbst, Castlegregory, Co Kerry

K T Cullen and Co Ltd, Dublin 4

Mr Thomas Cummins, Department ofEnvironmental Resource Management, UCD

Cunnane Stratton Reynolds, Dublin 2

Mr Rory Donegan, Dublin 7

Dublin Regional Authority

Earthwatch/Friends of the Earth Ireland

Fehily Timoney Weston, Cork

Mr Tom Finn, Tralee, Co Kerry

Ms Kathleen Gibbons, Portumna, Co Galway

Global Action Plan Ireland

Greenpeace Ireland

IBEC - Irish Mining and Exploration Group

The Inland Waterways Association of Ireland

Irish Hydro Power Association

Irish Landscape Institute

Irish Wildbird Conservancy

Irish Women's Environmental Network

Irish Woodworkers for Africa

Keep Ireland Open

Mr Donal Lamont, Dublin 18

Appendix IIList of those who made submissions as part of the Public Consultation Process on the Strategy

Landscape Alliance Ireland

Mr Paul Leech, Gaia Associates, Dublin 2

Leopardstown and Brewery Road ResidentsAssociation Roads Committee, Co Dublin

Mr Brendan McGrath, Phibsborough, Dublin 7

Mr Ciarán Mannion, Minnesota EnvironmentalInitiative, USA

Mr John Markham, Greystones, Co Wicklow

Mayo Regional Game Council

Mr Michael Newman, Kilbeggan, Co Westmeath

Northern Regional Fisheries Board

Professor Dermot O'Connell, School ofArchitecture, UCD

Mr Gerry O'Leary, Tralee, Co Kerry

Dr Jim Parkes, Faraday Centre, Carlow

Ms Anne Pender, Environmental ResourceConsultants, Dublin 9

Mr Nigel Pratt, Wicklow

Mr John Sheils, John Barnett & Associates, Dublin 4

Solid Fuel Industry Association

South-East Regional Authority

Mr Chris Southgate, Environment 2000 Ltd,Dublin 4

Ms Hilary Tovey/Mr James Wickham, Departmentof Sociology, TCD

Ulster Wildlife Trust

Appendix II

page 242

1. A Government of Renewal: Policy Agreement between Fine Gael, Labour Party, Democratic Left, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1994), p. 25.

2. Larry Stapleton (ed.),State of the Environmentin Ireland,(Wexford: Environmental ProtectionAgency, 1996); additional information fromDepartment of the Environment.

3. The World Commission on Environment andDevelopment, Our Common Future,(OxfordUniversity Press, 1987), p. 8. [“by permissionof Oxford University Press”]

4. Agenda 21: Programme of Action for SustainableDevelopment - The final text of agreements nego-tiated by Governments at the United NationsConference on Environment and Development(UNCED), 3-14 June, 1992, Rio de Janeiro,Brazil, (New York: United NationsPublications, 1993).

5. The Treaty on European Union, as signed inMaastricht on 7 February, 1992, published as,Council of the European Communities &Commission of the European Communities,Treaty on European Union, (Luxembourg: Officefor Official Publications of the EuropeanCommunities, 1992).

6. Commission of the European CommunitiesDirectorate-General XI - Environment,Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection, TowardsSustainability: A European CommunityProgramme of Policy and Action in Relation to theEnvironment and Sustainable Development,(Luxembourg: Office for Official Publicationsof the European Communities, 1993).

7. Agenda 21, p. 15.

8. European Environment Agency, Environment inthe European Union, 1995: Report for theReview of the Fifth Environmental ActionProgramme, edited by Keimpe Wieringa,(Luxembourg: Office for Official Publicationsof the European Communities, 1995).

9. ibid.

10. An Environment Action Programme, (Dublin: Department of the Environment, 1990).

11. An Environment Action Programme: 1st ProgressReport, (Dublin: Department of theEnvironment, 1991).

12. Moving Towards Sustainability: A Review ofRecent Environmental Policy and Developments,(Dublin: Department of the Environment,1995).

13. Report of the Industrial Policy Review Group,A Time for Change: Industrial Policy for the1990s, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1992).

14. Green 2000 Advisory Group Report, (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1993).

15. EU Structural Funds: A Practical Guide, (Brussels:Irish Business Bureau, 1995), p. 4.

16. Council of the European Communities,"Council Regulation No. 792/93 of 13 March,1993" in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L79/74, 1 April, 1993; andCouncil of the European Communities,"Council Regulation No. 1164/94 of 16 May,1994" in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L130/1, 25 May, 1994.

17. Ireland: National Development Plan 1994-1999,(Dublin: Stationery Office, 1993).

18. Ireland Community Support Framework, 1994-99, (Luxembourg: Office for OfficialPublications of the European Communities,1994).

19. European Commission, Growth,Competitiveness, Employment: The Challengesand Ways Forward into the 21st Century (WhitePaper), (Luxembourg: Office for OfficialPublications of the European Communities,1994), pp. 161-167.

Appendix IIIReferences: PART II - Strategic FrameworkChapter 2 Overview

1. cf. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 33.

2. David Stanners and Phillippe Bourdeau (eds.),Europe's Environment: The Dobris Assessment,(Copenhagen: European Environment Agency,1995).

3. United Nations Environment Programme,Global Environmental Outlook, (New York:Oxford University Press, 1997).

4. William E. Rees, "Revisiting Carrying Capacity:Area-Based Indicators of Sustainability" inPopulation and Environment: A Journal ofInterdisciplinary Studies, Vol. 17, Number 3,(Human Sciences Press, Inc., 1996), p. 205.

5. ibid., p. 210.

6. Further work remains to be done to moreaccurately define Ireland’s ecological footprint.This is particularly so in the light of a revisedmethodology incorporating additional factorsand calculations, published in March 1997 [seeMathis Wackernagel et al., Ecological Footprintsof Nations: How Much Nature Do They Use? --How Much Nature Do They Have?, (Mexico:Centro de Estudios para la Sustentabilidad,1997], which suggests that all previous calcu-lations significantly underestimated the size ofecological footprints.

7. As set out in Moving Towards Sustainability.

8. Agenda 21, p. 9.

9. cf. OECD, Integrating Environment andEconomy: Progress in the 1990s, (Paris: OECD,1996), pp. 21-23.

1. Central Statistics Office, Census of Populationof Ireland, 1996: Preliminary Report, (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1996); Central StatisticsOffice, 1991 Census of Population - DetailedReport (Volume 2), (Dublin: Stationery Office,1994); and Central Statistics Office, Population& Labour Force Projections, 1996-2026, (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1995).

2. Central Statistics Office, 1991 Census ofPopulation - Detailed Report (Volume 1), (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1993).

3. State of the Environment in Ireland, pp. 146-159;Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry, Growing for the Future: A StrategicPlan for the Development of the Forestry Sectorin Ireland, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1996), pp. 7-10.

4. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 146.

5. ibid., p. 147.

6. G. O'Sullivan, A summary of uses of theCORINE land cover (Ireland) database (DraftReport), (Dublin: Natural ResourcesDevelopment Centre, Trinity College, 1995)cited in State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 146.

7. Figures supplied by CSO Data Service; seealso Shaping Our Future, pp. 25-26, andEconomic Background to the Budget, 1997,(Dublin: Department of Finance, 1997).

8. Forfás, Shaping Our Future: A Strategy forEnterprise in Ireland in the 21st Century(Summary Report), (Dublin: Forfás, 1996), p. 52.

9. Commission of the European Communities,Economic Growth and the Environment: SomeImplications for Economic Policy Making,(Brussels: Communication from theCommission to the European Parliament andthe Council, COM(94)465, 3 November,1994); and European Commission,Employment in Europe, 1995 [COM(95)361],(Brussels: Directorate-General forEmployment, Industrial Relations and SocialAffairs, 1995).

10. Shaping Our Future, p. 25.

Appendix III

page 244

Chapter 3Overall Goals and Priorities

Chapter 4Environment and Development

11. Economic Background to the Budget, 1997,(Dublin: Department of Finance, 1997).

note: The seasonally adjusted standardised unemploy-ment rate (live register) was 11.9% (281,700) at April1996 [CSO, Statistical Bulletin (December, 1996), (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1996)]. Pending a review of themethodology for estimating unemployment rates on amonthly basis, revised estimates have not been made forthe period after April 1996. The seasonally adjusted liveregister figure was 259,500 for February 1997.

12. Green 2000 Advisory Group Report, pp. 45-52.

13. Employment in Europe, pp. 155-157.

14. Prosperity through Competitiveness: IBEC'sStrategic Policy Framework, 1996-2005, (Dublin:Irish Business and Employers Confederation,1996), pp. 8-9.

15. Integrating Environment and Economy: Progress inthe 1990s, p. 10.

16. Employment in Europe, p. 146

17. See, for example, OECD, Environmental Policiesand Industrial Competitiveness, (Paris: OECD,1993).

18. Brian Hutchinson and David Dowe, CleanerManufacturing Technologies in Ireland, (Dublin:Department of the Environment, 1993).

19. A Time for Change: Industrial Policy for the1990s, p. 94.

20. Shaping Our Future, p. 51.

21. Science, Technology and Innovation: The WhitePaper, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1996), p. 92.

22. Report of the Joint Committee on SustainableDevelopment, (Dublin: Stationery Office,1997), p. iii.

23. Report of the Science Technology andInnovation Advisory Council, MakingKnowledge Work for Us: A Strategic View ofScience Technology and Innovation in Ireland,(Dublin: Stationery Office, 1995), pp. 34-36.

24. Partnership 2000 for Inclusion, Employment andCompetitiveness, (Dublin: Stationery Office,1996).

25. Growth, Competitiveness, Employment: TheChallenges and Ways Forward into the 21stCentury, pp. 164-167.

Appendix III

page 245

1. Compendium of Irish Economic and AgriculturalStatistics, 1996 [currently available on thewebsite homepage of the Department ofAgriculture, Food and Forestery -http://www.irlgov.ie/daff/index/htm].

2. Tony Leavy, "Use of Underutilised Resourcesin Irish Agriculture" in Farm & Food, (Dublin:Teagasc, 1996), p. 3.

3. Measure 1.1(d) on Farm Investment ofOperational Programme for Agriculture, RuralDevelopment and Forestry, 1994-1999, (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1994).

4. Measure 1.1(a) on Farm Investment of OP forAgriculture, Rural Development and Forestry,1994-1999.

5. Information provided by the Department ofAgriculture, Food and Forestry.

6. Council of the European Communities,"Regulation (EEC) No. 2078/92 of 30 June1992 on agricultural production methodscompatible with the protection of the envi-ronment and the maintenance of the country-side" in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L 215/85, 30 July, 1992.

7. Information provided by the Department ofAgriculture, Food and Forestry.

8. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 84.

9. 1995 Annual Review & Outlook for Agriculture,the Food Industry and Forestry, p. 40.

10. Central Statistics Office, Statistical Abstract,1996, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1996), p. 76.

11. Central Statistics Office, June Survey, (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1996).

12. Information provided under EU monitoringmechanism of Community CO2 and othergreenhouse gas emissions (as provided for inCouncil Decision 93/389/EEC, O.J. No. L 167,9.3.1993).

13. ibid.

14. Farm Wastes and Water Pollution: The PresentPosition, (Dublin: Environmental Research Unit,1989).

15. ibid., p. 3.

16. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 68; andJohn Lee, "Some Aspects of Sustainability inRelation to Agriculture in Ireland" in AssessingSustainability in Ireland, p. 73.

17. John Lee, "Some Aspects of Sustainability inRelation to Agriculture in Ireland", p. 79.

18. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 121.

19. B. Coulter and H. Tunney, "The Backgroundto the P Debate"; papers for a Teagasc work-shop, 1 November, 1996.

20. H. Tunney, "A Note on a Balance SheetApproach to Estimating the PhosphorusFertiliser Needs of Agriculture" in Irish Journalof Agricultural Research 29(2), pp. 149-154; alsoreferred to in John Lee, "Some Aspects ofSustainability in Relation to Agriculture inIreland", pp. 71-85.

21 H. Tunney, N. Culleton and O. Carton,“Phosphorus for Farming and theEnvironment” in Farm & Food, July/December1994, (Dublin: Teagasc, 1994), p. 12.

22. STRIDE Operational Programme for Ireland,1991-93. Special Research Fund. Project 8:Eutrophication in the Inniscarra Reservoir, RiverLee, Cork, (Dublin: Department of theEnvironment, 1995).

23. H. Tunney, "Phosphorus for Farming and theEnvironment" in Irish Journal of AgriculturalResearch, (Dublin: Teagasc, 1990).

24. OECD Environmental Data Compendium 1995,(Paris: OECD, 1995), p. 265.

25. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 157.

26. ibid., pp. 118-121.

27. The Quality of Drinking Water in Ireland - AReport for the Year 1995 with a Review of thePeriod 1993-1995, (Wexford: EnvironmentalProtection Agency, 1996), p. 15.

Appendix III

page 246

References: PART III - Strategic SectorsChapter 5 Agriculture

28. Donal Daly, "Chemical Pollutants inGroundwater: A review of the situation inIreland", paper presented at Conference"Chemicals - A Cause for Concern?" in Cork,3-4 November, 1994; and Michael O'Brien,"The Development of GroundwaterResources in North Cork", paper read atSpring Show Conference, 10 May, 1991.

29. O. T. Carton, M. Ryan and W. L. Magette,Phosphorus Recommentations for Grassland -Good Agronomic Practice, (Wexford: Teagasc,1996).

30. Code of Good Agricultural Practice to ProtectWaters from Pollution by Nitrates, (Dublin:Department of the Environment andDepartment of Agriculture, Food andForestry, 1996).

31. Operational Programme for EnvironmentalServices, 1994-1999, (Dublin: StationeryOffice, 1994).

32. Europe's Environment: The Dobris Assessment, p.146.

33. Central Statistics Office, Land Utilisation andNumber of Livestock - County Analysis Studies,(Dublin: Stationery Office, 1996).

34. Information provided by the Department ofArts, Culture and the Gaeltacht.

35. C. O'Donnell, Pesticides in Drinking Water:Results of a Preliminary Survey December 1994 -December 1995, (Wexford: EnvironmentalProtection Agency, 1996).

36. Council of the European Communities,“Council Directive 91/414/EEC of 15 July1991 concerning the placing of plant protec-tion products on the market” in Official Journalof the European Communities, No. L 230/1, 19August, 1991.

37. OECD Environmental Data Compendium 1995,p. 271.

38. Information provided by the Department ofAgriculture, Food and Forestry.

39. ibid.

40. STRIDE Operational Programme for Ireland,1991-1993. Special Research Fund. Project 6:Reuse and Recycling of Large Plastic Sheetingfrom the Agriculture, Horticulture, Building andCommercial Sectors, (Dublin: Department ofthe Environment, 1995), p. 7.

41. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 22.

42. International Conference and Programme forPlant Genetic Resources: Country Report -Ireland, (Dublin: Department of Agriculture,Food and Forestry, 1995).

43. Council of the European Communities,“Council Regulation (EC) No. 1467/94 of 20June 1994 on the conservation, characteriza-tion, collection and utilization of geneticresources in agriculture” in Official Journal ofthe European Communities, No. L 159/1, 28June, 1994.

44. Shaping our Future, p. 139.

45. ibid.

46. Council of the European Communities,"Council Directive (90/219/EEC) on the con-tained use of genetically modified micro-organisms" in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L 117/1, 8 May, 1990.

47. Council of the European Communities,"Council Directive (90/220/EEC) of 23 April1990 on the deliberate release into the envi-ronment of genetically modified organisms" inOfficial Journal of the European Communities,No. L 117/17, 8 May, 1990.

48. Council of the European Communities,"Council Regulation (EC) No. 258/97 of theEuropean Parliament and of the Council of 27January 1997 concerning novel foods andnovel food ingredients" in Official Journal of theEuropean Communities, No. L 43/1-7, 14February, 1997.

Appendix III

page 247

1. Growing for the Future, p. 19.

2. ibid., p. 15.

3. ibid., p. 7.

4. Department of the Environment, Ireland:Climate Change/CO2 Abatement Strategy,(Dublin: Stationery Office, 1993).

5. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 242.

6. Forestry and the Landscape Guidelines andForestry and Archaeology Guidelines, (Dublin:Department of Agriculture, Food andForestry, 1993); Forestry and FisheriesGuidelines, (Dublin: Department ofAgriculture, Food and Forestry, 1992).

7. Forestry Development: Consultation draft ofGuidelines for Planning Authorities, (Dublin:Department of the Environment, 1997).

8. Growing for the Future, p. 10; data relate to1985-91 except for Germany and Italy (datafrom Eurostat, 1976-86) and Ireland (1995 fig-ures).

9. E.P. Farrell, "Sustainability of the ForestResource" in Assessing Sustainability in Ireland,p. 135.

10. J. J. Bowman, Acid Sensitive Surface Waters inIreland, (Dublin: Environmental ResearchUnit, 1991), cited in State of the Environment inIreland, pp. 124-125.

11. Council of the European Communities,"Council Directive (79/409/EEC) of 2 April1979 on the conservation of wild birds" ("theBirds Directive") in Official Journal of theEuropean Communities, No. L 103/1, 25 April,1979.

12. Council of the European Communities,"Council Directive (92/43/EEC) of 21 May1992 on the conservation of natural habitatsand of wild fauna and flora" ("the HabitatsDirective") in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L 206/35, 22 July, 1992.

13. Summary of criteria resulting from theHelsinki Conference follow-up process, pro-vided by the Department of Agriculture, Foodand Forestry.

14. "Resolution No. 1 of the 1993 MinisterialConference on the Protection of Forests inEurope", General Guidelines for the SustainableManagement of Forests in Europe, (Helsinki:Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry, 1993).

15. "Statement of Forest Principles" in Agenda 21,pp. 291-294.

Appendix III

page 248

Chapter 6Forestry

1. Towards a Marine Policy for Ireland: Proceedingsof the Consultative Process, (Dublin: MarineInstitute, 1996).

2. New Directions for Agriculture, Forestry andFisheries, (Rome: United Nations Food andAgriculture Organisation, 1994), p. 16.

3. see Operational Programme for Fisheries, 1994-1999, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1995), pp.13, 29, data also provided by An Bord IascaighMhara.

4. Operational Programme for Fisheries, 1994-1999, pp. 13, 29.

5. International Convention for the Prevention ofPollution from Ships, 1973 done at London onthe 2nd day of November, 1973, as amended bythe protocol done at London on the 17th day ofFebruary, 1978 (MARPOL 73/78), (London:International Maritime Organisation).

6. Code on the Safe Carriage of Irradiated NuclearFuel, Plutonium and High-Level RadioactiveWastes in Flasks on Board Ships (the INF Code),[IMO Assembly Resolution A18/Res.748],(London: International Maritime Organisation,1993).

7. Papers from Washington Global Programme ofAction for the Protection of the MarineEnvironment from Land-based Activities.

8. ibid.

9. The International Convention for the Regulation ofWhaling, opened for signature in WashingtonDC on 2 December, 1946, and ratified byIreland on 2 January, 1985, [InternationalWhaling Commission, Cambridge, UK].

1. International Energy Agency, Energy Policies ofIEA Countries: 1994 Review, (Paris: OECD/IEA,1995), p. 274.

2. Alison Myers, Energy in Ireland 1980-1993: AStatistical Bulletin, (Dublin: Department ofTransport, Energy and Communications,1994), p. 5.

3. Energy Policies of IEA Countries: 1994 Review, p.278.

4. International Energy Agency, Energy Policies ofIEA Countries: Ireland 1994 Review, (Paris:OECD/IEA, 1995), p. 31.

5. Energy in Ireland 1980-1993, p. 15.

6. Energy Policies of IEA Countries: 1994 Review, p.275.

7. ibid., p. 276.

8. Department of the Environment/Environmental Protection Agency data (1994figures).

9. Environmental Protection Agency informationprovided under the UN FrameworkConvention on Climate Change.

10. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,Climate Change 1995 - The Science of ClimateChange: Contribution of Working Group 1 to theSecond Assessment Report of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,(Cambridge: University Press, 1996), p. 4.

11. Information provided by the EnvironmentalProtection Agency.

12. ibid.

13. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 57.

14. Our Common Future, p. 54.

15. The European Auto Oil Programme: A Report bythe European Commission Directorate-Generalsfor: Industry; Environment, Civil Protection andNuclear Safety; and Energy, (Brussels:European Commission, 1996).

Chapter 7Marine Resources

Chapter 8Energy

Appendix III

page 249

16. Renewable Energy: A Strategy for the Future,(Dublin: Department of Transport, Energyand Communications, 1996), p. 13.

17. see Environment Bulletin No. 26, (Dublin:Department of the Environment, 1995), p. 7.

18. Renewable Energy: A Strategy for the Future, pp. 8-9.

19. Council of the European Communities,"Council Directive (96/16/EC) of 24September 1991 concerning integrated pollu-tion prevention and control" in Official Journalof the European Communities, No. L 257/26 of10 October, 1996.

20. Department of Foreign Affairs, Challenges andOpportunities Abroad: White Paper on ForeignPolicy, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1996), p.307.

1. Operational Programme for IndustrialDevelopment, 1994-1999, (Dublin: StationeryOffice, 1994).

2. Task Force on Small Business, (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1994), p. ii.

3. Central Statistics Office, Statistical Abstract,1996, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1997), p.101.

4. Ireland: National Development Plan, 1994-1999,pp. 23, 53-61.

5. Our Common Future, p. 220.

6. M. F. McGettigan and C. O'Donnell, AirPollutants in Ireland: Emissions, Depositions andConcentrations 1984-1994, (Wexford:Environmental Protection Agency, 1995), p. 9.,as revised by EPA (see Fig 8.4).

7. Calculated from figures for 1994 provided byEPA (see Fig 8.4).

8. Calculated from figures for 1990 cited inOECD Environmental Data Compendium 1995,p. 21.

9. Calculated from figures for 1994 provided byEPA (see Fig 8.4).

10. Air Pollutants in Ireland, p. 19.

11. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 116.

12. ibid., p. 118.

13. ibid., p. 156.

14. Colman Concannon, Dioxins in the IrishEnvironment: An Assessment Based on Levels inCow's Milk, (Wexford: EnvironmentalProtection Agency, 1996).

15. S. Scott and J. Lawlor, Waste Water Services:Charging Industry the Capital Cost, (Dublin:ESRI, 1994).

16. Convention on the Prohibition of theDevelopment, Production, Stockpiling and Use ofChemical Weapons and on their Destruction,adopted on 3 September, 1992, at theConference on Disarmament at Geneva.

Appendix III

page 250

Chapter 9Industry

17. Council of the European Communities, "CouncilDirective (82/501/EEC) of 24 June 1982 on themajor-accident hazards of certain industrialactivities" in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L 230/1, 5 August, 1982.

18. P. Carey, G. Carty, J. Clarke, M. F. Crowe andP. J. Rudden, National Waste Database Report1995, (Wexford: Environmental ProtectionAgency, 1996).

19. Council of the European Communities,"Council Directive (91/689/EEC) of 12December 1991 on hazardous waste" inOfficial Journal of the European Communities,No. L 377/20, 31 December, 1991.

20. "Declaration and Resolution on RiskReduction for Lead", adopted at Meeting ofOECD Environment Policy Committee atMinisterial Level, Paris, 19-20 February, 1996.

21. A Government of Renewal: Policy Agreementbetween Fine Gael, Labour Party, Democratic Left,p. 25.

22. Summary of Issues Raised at the Symposium onSustainable Consumption, 19-20 January, 1994,Oslo, Norway, cited in OECD Workshop onSustainable Consumption and Production:Clarifying the Concepts, Rosendal, Norway, 2-4July, 1995, (Paris: OECD, 1995), p. A7.

23. Commission of the European Communities,Progress Report on Implementation of theEuropean Community Programme of Policy andAction in Relation to the Environment andSustainable Development "Towards Sustainability",(Brussels: Communication from theCommission, 10 January, 1996 -COM(95)624).

24. Towards Sustainable Europe: The Study,(Brussels: Friends of the Earth, 1995).

25. Repak, Working Together on Waste: Report byIBEC's Industry Task Force on Recycling, (Dublin:Irish Business and Employers Confederation,1996).

26. Business Council for SustainableDevelopment, in association with UNEP, IEO,and CEC, Getting Eco-Efficient: Report of theFirst Antwerp Eco-Efficiency Workshop,November 1993, cited in OECD Workshop onSustainable Consumption and Production:Clarifying the Concepts, p. A29.

27. Industry and Environment, Vol. 17 No. 4,(Geneva: UNEP IE, 1994), p. 4.

28. The first phase of LIFE (1992-95) has beencompleted; the legal basis for the secondphase (1996-99) is Regulation (EC) No.1404/96 adopted by the Council of Ministerson 15 July, 1996, (see Official Journal of theEuropean Communities, No. L 181, 20 July,1996).

29. Council of the European Communities,"Council Regulation (EEC) No. 1836/93 of 29June 1993 allowing voluntary participation bycompanies in the industrial sector in aCommunity eco-management and auditscheme" in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L 168/1, 10 July, 1993.

30. Adapted from Guide to Environmental Self-Auditing, (Dublin: The Chambers ofCommerce of Ireland, 1993), p. 5.

31. "Launch of Environmental Training Programmefor Irish Industry", IBEC Press Release, 15January, 1997.

32. Council of the European Communities,"Council Regulation (EEC) No. 880/92, of 23March 1992, on a Community eco-label awardscheme" in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L 99, 11 April, 1992.

33. Council of the European Communities,"European Parliament and Council Directive94/62/EC of 20 December 1994 on packagingand packaging waste" in Official Journal of theEuropean Communities, No. L 365/10, 31December, 1994.

34. cf. Shaping Our Future, p. 247.

35. Environmental Technologies from Ireland,(Dublin: An Bord Tráchtála, 1995).

36. Report of the Joint Committee on SustainableDevelopment, p. 10.

Appendix III

page 251

37. Making Knowledge Work for Us: A Strategic Viewof Science Technology and Innovation in Ireland(Vol. 1), (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1995), p.107.

38 Task Force on the Implementation of the Reportof the Science, Technology and InnovationAdvisory Council, (Dublin: Department ofEnterprise and Employment, 1996), pp. 103-108.

39. Loraine Fegan, Environmental Research:Discussion Document on a National Programmeand Priorities, (Wexford: EnvironmentalProtection Agency, 1995).

40. Europe's Environment: The Dobris Assessment,p. 421.

41. Guidelines for Good Environmental Practice inMineral Exploration, (Dublin: Department ofTransport, Energy and Communications,1995).

42. A New Minerals Policy: Report of the NationalMinerals Policy Review Group, (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1995).

1. Operational Programme for Transport, 1994-1999, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1994), p. 5.

2. ibid.

3. European Commission, The FutureDevelopment of the Common Transport Policy: AGlobal Approach to the Construction of aCommunity Framework for Sustainable Mobility,(Brussels: Directorate-General for Transport,1992).

4. Common Transport Policy Action Programme,1995-2000, (Luxembourg: Office for OfficialPublications of the European Communities,1996).

5. European Commission, Towards Fair andEfficient Pricing in Transport: Policy Options forInternalising the External Costs of Transport inthe European Union, (Brussels: Directorate-General for Transport, 1995).

6. European Commission, The Citizens' Network:Fulfilling the potential of public passenger trans-port in Europe, Green Paper, (Luxembourg:Office for Official Publications of theEuropean Communities, 1996).

7. Based on an analysis of road travel in millionvehicle-kilometres per annum in Traffic StationCounts and Road Travel for 1995, (Dublin:National Roads Authority, 1996), p. 11-12.

8. Information provided by the DublinTransportation Office.

9. Irish Bulletin of Vehicle and Driver Statistics,1995, (Dublin: Department of theEnvironment, 1996), p. 3.

10. Calculated from World Road Statistics, 1997Edition, (Geneva: International RoadFederation, 1997).

11. Irish Bulletin of Vehicle and Driver Statistics,1995, p. 3.

12. ibid., p. 26.

13. Energy in Ireland 1980-1993: A StatisticalBulletin, p. 19.

14. Figures extracted from Irish Bulletin of Vehicleand Driver Statistics [various years].

Appendix III

page 252

Chapter 10Transport

15. Transport OP, 1994-1999, p. 21.

16. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 109.

17. Council of the European Communities,“Council Directive 96/62/EC of 27 September1996 on ambient air quality assessment andmanagement” in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L 296/55, 21 November,1996.

18. Calculated from figures supplied by theEnvironmental Protection Agency (see Fig 8.4).

19. Environmental Protection Agency informationprovided under the UN FrameworkConvention on Climate Change.

20. Information from European CommissionDirectorate-General XVII.

21. Calculated from figures supplied by theEnvironmental Protection Agency (see Fig 8.4).

22. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 110.

23. Irish Bulletin of Vehicle and Driver Statistics,1995, p. 3.

24. Information from European CommissionDirectorate-General for Environment,Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection. (DG-XI)

25. Budget 1996, (Dublin: Stationery Office,1996), p. 27.

26. Information from European Commission DGXI.

27. Irish Bulletin of Vehicle and Driver Statistics,1995, p. 3.

28. Environment Bulletin No. 26, p. 12; more recentdata from Department of the Environment.

29. Irish Bulletin of Vehicle and Driver Statistics, 1995,p. 3.

30. Ireland: Climate Change/CO2 Abatement Strategy,p. 13.

31. see Environment Bulletin No. 31, p. 40.

32. White Paper: An Energy Policy for the EuropeanUnion, (Brussels: European Commission, 1995- COM(95)682).

33. Dublin Transportation Initiative: Final Report,(Dublin: Stationery Office, 1995), pp. 150-151.

34. Michael Keating, The Earth Summit's Agenda forChange: A plain language version of Agenda 21and the other Rio Agreements, (Geneva:Centre for Our Common Future, 1993), p.12.

35. Europe's Environment: The Dobris Assessment, p.362.

36. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 193.

Appendix III

page 253

1. Operational Programme for Tourism, 1994-1999,(Dublin: Stationery Office, 1994).

2. See Developing Sustainable Tourism; OP forTourism, 1994-1999; 1996 figures provided bythe Department of Tourism and Trade.

3. Developing Sustainable Tourism, p. 12.

4. Bord Fáilte Report and Accounts, 1995, (Dublin:Bord Fáilte, 1996), p. 14.

5. See Environment Bulletin No. 29, pp. 31-32.

6. See Environment Bulletin No. 30, p. 4.

7. See supplement to Environment Bulletin No. 29.

8. Sinéad Ní Mhainnín, "Tourism Eco-Labelling" inDave Hogan and Adrian Phillips (eds.), Seekinga Partnership Towards Managing Ireland's Uplands,(Dublin: Irish Uplands Forum, 1996), pp. 124-128;see also Environment Bulletin No. 27, pp. 29-30.

9. Information provided by Bord Fáilte.

10. Developing Sustainable Tourism, p. 13.

11. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 223.

12. Information provided by the Department ofTourism and Trade.

13. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 178.

14. Developing Sustainable Tourism, p. 30.

15. ibid., p. 15.

16. ibid., pp. 55-58.

17. Jeanne Meldon and Conor Skehan, Tourismand the Landscape: Landscape Management byConsensus, (Dublin: Bord Fáilte/An Taisce,1996), p. iii.

18. Adapted from Tourism and the Landscape:Landscape Management by Consensus, p. 20.

19. Developing Sustainable Tourism, p. 54.

20. See Environment Bulletin No. 26, p. 21.

21. See Environment Bulletin No. 31, p. 11.

22. Extract from "Principles of SustainableDevelopment", the Irish Hotel and CateringInstitute policy on Sustainable Development inthe Hospitality Industry.

1. Statistical Bulletin (December 1996), (Dublin:Central Statistics Office, 1996), p. 723.

2. Shaping Our Future, p. 90.

3. "Rio Declaration on Environment andDevelopment" in Agenda 21, p. 10.

4. Commission of the European Communities,Communication from the Commission to theCouncil and the European Parliament on Tradeand Environment, [Brussels: COM(96)54 final,Brussels, 28 February, 1996].

5. Agenda 21, p. 19.

6. Challenges and Opportunities Abroad: WhitePaper on Foreign Policy.

7. Growing for the Future, p. 35.

8. Convention on International Trade in EndangeredSpecies of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973, [CITES];also being implemented in the EuropeanCommunity in "Council Regulation (EEC) No.3626/82 of 3 December 1982 on the imple-mentation in the Community of theConvention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora"in Official Journal of the European Communities,No. L 384, 31 December, 1982.

Appendix III

page 254

Chapter 11Tourism

Chapter 12Trade

1. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. xxvi.

2. Europe's Environment: The Dobris Assessment, p. 13.

3. cited in State of the Environment in Ireland, pp.113-117.

4. Council of the European Communities,"Council Directive (91/271/EEC) of 21 May,1991 concerning urban waste water treat-ment" in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L 135/40, 30 May, 1991.

5. Generale Des Eaux/M. C. O'Sullivan & Co.Ltd., Greater Dublin Water Supply Strategy:Strategic Development Plan, (Dublin:Department of the Environment, 1996).

6. State of the Environment in Ireland, pp. 10, 49.

7. Irish Wildbird Conservancy Annual Report, 1995,(Dublin: IWC/BirdWatch Ireland, 1996), p. 3.

8. OP for Environmental Services, 1994-1999, pp.46-49, 78-81.

9. K. Dubsky, "Pressures on the Coastal Zone",in Assessing Sustainability in Ireland, pp. 113-117.

10. See Environment Bulletin No. 28, p. 16.

11. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 179.

12 . See Dáil Debates 6 March, 1996, pp. 1481-1507.

13. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 72.

14. Recycling for Ireland: A Strategy for RecyclingDomestic and Commercial Waste, (Dublin:Department of the Environment, 1994).

15.Working Together on Waste: Report by IBEC'sIndustry Task Force on Recycling.

16. OP for Environmental Services, 1994-1999, pp.42-45, 72-77.

17. Alan Barrett and John Lawlor, The Economics ofSolid Waste Management, (Dublin: TheEconomic and Social Research Institute, 1995).

18. John Dunne, Director-General, IBEC, in theforeword to Working Together on Waste.

19. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 59.

20. ibid., p. 98; see also Environment Bulletin No. 26,p. 11.

1. Europe's Environment: The Dobris Assessment, p. 24.

2. Windfarms Development: Guidelines for PlanningAuthorities, (Dublin: Department of theEnvironment, 1996).

3. Telecommunications Antennae and SupportStructures: Guidelines for Planning Authorities,(Dublin: Department of the Environment,1996).

4. Forestry Development: Consultation draft ofGuidelines for Planning Authorities, (Dublin:Department of the Environment, 1997).

5. Department of the Environment, Better LocalGovernment - A Programme for Change, (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1996).

6. Council of the European Communities,"Council Directive (85/337/EEC) of 27 June1985 on the assessment of the effects of cer-tain public and private projects on the envi-ronment" in Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities, No. L 175/40, 5 July, 1985.

7. Draft Guidelines on the Information to beContained in Environmental Impact Statementsand Advice Notes on Current Practice, (Wexford:Environmental Protection Agency, 1995).

8. United Nations Economic Commission forEurope, Convention on Environmental ImpactAssessment in a Transboundary Context done atEspoo (Finland), on 25 February, 1991, (NewYork & Geneva: United Nations, 1994).

Chapter 14 Spatial Planning and Land Use

References: PART 1V - Supporting the StrategyChapter 13 Environmental Quality

Appendix III

page 255

Appendix III

page 256

Chapter 15The Built Environment

1. Agenda 21, pp. 52-54.

2. Europe and Architecture Tomorrow, (Brussels:Architects’ Council of Europe, 1995), p. 6.

3. Report of the United Nations Conference onHuman Settlements (HABITAT II) (Istanbul, 3-14June, 1996) ["HABITAT Agenda"], (New York:United Nations, 1996), p. 57 [note: preliminaryversion of Report, reference A/CONF.165/14].

4. Dublin Transportation Initiative: Final Report, p. 129.

5. European Commission, European SustainableCities: Report by the Expert Group on the UrbanEnvironment, (Brussels: European Commission- DG XI - Environment, Nuclear Safety andCivil Protection, 1996), p. 242.

6. Operational Programme for Local Urban andRural Development, 1994-1999, (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1994).

7. Guidelines on Residential Development inDesignated Tax Incentive Areas, (Dublin:Department of the Environment, 1996).

8. A Study on the Urban Renewal Schemes: A StudyPrepared by KPMG in association with MurrayO'Laoire Associates, Architects and Urban Designersand the Northern Ireland Economic ResearchCentre, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1994).

9. Strengthening the Protection of the ArchitecturalHeritage, (Dublin: Stationery Office, 1996).

10. Ann McNicholl and J. Owen Lewis (eds.),Green Design: Sustainable Building for Ireland,(Dublin: Stationery Office, 1996), p. 3.

11. Information provided by the Department ofthe Environment.

12. Information provided by the Irish Energy Centre.

13. Green Design: Sustainable Building for Ireland, p. 17.

14. HABITAT Agenda, p. 69.

15. Annual Housing Statistics Bulletin, 1996, (Dublin:Stationery Office, 1997).

16. A Plan for Social Housing, (Dublin: Departmentof the Environment, 1991).

17. Social Housing - The Way Ahead, (Dublin:Department of the Environment, 1995).

18. Housing Management Group: First Report,(Dublin: Department of the Environment, 1996).

1. Shaping Our Future, p. 245.

2. INRA (Europe) - E.C.O., Europeans and theEnvironment in 1995, (Brussels: EuropeanCommission Directorate-General XI -Environment, Nuclear Safety and CivilProtection, 1995).

3. From submission made by An Taisce WestCork under the public consultation processfor the preparation of this Strategy.

4. Erna Witoelar, "Sustainable consumption, ourcommon challenge" in Industry andEnvironment, (UNEP IE, Oct-Dec 1995), p. 25.

5. Europeans and the Environment in 1995.

6. Energy in Ireland 1980-1993: A StatisticalBulletin, p. 15.

7. See Environment Bulletin No. 28.

8. S. Scott, "Energy Conservation in the Home -Are We Contrary?" in John FitzGerald andDaniel McCoy (eds.), Issues in Irish EnergyPolicy, (Dublin: Economic and Social ResearchInstitute, 1993).

9. An Foras Forbartha, Domestic Energy Use1985-86: Results of a Survey, (Dublin: An ForasForbartha, 1988) as referred to in S. Scott,"Energy Conservation in the Home - Are WeContrary?".

10. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 65.

11. Greater Dublin Water Supply Strategy: StrategicDevelopment Plan, p. 14.

12. Global Action Plan's Ecoteam Workbook, (Dublin:GAP Ireland, 1996), p. 55.

13. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. 92.

14. ibid., p. 90.

15. See Environment Bulletin No. 29, for ActionAgainst Litter policy statement.

16. Agenda 21, p. 267.

17. See Environment Bulletin No. 27, pp. 18-19.

18. From submission made by An Taisce WestCork under the public consultation processfor the preparation of this Strategy.

Chapter 16Public Action and Awareness

Appendix III

page 257

19. From submission made by Earthwatch/Friendsof the Earth Ireland under the public consulta-tion process for the preparation of thisStrategy.

20. Up to and including December 1996; see alsoEnvironment Bulletin No. 30, p. 12 andEnvironment Bulletin No. 29, p. 4.

21. Our Common Future, p. 113.

22. The Report of the Inter-Departmental WorkingGroup on Environmental Awareness, (Dublin: AnRoinn Oideachais, 1994), p. 9.

1. Challenges and Opportunities Abroad: White Paperon Foreign Policy, pp. 297-307.

2. The Environmental Imperative, Declaration by theEuropean Council, Dublin, 25-26 June, 1990.

3. Challenges and Opportunities Abroad: White Paperon Foreign Policy, pp. 232-233.

4. ibid., p. 230.

5. Information from the Department of ForeignAffairs.

6. Patrick D. McGuckian (ed.), Irish Aid andAgriculture: A Report to the Minister for ForeignAffairs, (Dublin: Irish Aid Advisory Council,1996), p. 12.

7. See Environment Bulletin No. 33.

Chapter 17Ireland in the InternationalCommunity

Appendix III

page 258

References: PART V - Implementing and Monitoring theStrategy

Chapter 18 Monitoring and Indicators

Chapter 19Implementation and Review

1. F. J. Convery, "Assessing Sustainability inIreland - a Synthesis" in Assessing Sustainabilityin Ireland, p. 8.

2. Agenda 21, p. 284.

3. ibid., p. 286.

4. IRELAND Community Support Framework, 1994-99, p. 62.

5. ibid.

6. ibid., p. 63.

7. ibid., p. 65.

8. ibid.

9. ibid., p. 66.

10. S. Scott, B. Nolan and T. Fahey, FormulatingEnvironmental and Social Indicators forSustainable Development, (Dublin: ESRI, 1996).

11. Environment Indicators: OECD Core Set, (Paris:OECD, 1994).

12. The OECD List of Social Indicators, (Paris:OECD, 1982).

13. Published in Assessing Sustainability in Ireland.

14. State of the Environment in Ireland, p. xxv.

1. Strategic Management Initiative - DeliveringBetter Government, Second Report toGovernment of the Co-ordinating Group ofSecretaries: A Programme of Change for the IrishCivil Service, (Dublin: Government of Ireland,1996), p. 14.

2. See Environment Bulletin No. 24.

3. A Government of Renewal: Policy Agreementbetween Fine Gael, Labour Party, Democratic Left,p. 25.

4. ibid.

5. The Green Government Guide: PromotingEnvironmental Management & Practice inGovernment, (Dublin: Department of theEnvironment, 1996).

6. Energy Conservation Programme for StateBuildings, (Dublin: Office of Public Works,Department of Transport, Energy andCommunications and Irish Energy Centre,1995); see also Kevin O'Rourke (ed.), EnergyOfficers Guidebook, (Dublin: Irish EnergyCentre, 1995).

7. Better Local Government: A Programme forChange, p. 11.

8. Submissions in this regard were made by theSouth-East Regional Authority and the DublinRegional Authority as part of the public con-sultation process in the preparation of thisStrategy.

9. Local Authorities and Sustainable Development:Guidelines on Local Agenda 21, (Dublin:Department of the Environment, 1996),Minister's Foreword.

10. Agenda 21, p. 230.

11. Integrating Environment and Economy: Progress inthe 1990s, p. 23.