FINDINGTHEORIGINALS:ASTUDYOFTHEROMANCOPIESOFTHETYRANNICIDESANDTHEAMAZONGROUP AThesisSubmittedtotheGraduateFacultyoftheLouisianaStateUniversityandAgriculturalandMechanicalCollegeinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofMasterofArtsinTheSchoolofArt byCourtneyAnnRaderB.A.,PurdueUniversity,2008May2010

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AcknowledgementsFirstandforemostIwouldliketothankmyparentsfortheirloveandconstantsupport,anditwaswiththeirencouragementthatIpursuedthisfield.Thankstomysisterandbrotherforalwayslistening.AspecialthanksgoestoDr.DavidParrishforfuelingmyinterestinGreekartandarchitecture.Iwouldliketothankmycommitteemembers,NickCamerlenghiandStevenRoss,foryourthoroughreviewandeditingofmythesis.JustinWalsh,myadvisor,itiswiththehelpofyourcounselandreassurancethatthisthesiscametofruition.Lastly,tomyfriendandcolleague,ShannonSmoke,havingsomeonetosharetheexperiencewithandprovidemutualsupportwasinvaluable.

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TableofContentsAcknowledgments................................................................................................................................................................iiAbstract....................................................................................................................................................................................ivChapter1:Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................1Chapter2:Connoisseurship,ModernArtHistory,andMethodology............................................................9AncientArtHistorians:PlinyandPausanias...................................................................................................................11Winckelmann....................................................................................................................................................................................13Furtwngler.......................................................................................................................................................................................14Richter .................................................................................................................................................................................................14Ridgway...............................................................................................................................................................................................15ConclusionsonConnoisseurship,ModernArtHistory,andMethodology ............................................................16Chapter3:TheTyrannicides ........................................................................................................................................ 18TheAccount.......................................................................................................................................................................................19RomanCopies...................................................................................................................................................................................23OtherMedia.......................................................................................................................................................................................30StyleandSculptor...........................................................................................................................................................................39SignificanceintheAncientWorld............................................................................................................................................43ArrangementofTyrannicides ...................................................................................................................................................47ConclusionsonTyrannicides.....................................................................................................................................................48Chapter4:TheAmazons................................................................................................................................................. 49AncientAccounts ............................................................................................................................................................................51Types ....................................................................................................................................................................................................53Mattei ..............................................................................................................................................................................................53Capitoline ......................................................................................................................................................................................57Lansdowne/Berlin/Sciarra ...................................................................................................................................................60DoriaPamphili ............................................................................................................................................................................65Ephesian ........................................................................................................................................................................................68IssuesConcerningtheStyleoftheAmazons.......................................................................................................................70ArrangementonBase....................................................................................................................................................................71ConclusionsonAmazons .............................................................................................................................................................72Chapter5:Conclusion...................................................................................................................................................... 73Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................................................ 77Vita ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 81

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Abstract VeryfewbronzeoriginalGreeksculpturesfromthefifthcenturyBCEareextanttoday.ItisthroughmarbleRomancopiesthatlostGreekoriginalsarestudiedtoday.AlongwiththeRomancopies,othermediaandancientliterarysourcescanbeusedtostudyGreeksculpture.MygoalforthisthesisistostudythepreviousscholarshipandRomancopiesoftheTyrannicidesandtheAmazonGroup.Whenstudyingcopies,scholarsmustfirstanswer:Isitacopy?Ofwhatisitacopy?Ifitisacopy,whatcanthecopytellabouttheGreekartist?Tobetteranswerthesequestions,Iwilllooktoconnoisseurshipasapossiblesolution.Ancientliteratureandothermediaalsopresentnewcontextinwhichtounderstandthelostoriginals.IwillillustratehowallthesourcesmentionedaboveaidintheunderstandingoforiginalGreeksculpture,particularlytheTyrannicidesandAmazonGroup.

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Chapter1:Introduction ManyoriginalGreeksculpturesthatarthistoriansstudytodaynolongerexistintheiroriginalform.ArthistorianshavebecomelargelydependentonRomanmarblestounderstandthelostworksoftheClassicalperiodinGreece.ThesecopiesarestudiedandthenattributedtoGreekmasters,ifpossible,throughtheaccountsleftbyancientliterarysources.1Often,Greekoriginalsculpturesweresculptedinbronze,apopularmediumatthetime.Throughthecourseofthefollowingcenturies,thesestatueswereeithertakenbyinvadinghordesormelteddownforotherpurposes.DirectevidencefortheseartworksisthusconfinedtothefeworiginalbronzeGreeksculpturesthatremain,largelyfromshipwrecks.IintendtoillustratethestudyofGreekoriginalsthroughRomancopies,literarysources,andvariousothermedia.ThisstudywillshowthemethodsusedbyarthistoriansandotherscholarstounderstandGreekoriginalsculpturesfromtheClassicalperiodaswellastheRomancopiesinwithintheircontext.RomancopiesrepresentthemajorityofGreeksculptureknownfromtheClassicalperiod. RomancopiesareusedtostudyGreeksculptureespeciallyfromtheClassicalperiod.Strikingdifferencesbetweenanoriginalandacopycanbeobservedwhenthemediumhaschanged,forexample,thechangefrombronzetomarble.2Marbledoesnothavethestrengthofbronze,soforweakpointsinthemarble,strutsandstumpsmustbeputinplaceforextrasupport.3Becauseofthetranslationfrombronzetomarbleaswellasthedynamicposesoffifthcenturysculptures,strutsandstumpsmustbeaddedtopreventthemarblefrombreaking.ThesestrutsandstumpscanbeseenintheDiadoumenosbyPolykleitos(450BCE)andtheDiskobolosbyMyron(450BCE)respectively(Fig.1Fig.2).1Ridgway1984,6.2Ibid.,5.3Ibid.,5.

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Fig.1.DiadoumenosbyPolykleitos.C.450440BCE.Romancopy.Marble.MetropolitanMuseumofArt. Fig.2.DiskobolosbyMyron.C.450BCE.Romanycopy.Marble.MuseoNazionaleRomano.Rome.

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MygoalistoinvestigatewhatcanbeknownabouttheoriginalGreeksculpturesforwhichonlycopiessurvive.AretheRomancopiesthatwehaveaccurate?Inansweringthisquestionaseriesofproblemsmustbetackledfirst.Foreachsculpturethatisotherwiseunknown,whetheritbeanoriginalorcopy,wemustask:isitacopy?Ofwhatisitacopy?Ifitisacopy,whatcanthecopytellabouttheGreekartist?MyresearchwilltrytoanswerthesequestionsbyfocusingprimarilyonthesculpturesoftheTyrannicidesandtheAmazonGroup.BothgroupswillprovidevaryingnotionsontheideaofRomancopiesandtheirrelevanceinunderstandingGreeksculpture.ItislikelythattheTyrannicidesattractedtheattentionoftheRomansbecauseoftherelativefameofthemastersaswellastheanecdotalconnotationsforwhichtheRomansalwayslovedagoodstory.4IhopetoprovideanaccuratestudyofthesesculpturesaswellasthehistoryintothestudyofattributingsculpturesandwhattheGreekoriginalslookedlikeinrelationtowhatisknown.AstowhytheRomanssogreatlydesiredGreekworksofart,RidgwaysuggestedthattheRomanscouldbeseenintwodifferentlights:1)ascollectorswhodesiredtoobtainworksofartbythegreatmastersdocumentedonlistsofsculptureslootedfromGreeceandMagnaGraecia,2)orastastelessbarbarianslackinginrefinement.5Inheropinion,theRomanscouldcombattheirbarbarismthroughcontactwithGreeceandbecomemoresensitivetohumanisticaspectsofculture.6ItendtoseetheRomansasauniqueculturewithelementsincorporatedfromtheGreeks. ThemajorityofcopiesweremadeduringthelateRepublicanperioduntilaroundthemidthirdcenturyCE.7ThereareimportantdifferencesbetweenRomanandGreeksculpture.GreeksculptureintheClassicalperiodwouldnothavebeenknowntodayifitwerenotforRoman4Ridgway1984,23.5Ibid.,10.6Ibid.,10.7Vermeule1967,175.

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copies.However,thereareknowntobevariationsamongthecopies,raisingquestionsabouttheextenttowhichthecopyiststookartisticlicensewhenreplicatingtheoriginalsculpture.Evidenceofthesesculpturesfromliterarysourcesaswellasonphysicalevidencesuchasdepictionsofthemonpotteryandreliefsculpturemustbeconsidered.Studyingthecontextsurroundingworksofartinantiquityprovideabroaderunderstandingoftheobject.Asallstudiesevolve,sodoesthefieldofarthistory. Thestudyofarthistoryisinaperiodoftransition,andthesechangesarebecomingmoreevident.Nolongerareobjectsstudiedseparatelyfromtherestofotherworksofart.Instead,artworksarestudiedwithinbroaderculturalcontexts.Arthistorianslooktoexternalinfluencestoobservethechangingstyles,variations,iconography,andsubjectselection.ModernarthistoriansseemtohaveviewedmarblesmadeduringtheRomanperiodwithsomedisregardfortheirpossiblecreatorsinput.TheRomanswerethoughttohaveproducedartsimplyassimulacraoflostGreekoriginalsbythemastersratherthanattestingtotheirowncreativityandoriginality.8ThewordsthathavebeenusedtodescribetheRomansculpturesincludecopy,imitation,reproduction,andreplica.Ridgwaystatedthatthesewordstendtoimplythatthesculpturelacksoriginalityand[is]devoidofartisticinput.9WhileothersviewRomancopiesasjustsimplecopies,MarageteBieberlookedattheRomancopiesasexpressionsofartduringtheirtime,andevenshestressedthatcopyistscouldhavemademistakesinthereproductionofGreekdress.ArthistorianshavetriedtoisolatespecificallyRomantraitsthecostumesofcopies,andthroughthisidentification,arthistorianscandistinguishaRomancopyfromanoriginalRomancreation.TheRomancopieswerecreatedforacontextotherthanoriginallyintendedbytheGreeks.However,itisthroughtheRomancopiesthatscholarscanbegintodevelopanunderstandingofGreeksculptureinthefifthcenturyBCE.8Ridgway1984,5.9Ibid.,6.

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SculpturesintheGreekworldwereassociatedwithreligiouspurposes;thesesculptureswereeithersetupasofferingstothegodsortocommemoratethedeedsofapeople.Theimageswereusedforreligiouspurposes,asexpressionsofpublicorpersonalpiety,andpoliticalpropaganda.Greekworksofartalsorepresentednarratives,andeveninasinglefreestandingsculpture,anarrativecouldbediscerned.Forexample,anarrativecanbeunderstoodthroughthesinglesculptureoftheFarneseorWearyHerakles(Fig.3)attributedtoLysipposin330BCE.Byviewingthelionskinandtheclubcombinedwiththeapplesinhishand,theGreekswouldautomaticallyrealizewhichheroandlaborwasdepicted.OnlyintheHellenisticperiodwasartwasmadeforartssake.10TheRomanstookthesesculpturesfromtheiroriginallocationsinsanctuariesandotherpublicareasandplacedtheminnewlocations,givingthemanewcontext.TheRomansdecoratedtheirvillas,gardens,andbathcomplexeswitheithertheoriginalGreeksculpturesorthecopiesthattheyhadmadeintheirworkshops.TofurtherstudyancientGreeksculpture,Irelyonthebodyofresearchthathasprecededmystudy. Ahistoriographyprovidesabodyofresearchbasedonastudyofprimaryandsecondarysources.However,theprimarysourcesusedformystudyarenotdatedtothefifthcenturyBCEbutthefirstandsecondcenturiesCE.Additionally,thesesourceswerebyRomanwriterswhoalsohadadifferentmindsetfromtheGreeks,whoprecededthem,fivehundredyearsbefore.Thesewriters,particularlyPlinytheElderandPausaniaswerealsodealingwithissuesoflostworksofartandonlyrelyingontheinformationothershadtoldthemorinscriptionstheyhaddiscovered.EvenintheworkofPlinyinthefirstcenturyCE,therewerenoliteraryworksdescribingworksofartthatsurvivetoday.Plinydiscussessculptureandarchitectureinhismanyvolumes.However,hedoesnotgivedescriptionsoftheworksofarthenames.Althoughtherearenodescriptionsoftheartworks,theinformationthatPlinyprovidedisstillavaluablesource.10Ridgway1971,337.

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Fig.3.FarneseHeraklesbyLysippos.C.330.Romancopy.Marble.FoundatBathsofCaracalla,NowatMuseoNazionalediNapoli.

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ThehistoryofthesculpturesoftheTyrannicidesisimportantbecausetherewereactuallytwosetsthatwerecreatedinantiquity.Bothsetsofsculptureswereoriginallycastinbronze.ThefirstsetwascartedoffbythePersians,andsoonafterthesculptorsKritiosandNesiotescreatedthesecondTyrannicidegroupin477/476BCE.11Thesecondgroupwasalsosculptedinbronzeandwasplacedintheagorawherethepreviousgrouphadstood.12HowdoweknowthattheRomancopiesthatareknownareexamplesofthefirstorsecondTyrannicidegroup?TherearenumerousexamplesoftheHarmodiosposeaswellasdepictionsoftheTyrannicidesonpotteryandreliefsculpture. ThesecondgroupIwillbefocusingonistheAmazonGroupsculptures.TheAmazonswereapopulargrouptocopyinantiquity.Thegreatheroes,HeraklesandTheseus,foughttheAmazons.ScenesdepictingtheAmazonsinpatheticthemeswouldbelogicalfortheywereseenasbarbaricbecausetheydidnotfitwithinthenormsofGreekandRomansociety.PlinytellsofacompetitionoverwhichfamoussculptorcouldcreatethefinestexampleofanAmazon.13Severaltypesareknownandmanyattributionsassigned;however,thereisdoubtanddebateoveralmostalloftheseidentifications.IhopetoprovideanaccuratestudyofthesesculpturesaswellasthehistoryintothestudyofattributingsculpturesandwhattheGreekoriginalslookedlikeinrelationtowhatisknown. ThereisstillplentythatisunknownaboutGreekandRomansculpturewhenitcomestocopies.IhopetoillustratetheworkthathasbeenaccomplishedinregardstothelostGreeksculpturesaswellastheareaofRomancopies.WhilegatheringinformationaboutoriginalGreeksculpture,IseethebenefitsthatRomancopieshaveprovidedtotheresearchofGreekandRomansculpture.RomancopiespresentscholarswithinformationofwhatinterestedRomans,11Brunnsker1971,13.12Robinson1905,27.13Pliny,NH34.53.

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aswellaswhereRomansplacedtheworksofart.Thecopiesalone,however,donotprovideadequateevidenceforwhattheoriginalGreeksculptureslookedlikeaswellasidentifyingthesculptor.Manyoftheattributionsthatwehavetodayhavebeenprovidedbyancientaccountsandmodernscholars.Debateoverattributionsisbecomingmorefrequent,andonepossibilityscholarshaveexploredinordertoresolvethisproblemisthroughtheuseofconnoisseurshipandmodernmethodologies.OriginallyusedinregardstoRenaissancepaintings,ithasrelevancealsowithancientworksofart.

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Chapter2:Connoisseurship,ModernArtHistory,andMethodology Frequently,Romancopiescombinedwiththeinformationfromancientliterature,havebeenusedtoidentifyreplicasoffamousGreekprototypes.14CarefulconsiderationofthesesourcesshowsthatRomanreplicasorcopiesweremorelikeadaptationsorvariationsoncertainGreekthemesandstyles.15OftentheGreekoriginalswerefirstexecutedinbronzeandlatercopiedbytheRomansinmarble.ModernarthistorianstodayseemtoviewmarblesmadeintheRomanperiodwithslightdisregardfortheirpossiblecreativity.TheRomanswerethoughttohaveproducedartasreflectionsoflostGreekoriginalsbythemastersratherthanaddorproduceanythingattestingtotheirowncreativityandoriginality.ThestudyoftheRomancopiesreliesonwhatisseentoday.WhatwecometoknowasGreeksculptureiswhatisdiscernedfromtheRomancopies.16HowaretheseRomancopiesandiffound,Greekoriginals,identified?Connoisseurshipinitsmostbasicdefinitionisthetechniqueorskillofrecognizingdetailsinworksofartsoastosuggestanattribution.TheworksofartcanrangefromvasepaintingandsculpturefromantiquitytopaintingintheRenaissance,tomorecontemporaryobjectsaswell.Connoisseurshipprovidesinsighttothepossibilitiesoftheartistsidentitywhentheworklacksasignatureorwrittenindicationastowhocreatedthework.Thosewhopracticeconnoisseurshipdeterminethenatureoftheobjectbasedonanevaluation,distinction,andappreciationoftheworkofart;theyalsohaveanabilitytodetermineatimeandplaceforitsproductionandwhenpossibletoproposeanidentityfortheartist.Aconnoisseurwouldhavetohavesignificantevidenceofanartistsotherworkstoprovideanattributionoftheunidentifiedworktoaparticularartist.Connoisseursbasedtheirmethodsonempiricallysupported14Ridgway1984,2.15Ibid.,3.16Ibid.,5.

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procedures,andthistreatmenthelpedtoestablisharthistoryasanacademicallyrecognizeddisciplineinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.17Specificcriteriamustbeestablishedanddevelopedtosortandclassifyworksofart.Throughcarefulobservations,anexpertcanreadandunderstandthedetailsofaworkofartandidentifythesculpture.Connoisseurscanidentifyaplaceandtimebasedonthestyleandmediumofanartwork,andoftenanartistcanbedeterminedbasedondetailsandcomparisonwithothersculptures.Thecoreactivityofaconnoisseuristopassjudgmentonauthenticityandauthorshipwithcloseobservationofsize,condition,medium,andtechnique.18Accordingly,thetechniqueofconnoisseurshipcanaidinthestudyandidentificationofRomancopies.Whenpresentedwithanunknownsculpturetherearevariousquestionsthatmustbeconsideredandanswered.First,andmostimportantly,istheunknownsculptureacopyoranoriginal?Ifthesculptureisacopy,ofwhatisitacopy?Whatdoesthecopytellabouttheoriginalartist?Inthenineteenthcentury,GiovanniMorellidevelopedatechniquethatwouldlaterdevelopintoconnoisseurship.TheMorelliantechniquewasthestudyofthecharacteristicbodypartssuchashandsandearsthatartistswoulduseintheirpaintings.19Morellibelievedthattheevidenceaconnoisseurusedshouldbethevisualformsintheworksofart.Also,Morellithoughtarthistoriansoughtfirsttomakeahypothesisandthengatherevidenceanddetailedevidencetosupportaconclusion.20Likemostconnoisseurs,Morellibasedhisattributionsnotonlyonthetreatmentofseeminglyinsignificantdetails,butalsoontheideathatanauthenticworkbyagreatmasterwouldrevealanoverallcoherentvision.21AlthoughMorellitriedtomakehisattributionsbasedonhisrulesofascientificinductivemethod,Morellihimselfneverfully17HattandKlonk2006,40.18Ibid.,40.19GinzburgandDavin1980,7.20HattandKlonk2006,48.21Ibid.,54.

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workedbytheserulesalone.22Theuseofthistechniquehelpedarthistorianstobetteridentifyotherworksofart.ArthistoriansandconnoisseurslikeAdolfFurtwngler(18541907)andGiselaM.A.Richter(18821972)werewellversedinfieldsofancientGreekandRomansculptureandconnoisseurship,andbothmadegreatstridesinbothfields.Theirtechniquescanbeusedtoattributeandreevaluatetheworkswehavetoday.Beforemodernarthistorians,theancientwriters,PlinytheElderandPausanias,providedtheearliestarthistoricalaccounts.AncientArtHistorians:PlinyandPausanias

PlinytheElderandPausaniasweretwowritersintheancientworldwhomscholarsrelyuponheavilyforunderstandingsculptors,theircreations,andtheoriginallocationandsettingofGreekart.First,tounderstandtheirwritings,onemustseethattheancientwritershaveinterpretedtheirevidencewithintheirownculturalframework.23PlinyandPausanias,respectively,workedthreetofivecenturiesafterthesculptorscreatedtheirwellknownworks. PlinytheElderwrotehisNaturalHistoryinthefirstcenturyCE.Itwasaworkofclassificationanddescriptiondefiningarelationshipbetweennatureandcivilization.Ofhisthirtysevenbooks,Iwillfocusontheimportanceanduseofthechaptersdescribingworksofartinbronze,marble,andpreciousstonesandgems.24Plinydidnotdescribeworksofart,buthedidmentionfamousstatuesandwhenpossibleidentifiedtheirsculptors.Ofhismanystories,PlinysaccountofthecompetitionoftheAmazonsatEphesosisoneofthebestknownandmosthighlydebated.IshallhavetheoccasiontodiscussitlaterinChapterfour. InthesecondcenturyCE,PausaniaswroteaDescriptionofGreece.Thiswasnotatruearthistoricalaccount,butresembledaculturalgeographyofGreece.Hewrotetenvolumesand22HattandKlonk2006,56.23Ridgway1986,14.24ThechapterfromPlinysNaturalHistorythatIfocusonisonbronzes,Chapter34.

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arrangedthembylocation.Whenhediscussedworksofart,hegavedescriptionsanddates.Also,whenpossible,heindicatedanartistsoriginandpossibleteachersandpupils,buthisinformationhasnotalwaysproventobeaccurate.PausaniasworkprovidesdescriptionsofwhatGreecelookedliketoRomaneyesinthesecondcenturyCE.Thisdescriptionalsoprovidesadocumentcitingwhichstatuesandmonumentswerestillextantandinuseatthistime.PausaniasdescriptionsthatshowthesignificanceoftheTyrannicides,willbediscussedinthenextchapter.Theseancientsources,amongothers,providegreatinsightonhowGreeksculpturewasseenandtreatedinantiquityduringtheRomanperiod.ThesesourcesdonotprovideaviewonhowthefifthcenturysculptorsviewedGreeksculptures.ItisnotuntilmanycenturieslaterintheRenaissancethatweseeanovertandcalculatedresurgenceininterestfortheartofantiquity.Priortothemoderntheoriesofarthistory,firstdevelopedinthenineteenthcenturyinGermany,peoplethoughtofartinwhatnowseemsanahistoricalsense.Duringtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,worksofartwerenotlookeduponashavingtheirownparticularsignificance,butratherjudgedastowhethertheyhadachievedanaestheticthatwasofinteresttoaparticulartime.Oneoftheearliestarthistorians,GiorgioVasari(15111574),wasalsoanartist.VasarifirstpublishedTheLivesoftheArtistsin1550.Here,VasaristatedthatarthadreacheditsfirstpeakinthegoldenageofancientGreece,butthenwentonasteadydeclineaboutthefourthandfifthcenturies,andagainstartedtoriseagainonlyduringtheProtoRenaissanceofthefourteenthcentury.25Manyarthistoriansduringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiesbelievedthatartwasacyclicalprocess.Basedontheideaofacyclicalprocess,theheightofartwasduringtheClassicalperiod.UntiltheRenaissance,theworksofartinbetweenthesetwoperiodswerenotashighlyregardedbecauseoftheplacementonthedownwardpartofthecycle.Romancopieshavepreviouslybeenplacedonthe25HattandKlonk2006,21.

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downwardslopeofthiscycle.ArthistorywasgreatlyinfluencedbythistheoryputforthbyVasariandlateremphasizedbythefatherofmodernarthistory,JohannJoachimWinckelmann.Winckelmannfocusedonthebeautyanditsroleinancientart,andindoingso,hehelpedshapethehistoryofmodernaesthetics.26

WinckelmannIntheeighteenthcenturyinGermany,JohannJoachimWinckelmannpioneeredtheideathatancientGreekartrepresentedaspecificachievementthatwasunsurpassable.Heprovidedahistoricalaccountdescribingancientworksofart,withaspecificfocusonsculpture.Winckelmannisoftenconsideredthefatherofmodernarthistoryandthefatherofmodernarchaeology.HehadaspecialinterestinGreekandRomanart,andthroughhisstudieshewroteGeschichtederKunstdesAltertums(HistoryoftheArtofAntiquity),publishedin1764.Winckelmannstextfunctionedastheoriginandfoundationofanewkindofhistoryofart,anditprovidedanewwaytounderstandingofthevisualarts.Heprovidedaframeworkforclassifyingworksofart,specificallysculpture,intoperiodsoftime.Previouslyworksofart,forinstanceinprivatecollections,hadbeengroupedbysubjectmatter.HistheoriesonGreekandRomanartinfluencedalllatercriticismofancientart.27Winckelmannbroughtacriticalapproachtothehistoryofart,whichrecognizedaninequalitybetweendifferentworksofart.28Inhisbook,WinckelmannaddressedthequestionastowhetheraspecificRomanstylecouldbeidentifiedinart,andhebelievedthataRomanstylecouldnotbedistinguished.HeviewedRomanartasimitativeanddecadent.29ThisassumptionofRomanarthavingnostyleofitsownwasacceptedbyarthistoriansuntilthelatenineteenthcentury.JohannGottfriedHerder,a26Scott2006,631.27Brendel1979,19.28Ibid.,21.29Scott2006,631.

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contemporaryofWinckelmann,partlyagreedwithWinckelmann,butdrewtheconclusionthatworksofartinarefromacertainperiodandcultureshouldnotbeanalyzedbythestandardsofanother.30WiththisHerdercreatedthemodernunderstandingofarthistory,andprovidedareasontotracethedevelopmentsthathaveoccurredinartoverthecenturies.InthetimeafterWinckelmann,anarthistorianfromthenineteenthcentury,AdolfFurtwngler,therewaslittlestudyofthedifferentiationbetweenoriginalsandcopiesofancientsculpture.31

FurtwnglerAdolfFurtwnglerwasabletoprovideattributionsformanyancientworksofart,mostlysculpture.HismostwellknownandwidelyusedbookisMeisterwerkederGriechischenPlastik(MasterpiecesofGreekSculpture).Furtwngler,throughthedetailedpracticeofconnoisseurship,reattributedworksknownonlythroughRomancopiestotheoriginalGreeksculptorsofthefifthandfourthcenturiesBCE.InhisMeisterwerke,Furtwnglerusedancientsourcescitingaspecificworkofarttoaspecificartist.HisapproachtoancientGreeksculpturewastogiveahistoricalgroupingofthecopiesandtoprovideanaccuratedateforthecopyscreation.Additionally,hewantedtocompareacopyssimilaritytothelostoriginal,andtostudythepossibleadditionsandtransformationstotheoriginalcreationputinplacebythecopyist,forasIhavementionedalready,itwascommonforaRomanartisttoaddorsubtractminordetailsinhisowncopy.32

RichterWhendealingwithancientcopiesoflostoriginals,GiselaRichtersprimaryfocuswasnotonthecopies;rathersheprioritizedtheancientliterarysourcesavailableaswellasGreekvases,gems,orcoinsthatdepictedscenessimilartothoseinaRomansculpturalcopy.Whendealing30HattandKlonk2006,22.31Bieber1977,1.32Ibid.,2.

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withcopies,onehastotakeintoaccountthepossibilitythattheRomancopiescouldhavebeenalteredinvariouswaysfromtheoriginal.Toaidherinherstudyofmarblecopiesandbronzeoriginals,shestudiedthetechniquesofmarblecarvingandbronzecasting.33In1925,RichterwasmadeacuratorattheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNewYork,thefirstwomanwiththishonor.RichterwroteAHandbookofGreekArtin1969,comprisingofGreeksculpture,vasepainting,gems,aswellasotherobjects.Whencompilingresearchforherstudies,Richterwouldlookfirsttoliterarytextsandthentoexternalevidencefoundwithinotherobjectsreflectingasimilarstyle,suchaskouroifromtheArchaicperiod.RichtertookaconnoisseurrialapproachtoancientGreekartjustasherfather,JeanPaulRichter,hadwithItalianRenaissancemasterspaintings.Indeed,RichtersfatherwasincontactwithGiovanniMorelli.Throughthemethodofconnoisseurship,Richterwasabletogivetheobjectsshestudiedanaccuratechronology.IhavefoundRichtersworktobeusefulindescribingandplacingtheworksofartwithinatimeperiod;however,shedidnotprovidetheanswerstothequestionsthatarisewhendealingwithcopies.

Ridgway BrunildeSismondoRidgway,amodernscholarwritinginthe1970supthroughtoday,hassuppliedarthistorywithresearchonGreekandRomanartaswellascopiesandtheireffectsonthestudyofancientart.ShehasprovidedparticularinsightintoRomancopiesofGreeksculpturefromthefifthandfourthcenturiesBCE.Shearguedthatarthistorianshadatendencytoattributeworksofarttoamajorsculptorbasedonancientsourcesforreference.Inthecasethattherewerenosourcestobaseanattribution,theunknownsculpturemightbegivenanattributionbasedonanartistsimportanceaspreviouslyestablishedbyGreekandRoman33Carnes2003,235.

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writers,suchasanaccountfromPlinyofawoundedwarriorbyKresilas.34Ridgway,aratherskepticalscholar,suggestedthatinRomancopies,weoftenseeagenericimitationandemulationratherthanmechanicalcopying,thereforeitisalmostimpossibletoverifythedegreetowhichaRomancopyreplicatedaGreekoriginal.35RidgwaysworkhasbeeninstrumentalinhelpingmeunderstandtheuseofcopiesandhowtheyshouldbestudiedwithregardstounderstandinglostoriginalGreekworksofart.AsIhaveillustrated,arthistoryisanevolvingfield,andcontextaswellasiconographyarebecomingmajorconcernsincontemporaryresearchofancientartinsteadoftheattributionofworksofarttospecificartists.36

ConclusionsonConnoisseurship,ModernArtHistory,andMethodology Connoisseurship,asformulatedbyMorelli,wasapopularmethodofarthistorypriortothelatenineteenthcentury,buttodayisoftenviewedwithscrutiny.Althoughconnoisseurshipcanprovideinsightsonthedetailsofasculpture,itisoftendifficulttoofferanycertainattributionbecause,aswillbeshowninthisstudy,mostcopiesarelikelynottruecopiesofafifthcenturyGreekprototype,asRidgwayhassuggested.Connoisseurshipcanprovideinsightstothedetailsofasculpture,butitisdifficulttogiveanycertainattributionbecausemostRomancopiesarelikelynottruecopiesofafifthcenturyGreekprototype.ItisunrealistictothinkthatinfluencesinstyleintheRomanperioddidnotappearincopiesofGreekprototypes.ArthistorianshavebeentryingtoisolatethespecificallyRomantraitsindress,andthroughthisidentification,arthistorianscandistinguishaRomancopyfromanoriginalRomancreation.Nonetheless,sincemanyoriginalancientGreeksculpturesarenolongeraround,arthistorians34Ridgway1986,8.35Ibid.,11.36Ibid.,8.

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mustrelyonotherobjectstomaketheirassumptionsonthesculpturestimeperiodandtoventurepossibleattributionstoaparticularartist.ThetwogroupsofancientsculpturesthatIhavechosentodiscussareknownonlythroughRomancopiesandliteraryaccountsthatdateandattributethestatues.TheTyrannicidesandtheAmazonGroupfromEphesosprovidetwodifferentinsightstoRomancopiesandhowtheyareattributed.AncientsourcesarenecessarywhenoutliningahistoryofGreeksculpture.OurunderstandingoftheseGreekoriginalswillhavetorelyheavilyontheRomanwritersIhavediscussedaboveandwhattheysaidabouttheGreeksculpture.Idosoawareofthenewcautionthathasbeenexpressedbyscholarsontherelianceplaceduponancientsources.37Otherworksofartthathavegenerallybeenattributedtothesamesculptorshavebeenincludedforthepurposeofcomparison.InthecaseoftheAmazons,IrelyonsculpturesmentionedbyPlinyandLucianthathavealsobeenattributedtothemasters.Unfortunately,therehavenotbeenanyvasesfoundthatrepresentstatuesofAmazonscreatedforthecityofEphesos.InthecaseoftheTyrannicides,IamabletorelyonthedepictionsoftheTyrannicidesseeninothermedia,showingtheirposeandimportancewithintheancientworld.

37Ridgway1986,14.

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Chapter3:TheTyrannicidesNowthatIhavediscussedconnoisseurshipandmodernarthistoricalscholarship,inthischapterIbegintolookatthefirstgroupofRomancopiestounderstandbetterthelostoriginals.RomancopiesprovideanimageofthelostGreekoriginalsculptures.TheTyrannicidesareasetofsculpturesrepresentingtwonudearistocraticmeninAthensduringthelatesixthcenturyBCE.Thetwoaristocrats,HarmodiosandAristogeiton,assassinatedthetyrantHippiasbrotherHipparkhosduringthePanathenaicgamesin514BCE.ThereweretwogroupsofTyrannicideserectedinantiquityandbotharedatedtothelateArchaicandEarlyClassicalperiods.Throughliteraryaccounts,scholarsknowthatthereweretwosetsofbronzeTyrannicidesculptures.Onesetofsculptureswaserectedafter510BCEbyAntenoraftertheexpulsionofHippias.Asecondsetwaserectedin477/476BCEbyKritiosandNesiotestoreplacetheearliergroup,whichwasstolenbythePersiansin480.38ScholarshavesuggestedthatitisthesecondgroupthatisstudiedthroughRomancopies.Theattributionsofthesecopiesarebasedonstyleofknownworksofartbythesculptors.ThroughevidenceofRomancopies,othermedia,andliterarysources,Iwillillustrateinorderofdecreasingutilitythehistoryofthesculpturesandtheresearchbehindwhatisknowntoday.IwillalsoexplainthepopularityofthesculpturesthemebyreferencetotheeventsofthePanathenaicFestivalof514BCE. Ancientliterarydescriptionsoftenpresentvariationsofthesameaccount.Theseaccountswerehandeddownthroughoraltraditionformanygenerationsstartingperhapswithfirsthandaccountsandthenpassedon.Itisalsopossiblethattheaccountswerebasedinfictionorhearsay,buteventsthattendtoreappearinthehistoricalrecordcouldbebasedonfact.Howevertheyarealtered,theseancientliterarysourcescanaidingivinganarrativeofboththeeventanddescriptionsofthesculptures.38Mattusch1996,82.

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TheAccount TherearevariationsintheaccountsoftheTyrannicides.ThetwoancientsourcesthataremostrelevantaretheaccountsbyThucydidesandAristotle.TherewerealsomultiplereferencestoHarmodiosandAristogeitoninpoetryanddrama.Asmentionedabove,theTyrannicideswereasymbolofdemocracy,whilearistocratsopposedthenewdemocracyandtriedtodiscreditandminimizetheirimportanceandachievement,whilethedemocratsreveredthem.39Intheseaccounts,therewerenodescriptionsofthestyleandbasicappearanceoftheTyrannicides.InthewritingsofPlinytheElderandPausanias,however,therearedescriptionsoftheversionstheyencounteredwhichIwilldiscussbelow.IntheancientworlditwasbelievedthattheTyrannicides,HarmodiosandAristogeiton,committedaheroicactinanattempttoendtyrannyduringthePanathenaicfestivalin514BCE. ThepoliticalclimateinthelatesixthcenturyinAthenswasoneofconflictbetweenaristocratsandatyrant.Thetermtyrant,asitwasunderstoodinGreece,wasnotonebasedonoppressionandresortingtotheuseofterrortocontrolthepeople.In561BCE,PeisistratosproclaimedhimselftyrantofAthens.AfterthedeathofPeisistratosin527BCE,thereignsofgovernmentwerepassedovertooneofhissons.40Bythelatefifthcentury,whenThucydideswrotehisaccountoftheassassinationofHipparkhos,AtheniansbelievedthatitwasHipparkhoswhoreignedastyrantandnotHippias.41ThucydidessoughttoanswerthisdebateofwhowastyrantinAthensduringthePanathenaicFestivalof514BCE.HeansweredthisquestionbycitingapillarcommemoratingthePeisistratidfamilyontheAthenianAkropolis.Thispillarmentionedthenamesofthefamily,andonitwerethenamesoffivechildrensiredbyHippias,butnone39Brunnsker1971,26.40Pomeroyetal.2004,132.41Brunnsker1971,8.

20

siredbyHipparkhos.42TheotheraccountbyAristotlefollowsThucydidesaccountclosely,buttherearesomefactualdiscrepanciesbetweenthetwoaccounts.Aristotledoesnotgivedocumentationofhissources,andhischangescomelaterintheaccount.Inbothversions,HarmodiosandAristogeitonwerearistocratsaswellaslovers,andHipparkhoshadmadeunsuccessfuladvancestowardsHarmodios.FearingthatHarmodioswouldhavebeentakenawaybyforce,AristogeitonplottedagainstHipparkhos.43AftertheinsultofbeingrejectedtwicebyHarmodios,HipparkhosconcoctedaplottoinsultHarmodiossfamily.ThucydidesstatedthatHipparkhosinvitedHarmodiosssistertotakepartinaprocessionforthePanathenaicfestival,andwhenshecametoparticipateinthefestival,Hipparkhossaidthathehadneverinvitedher.44Harmodiosssisterwasrejectedforbeingunworthy,andthisbecameagreatinsulttotheiraristocraticfamily.Thucydidesstatedthattherewerefewconspiratorsinvolved,whileAristotlecommentedthatthereweremany.ThemotivationsforHarmodiosandAristogeitonhadastrongbasisinrevengefortheadvancesandinsulttoHarmodiosandhisfamilymadebyHipparkhos.Theotherconspiratorsweremostlikelyinvolvedintheplantoendtyrannyratherthanaplanofrevenge.Thucydidesstressesthefirstmotiveofjealousyandrevengeratherthanapurelypoliticalmotiveandthattheirendresultwasaccidentalandunplanned.45AccordingtoThucydides,theassassinationwastotakeplaceintheKerameikoswhereHippiaswasaccompaniedbyhisbodyguard,andsupposedlyhewastheoriginaltargetoftheplotmerelybecausehewasthetyrant.46IthasalsobeenhypothesizedthattheassassinationplotinvolvedthemurdersofHippias,Hipparkhos,andThessalos,thethirdPeisistratidbrother.47HadAthensbeenridofallthetyrantsofthePeisistratidfamily,theTyrannicidegroupwouldproveto42Thuc.6.53.143Ibid.,6.54.344Ibid.,6.56.45Spivey1996,114.46Thuc.6.57.1.47Bell2005,127.Aristot.Const.Ath.18.2.

21

beamonumentcommemoratingtheendoftyrannyinAthens.TheplanwasabandonedwhenoneoftheircoconspiratorslookedtoofamiliartalkingwithHippias,andthemenfearedtheirplanwasdiscovered.HarmodiosandAristogeitonrushedtofindHipparkhos,themanwhohadinsultedthem.TheyfoundHipparkhosneartheLeokorion,andinaragefueledbyloveandinsult,HarmodiosandAristogeitonthrusttheirswordsintohim.48Aristogeitonescapedtheguardsafterthemurderandwaslatercapturedandkilled,butHarmodioswaskilledonthespot.Hippiasheardofthenews,andrushedtothearmedmeninprocession.49MencanbeseenbearingshieldsandspearsinthePanathenaicprocessiondepictedontheIonicfriezeoftheParthenon.Traditionally,thearmedmenintheprocessioncarriedashieldandspear,soallthosewithdaggerswereassumedtobetheguiltyparties.AftertheactionsofAristogeitonandHarmodios,HippiaspressedthetyrannymuchharderupontheAthenians.Hippiashadgrownfearfulofarevolt,soheputmanycitizenstodeathduringthethreeyearshereignedafterhisbrothersassassination.50Inhisfourthyear,HippiaswasdeposedwiththehelpoftheLacedaemonians,andheleftforthecourtofthePersianemperor,Darius.Asseeninpoetryandothersources,itwasverypopularinAthenstobecomparedtoeitheroftheTyrannicides.TotheAthenians,HarmodiosandAristogeitonwereheroes,andtosacrificeoneselffortheircityandinthebestinterestofthepeoplewasagreathonor.TobedepictedordescribedinamannerrelatingtoeitheroftheTyrannicideswasagreathonorandcompliment.Inhisplay,Lysistrata,AristophaneshastheOldMeninLysistrataproclaim:ATyranny,nodoubt...buttheywon'tcatchme,thatknow.HenceforthonmyguardI'llgo,/Aswordwithmyrtlebrancheswreathedforeverinmyhand,/AndunderarmsinthePublicPlace/I'll48TheLeokorionwasashrinededicatedtothedaughtersofLeos,whoofferedtodietosaveAthensfromplague.49Thuc.58.2.50Spivey1996,114.

22

takemywatchfulstand,/ShouldertoshoulderwithAristogeiton.51ThereferencetoAristogeitonillustratesthepopularityandtherespectgiventoHarmodiosandAristogeiton.AristophanesrefersnotonlytothepersonasoftheTyrannicides,butalsodescribesthePublicPlace,intheAgora,wheresculptureswerelocated.TheshouldertoshoulderlinetheOldMenspeakofcouldrefertothesizeandpossiblearrangementofHarmodiosandAristogeiton,discussedlaterinthechapter.InEcclesiazusae,thecharacterPraxagoraisaskedwhatshewilldowithherurns,andshereplies:Ishallhavethemtakentothemarketplace,andstandingclosetothestatueofHarmodios...52ThisplacesoneofthestatuesoftheTyrannicidesintheAgora,andlikemostmonuments,theyweregivenasmeetingpoints.Throughtheliterarysources,thepopularityofHarmodiosandAristogeitonstarttoform,butitisthroughthesculptureswheretheytrulytakeshape.Itisapparentfromtheextantevidenceofdepictionsofyoungmalesandoldermales,thatthesculpturesofHarmodiosandAristogeitonareacompositionoftwomen,oneyoungmaleandabeardedoldermale.Theyareoftenportrayedasstandingtogetherpoisedforattack.InancientGreece,thesculpturesinthelatesixthcenturyweremadeofbronze.ThesculptureoftheTyrannicideswouldhavealsobeenmadeofbronze,andasmostheroesweredepictedinaheroicnudityinancientGreece,soweretheTyrannicides.DuringtheLateArchaicandEarlyClassicalperiods,bothHarmodiosandAristogeitonwouldhavebeensculptedhavingidealizedyouthfulmalebodies.AstimeprogressedintotheEarlyClassicalperiod,themalefigurebecamemorenaturallooking,andthemusclesweremodeledmoresoftlyandlookedlessrigid.FromwhatisknownaboutoriginalsculptureintheLateArchaicperiod,theseassumptionsbasedoncompositionandstylecanbemade.Throughthestudyoforiginalworksofartfromtheperiodandthroughliterarysources,thesegeneralizationsarepresumed.51Aristoph.Lys.62652Aristoph.Eccl.682

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RomanCopiesRomancopiesof theTyrannicidesarebelievedtobebasedon thesculpturesbyKritiosandNesiotes.ThirtyyearsafterthegroupbyAntenorwassetup,thesecondgroupwaserectedin477/6BCEandplacedinthespaceoccupiedbytheformerjustafewyearsearlier.53Thequickreplacementof theTyrannicidessentoutamessagethatbalancehadbeenrestoredtoAthens,andthattheywereonceagainundertheprotectionoftheTyrannicides.54ThestyleofthegroupbyKritiosandNesiotescanbeseenthroughthesurvivingcopies,butitisunclearwhetherthesecopies reflect the style,poses,or compositionof theoriginal copiesbyAntenor. Scholarshavelookedat thestylisticdifferencesamongthecopiesandotheroriginalsculpturesdating to thesametimeperiod inorder todecipher thepossibledifferencesbetween thegroups.55ScholarsmustalsotakeintoaccountthepopularityandreverencethatwaspaidtothesculpturesoftheAthenianheroesandthepowertraditioncouldplayintothestyleoffigurescreatedbyKritosandNesiotes. Mattusch believes that since Harmodios and Aristogeiton were such recognizablefigures,therewouldbenonotabledifferencesbetweenthenewandoldgroups.56IntheextantRomancopiesandfromtherepresentationsofmatureandyoungmales,thebodies of bothHarmodios and Aristogeiton are still idealized, and they are only identified bytheiragedifferenceandattackinggestures.57ThecopiesoftheheadofHarmodiosresemblesthatofasculptureofaboydatingto480BCEattributedtoKritios,tobediscussedlaterinthesectionreflecting the style of Kritios. On this basis, it seemsprobable that these copies represent theoriginalworkcreatedbyKritiosandNesiotes.53Robinson1905,27.54Mattusch1996,62.55Ibid.,62.56Ibid.,62.57Ibid.,62.

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TheRomancopiesoftheTyrannicideswereexecutedinmarbleandarefullsizecopiesofthebronzeoriginals.Itisagreedamongscholarsthatthesecopiesgiveafairideaoftheforms,style,andposeoftheoriginalsculptures.ThemostcompletesculpturesofHarmodios(H1)andAristogeiton(A1)(Fig.4)werefoundattheVillaAdrianainTivoli.However,thisprovenanceisunsure,andtheyarenowheldintheMuseoNazionaleinNaples.Thetwofiguresareplacedinthewedgeshapedcomposition,whichismostlikelynottheoriginalcompositionofHarmodiosandAristgeiton.TheNaplesAristogeiton (A1) (Fig.5) ismissing itshead,but itdoeshave theentirebodyinonepiecealongwithbothlegsandplinthpreserved.58Botharmsofthesculpturehavebeenbrokenoffatdifferentpoints,therightarmatthedeltoidmuscleandtheleftbrokenattheshoulder.59ThearmsofAristogeiton(A1)havesincebeenrestored,althoughBrunnskerstates that the left arm was previously rotated at an incorrect axis that has since beencorrected.60AbeardedheadofAristogeitonhasbeenplacedonthestatue.ThebodyandheadofHarmodios (H1) (Fig. 6Fig. 7) fromNaples have been preserved in one piece, but both armshavebeenbrokenatthedeltoidmuscle.61Therightlegispreservedslightlybelowthetopoftheright thigh to slightly below the kneecap. The head of this sculpture is remarkably wellpreserved.TherightarmdepictingtheHarmodiosBlowhasbeenrestoredincorrectly,asseenfromtheevidenceprovidedbytheimagesofHarmodiosonthevasesandonthethrone.62Therightarmshouldbebentbackevenmoreattheelbowsothatthehandisbackbehindthehead.HarmodiosandAristogeitonarestridingoutwithoppositelegs,Harmodiosleadingwithhisrightand Aristogeiton with his left. The positions of the limbs of the Roman copies of these twosculptures seen here help to identify the possible compositional arrangements of the figures58Brunnsker1971,48.59Ibid.,49.60Ibid.,50.61Ibid.,63.62Ibid.,63.

25

discussedbelow.The various copies are left in fragments in various stages of restoration anddamage.

Fig.5.Aristogeiton(A1)FromNaplesCopiesFig.4.TyrannicidesbyKritiosandNesiotes?C.477/6BCE.RomanCopy.Marble.VillaAdriana,NowatMuseoArcheologicoNazionalediNapoli.

26

Fig.6.(Left)Harmodios(H1)fromNaplesCopyFig.7(Above)HeadofHarmodios(H1)

27

A torsoandheadofAristogeiton(A3) (Fig.8Fig.9)was found in theexcavationsatS.OmobonoinRomein1938,nowheldinthePalazzoNuovooftheCapitolineMuseumsinRome.InthisrenderingAristogeitonsmusculaturevariesfromthatoftheAristogeitoninNaples. Themusculature of theArtemision Zeus (Fig. 10)would be an accurate comparison inthatthemusclesarenotasseverelycontracted.Brunnskerstatesthatwiththediscoveryofthehead of Aristogeiton (A3) for which there is no information other than it was found in thestorerooms at the Vatican where it is still displayed. The pose of the head of (A3) gives arthistorians a solid basis to conclude inwhich direction the headwas placed on the body. ThetreatmentofthehairisbestreproducedonAristogeiton(A3),withthehairdescribedassmallleaflikelockswithanincisedline.63ScholarsarelesscertainoftherestorationofHarmodiosbecausethereislessevidence.64ItiscertainthattheleftarmofHarmodioswasstretcheddownwardsandback,andthroughthevariousdepictionsofHarmodios,itismostlikelythathisrightarmwasupbackoverhisheadtodeliverthatcrushingblow.ThereareremainsofstrutsconnectedtotheheadofHarmodioson(H3)ofunknownprovenancenowlocatedattheMetropolitanMuseumofArtinNewYorkand(H4),adamagedheadfromtheMuseoNazionaleinRome,alsoofunknownorigin(Fig.11andFig.12).TheNaplesHarmodios (H1)doesnothave the struts connecting the rightarm to thehead,andthebronzeoriginalwouldnaturallynothavethestrutsforsupport.65ThefragmentofanuppertorsoofHarmodios(H2)wasboughtontheRomanmarketin1908andisnowlocatedintheLiebighausinFrankfurtamMain(Fig.13).63Brunnsker1971,146.64Ibid.,149.65Ibid.,149.

28

Fig.8.(Above)TorsoofAristogeiton(A3)Fig.9(Aboveright)HeadofAristogeiton(A3)Fig.10.(Right)ArtemisionZeus.C.460450BCE.Bronze.FoundoffofCapeArtemision,nowattheNationalArchaeologicalMuseuminAthens.

29

Fig.11.Harmodios(H3).NowatMetropolitanMuseumofArt.Fig.12.Harmodios(H4)NowatMuseoNazionaledellaTerme,Rome.Fig.13.HarmodiosTorso(H2)NowatLiebighaus,FrankfurtamMain.

30

This torso provides an image of the direction in which the arms went. The right shoulder isstretchedupasiftogoupwards,andtheleftshoulderisdroppeddownasiftogobackbehindthe torso.TheHarmodiosheadof (H3)provides thebest evidence to indentify theBoyas theworkofKritios(Fig.22).Hurwitcharacterizestheheadof(H3)asamoresensitive,lessaustererendering.66Whenplacednexttoeachother,H3andH4,onecanseethattheyhavesimilarUshapedfaces,smoothfullcheeks,strongroundedchinwithalowforehead.67AllofthesecopiescombinedhelptorealizethepossiblepositionsofHarmodiosandAristogeiton,anditisaplastercastdatingtotheRomanperiodthathelpsscholarstounderstandtheproductionofcopies.ItisthroughtheworksthataredescribedbelowthattheimpactofthesculpturesoftheTyrannicidescanbeseenandunderstood.OtherMediaTheimportanceoftheTyrannicidescanbeseenfromtheirdepictiononvasesandreliefsculpturefromthefifthcenturyonintothethirdcenturyBCE.OneoftheearliestvasesdepictingtheTyrannicidesisablackfigurelekythos(Fig.14)datingto470/460BCE.68Onthisblackfigurelekythos,thefiguresarelengthenedtofillthewholebandofspaceofthevase,andthebackgroundbehindthefiguresisfilledwithadecorationofbranchesandvines.HarmodiosandAristogeitonarefacingrightwithHarmodiosstridingaheadofAristogeiton.Aspreviouslystated,thefiguresofHarmodiosandAristogeitonaredifferentiatedthroughconventionsusedintheArchaicandClassicalperiods.AristogeitonisdistinguishedfromHarmodiosbyhavingalongbeardandhairthatextendtohischestwhileHarmodioshasthehairlessfaceofayoungmale.69Harmodiosisdepictedwithhisleftlegextendedforwardandisholdinghisswordwithhisleft66Hurwit1989,68.67Ibid.,68.68Brunnsker1971,102.HeldinthesterreichesMuseum,Vienna.69Ibid.,102.

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hand.ThereasonforthisunusualrepresentationofHarmodiosbrandishingtheswordwithhislefthandispossiblyduetotheartistmakingapriorsketchofthesculptures,wheretheartistsawHarmodiosfrombehind.70TheartistsketchedHarmodiosatananglewherehewasseenfromtheback,andwhilestillusingtheprototype,theartistdepictedHarmodiosfromafrontalperspective.Theartistwouldhavetoswitchtheswordhandfromrighttolefttopreventfromobstructingthespectatorsview.71ItappearsthatAristogeitonwascopiedontothevase,ashewouldhavebeenseeninthesculpture,andasintheextantcopies,Aristogeitonhasachlamysdrapedoverhisleftarm.72ThislekythosseemstobeinpartdepictingtheTyrannicidesculpturesintheAgora,andbasedonthedate,wouldcorrespondtothesculpturescreatedbyKritiosandNesiotes.Thisarrangementofonefigurestridingslightlyinfrontoftheotherisnotthecompositiononewouldhaveseeninthesculpturesintheagora.Thesculpturesintheagorawouldhaveshownthefiguresbacktobackandinlinewithoneanother.Thereareothervasefiguresthatshowthisposeofonefigurestridingoutinfrontoftheother,asseeninthefollowingvasedescription.Aredfigureoinochoe(Fig.15)fromtheDexileosgraveinAthens,nowheldintheMuseumofFineArtsinBoston,datestoaround400BCE.Thevasedepictsonefigure,Harmodios,advancingoutfromagroup,andtheheadsofHarmodiosandAristogeitonareshowninprofilewhiletheirtorsosareinafrontalview.73Thestyleindicatesthepreviouslymentioneddateof400BCE,andthepossibilitythatthevasewascommissionedtospecificationsofaprivateorder.ItwouldseemlikelythattheTyrannicideswouldbeasubjectbefittinganaristocratic70Brunnsker1971,103.71Ibid.,103.72Ibid.,103.Chlamysormantle.73Mattusch1988,125.

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Athenianofficersgravegoods.Theyarealignedindramaticsilhouette,andHarmodioscanbeseenstrikingwithhisHarmodiosBlowpose.7474Mattusch1988,125.

Fig.15.BlackFigureLekythosbytheEmporionPainter.C.470/460BCE.NowinVienna.

Fig.16.RedFigureOinochoefromtheGraveofDexileos.C.400BCE.FoundoutsidetheDipylonGateinAthens.NowattheMuseumofFineArtsinBoston.

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Asseenontheblackfigurelekythos,HarmodiosisadvancingforwardsinfrontofAristogeiton,andAristogeitonhasachlamysdrapedoverhisleftarm.Thisarrangementoffigurescouldbederivedfromthesculpturesthemselves,oritcouldbeasimpleandaestheticallypleasingmeansofdepictingthetwofigurestogether.PrizevaseswereoftengivenoutatthePanathenaicfestival;thetypeofvaseassociatedwiththefestivalistheamphora.OftenthesePanatheanaicamphoraeincorporatedimportantAthenianmonumentsintheirimagery.75OnoneparticularPanathenaicamphora(Fig.16),datingto400BCE,theTyrannicideswereemployedasashielddeviceofAthenas.InsteadofHarmodiosadvancing,itisAristogeitonwhohasbeendepictedpullingaheadofthetwomen.Thetwodimensionalityoftheplaneisanexplanationfortheadvancingfigureandnotbecausethisarrangementwashowthesculpturegroupwasoriginallycomposed.76Intheirsilhouetteddepiction,bothmenstepforwardwithonekneebentandtheotherstraight,creatingastrongdiagonal.Harmodiosisstilldeliveringacrushingblowwithhisrightarmbentbackoverhisheadreadytostrikeatanymoment.ThenextvasedepictsthetwoheroesalongwithHipparkhos,andthisvasehasmoreofanarrativesceneandisnotastheTyrannicidesarearrangedforthefreestandingsculptures.TheWrzburgStamnos(Fig.17),whichdatestothelatefifthcenturyBCE,representstheTyrannicidesgroupasclothedfigures,unliketheheroicnudityseeninthetwopreviousvasesandthesculpturegroups.Theanatomyofthefigureshereismorenaturalisticinmodeling.Inthenarrative,HarmodiospursuesafleeingHipparkhos,wholooksbackathispursuer.77

75Ridgway1984,67.76Mattusch1988,122.77Ibid.,127.

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Fig.16.PanathenaicAmphora.AthenawithShieldDeviceoftheTyranncides.C.400BCE.Athens

Fig.17.WrzburgStamnosbytheCopenhagenPainter.Late5thcenturyBCE.HeldinWrzburg.

35

Aristogeitonsposehaschanged;heisalreadystrikingwithhisswordandmakingcontactwiththetorsoofHipparkhos.78Aristogeitonsposehadtobechangedforthenewnarrativebeingdepicted.HarmodiosisstilldepictedintheHarmodiosBlowpose,andthisposeisoneofthemainidentifiersastothenarrativeofthevase.ThefollowingvasedepictsasubjectthatdoesnotinvolvethenarrativeoftheTyrannicides,butratheritincorporatestheposesofthesculpturestoadifferentstory.TheVivenzoVase(Fig.18)isahydriapaintedbytheKleophradesPainterinthelatesixthcenturyBCE,andthevasessubjectistheTrojanWar.TheVivenzoVasedoesnotprovidegreatinsightintotheTyrannicidesculptures,butitdoesprovideinsightintothepopularityofthegroupandtheirposes.79

78Washburn1918,151.79Ibid.,152.

Fig.18.VivenzoVasebytheKleophradesPainter.BlackFigureHydria.Late6thcenturyBCE.

36

ThisvasedepictsaspecificscenefromtheTrojanWar.ThefiguresofAjaxandNeoptolemus,thematurewarriorandtheyoungsoldier,areinposesinspiredbytheTyrannicides.80Ajaxisbearded,leaningforwardwithanadvancingleftsidelikeAristogeiton.Hisrighthandisdrawnbackwithhisswordreadytothrust.NeoptolemusresemblesHarmodios;heisyoungandbeardless,withhisswordupoverhisrightshoulderlikeHarmodiosabouttodeliveradecisiveblow.Insteadoftheleftarmbeingback,NeoptolemusleftarmisforwardasiftograbtheshoulderofPriam.81Thesemenareclothedbecausetheyarewarriorsinbattleanddonotrequireheroicnudity.ThisvaseraisesaquestionastotheexactdateofthevaseandtowhichTyrannicidesculpturetheKleophradesPainterrefers.Ajaxisseenwithapointedbeard,typicalofbeardedmendepictedatthistime.82Inthecopies,Aristogeitonsbeardisfullandbushy,notpointed.IsthereapossibilitythattheshapeofAristogeitonsbeardindicatesthattheVivenzoVasewasmodeledaftertheoriginalTyrannicidegroupbyAntenor?IfthevasereflectsAntenorsTyrannicides,thevasewouldhavetohavebeenmadebetween510andbeforethePersiansackofAthensin480.However,itisprobablethatthereisnoreferencetoAntenorsAristogeiton.PointedbeardswereseenonsculpturesduringtheearlyfifthcenturyBCE,suchastheLivadhostroPoseidon(Fig.19)datedto480BCEandtheArtemisionZeus(Fig.11)datedtoaround460BCE.Becausetherearenodetailedliterarydescriptionsofthesculptures,therearealwaysquestionsofstyleanddetail.AlongwithdepictionsoftheTyrannicidesonvasepaintings,thereisadepictionseenonaspecificreliefcarving.TheTyrannicidesarealsodepictedonamarblethronefoundinAthens,nowknownastheBroomhallThrone(Fig.20)fromtheElginCollection,andthedateisuncertain.8380Washburn1918,147.81Ibid.,148.82Ibid.,152.83Brunnsker1971,107.

37

Fig.20.BroomhallThrone.Dateunknown.FoundinAthens.Fig.19.LivadhostroPoseidon.C.480BCE.Bronze.NationalArchaeologicalMuseuminAthens.

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Seltmansuggestedthatthethronedatestoaround290BCEbasedonstylisticgrounds,butBrunnskerdoesnotbelievethedatehassignificantevidencetosupportit.84TheTyrannicidesareontherightsideofthethroneandcarvedinverylowrelief.ThesculpturesbyKritiosandNesioteswouldsurelyhavebeenseenbythisartist,anditislikelythattheartistcouldhavebeenillustratingthecompositionofthetwofiguresaslaidoutbythebronzesculptors.ThefiguresonthethroneareseensidebysideandappeartobeinthewedgeshapedcompositionassuggestedbyBrunnskerandothers.HarmodiosisplacedbehindAristogeitonwithhisrightarmup,poisedtodeliverhiscrushingblow.Harmodioswholefaceisvisibleandnothiddenbytheraisedupperarm.Brunnskerarguesthatitcanbeassumedthatthegroupwassketchedfromacertainpointinfrontofthesculptures.85AsseenonthepreviousvasesoftheblackfigurelekythosandredfigureoinochoefromtheDexileosgrave,Aristogeitonhasdrapedachlamysoverhisleftarm.Thefiguresarebothstridingforwardwiththeirleftlegs,andthemusculatureofthesetwofiguresappearstobeheavierandmoredefined.Seltmanbelievesthatbecauseofthestockierandheaviermusculature,thisrepresentationreferstothesculpturesmadebyAntenor.86ForthisrelieftobebasedonthesculpturesofAntenor,thethronemustdatetonoearlierthanthetimeofAlexanderandtheendofhisconquestofthePersianEmpirein330BCE.SeltmansuggeststhatthegroupbyAntenorwasreturnedtoAthensduringthejointreignofSeleucusandAntiochos,Alexanderssuccessors,between293and281BCE.87Brunnsker,however,believesthatifsmallerrepresentationsonreliefsandvasesaretakenintoconsideration,thattherewouldbeasmanydifferentstatuegroupsastherearesmallerrepresentations.88However,inmyopinion,thevases84Brunnsker1971,107.Seltman1947,24.85Brunnsker1971,107.86Seltman1947,25.87Ibid.,26.88Brunnsker1971,107.

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andreliefdiscussedabovecannotbedisregarded,theyprovidepossibleinsightstothecompositionandstyleofthelostoriginalsaswellastheRomancopies.Theancientliterarysourcesdiscussedlaterhelptoknowwhosawtheoriginalsculpturesatwhattimeandtheirlocation.StyleandSculptorTherearenodescriptionsofeithergroupoftheTyrannicidesgivenbyanyoftheancientauthors.89 The fragments and copies of the Tyrannicides that survive today are typicallyattributed to the works based on Kritios and Nesiotes, so it is believed that AnetenorsTyrannicides could have followed the typical Late Archaic conventions for depictingmales insculpture. Because there are no representations of Aristogeiton and Harmodios by Antenor,there is only speculation based on Late Archaic conventions, Antenors Kore, and the secondTyrannicidesculpturegroup.Whatisseenthroughthecopiesandlaterthecastsarethephysicalevidenceofstylethatarthistorianshavetostudy.To understand the extant Roman copies and why they are attributed to Kritios andNesiotes, the style of both Antenor and Kritios must be examined through known worksattributed toboth sculptors.There isnotmuch that isknownabout the styleof thisgroupbyAntenor,butitcanbeassumedthattheyfollowedtheLateArchaicpatterns.AntenoristheonlyArchaic artist who was known to work with bronze, however he also worked with marble,creatingworkslikekorai.90Theextantkore(Fig.21)thatisattributedtoAntenorisdatedtothelastquarterofthesixthcenturyBCEandwasdedicatedbyNearchosontheAcropolis.Since there are no examples of Antenors Tyrannicide group, the kore provides evidence ofAntenors style.Thekores lefthandgripsherchitoncreatingrepeatingcaternary foldsacross89Mattusch1996,61.90Mattusch1988,88.

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thefrontofthelegs,andthedraperyinthebackcreatestightdiagonals.91TheserepresentationsofHarmodiosandAristogeitonwerenotportraits,and it isalsothoughtthatbasedonArchaicconventionsthatthedistinguishablecharacteristicswerethebeardtoindicatethemorematuremaleandthecleanfacetodepictyouth.92AntenorsKoreaswellasothersculptureswerefoundburied on the Akropolis. In 480 BCE, the Persians invaded Athens and sacked the city, thePerisansdestroyedthesculpturesontheAkropolis,buttherewasonesculpturethatwastakenby the Persians, as documented by Pliny. The plundering of art did not become a commonpracticeuntillaterafter480BCE,butthePersianstookwiththemwhatevertheydidnotdestroyandwiththemtheytooktheTyrannicides.93OneofthebestexamplesforatransitionalsculpturefromtheEarlyClassicalperiodandgenerallyacceptedastheworkofoneofthesculptorsontheTyrannicidegroups,knownastheKritiosBoy.TheKritiosBoy(Fig.22),datedto480BCE,isastatueofayoungboyinhisearlyteens.

91Mattusch1988,87.92Ibid.,88.93Camp1986,60.

Fig.21.(Left)KorebyAntenor.C.520BCE.Marble.FoundonAkropolis.NowatAkropolisMuseuminAthens.Fig.22.(Right)BoybyKritios.C.480BCE.Marble.FoundonAkropolis.NowatAkropolisMuseuminAthens.

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He is depicted nude, and his musculature is softer than that of kouroi that came from thepreviousstylisticperiod.Thehair is shortened, curledback fromthe foreheadand tiedwithafillet. This hairstyle becomes widely used in the Classical period. The style and date of theKritiosBoyhasbeendatedbythecontextinwhichhewasfound.ThesculptureoftheyoungboywasfoundburiedontheAkropolistogetherthePerserschutt.94Stylistically,thesculptureofthe boy was the latest found amongst the debris. Based on the softer, more naturalisticmusculature andmovementof theboy, scholars roughly concluded that theboydates around480BCE,aroundthe timeof thePersiansack.Very fewsculptorswerewellknownduringtheearlyfifthcentury.Kritios,whomscholarsknowwasworkingaroundthistime,hadalreadybeenattributed to the work of the Tyrannicides. Furtwngler first made the suggestion thatHarmodiosandtheKritiosBoywererelatedinstyleandlikelybythesameartist in1880.TheheadsoftheboyandHarmodioscloselyresembledoneanother,andwiththisresemblance,theboywasgiventhenameandattributionofKritiosBoy.95Ithaspreviouslybeenacceptedbyscholarsthatthisoriginalsculptureisattributedtothework of Kritios and dated to slightly before the Persian sack of the Acropolis in 480 BCE;however,Hurwitaddressesthediscrepanciesindateandsubjectmatter.HurwithaspresentedanalternateviewwithregardtoboththesubjectandtheattributionoftheKritiosBoy.Ratherthanavictoriousyoungmaleathlete,HurwitsuggeststhattheKritiosBoyrepresentsTheseusasayoungherobecauseoftheringsofhairaroundhisforehead,whichoftenappearongods,andheroes.96HedatestheKritiosBoytoafterthePersiansackin480BCEbecausethereisnodirectevidence linking its creationprior to thePersiansack.97Thiswouldmean that theKritiosBoy94PerserschuttDebrisleftfromthePersianattackoftheAkropolisin480BCE.95Stewart1990,135.96Hurwit1989,41.97Ibid.,80.

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wasdecapitatedandruinedbytheAthenians,whichHurwitbelievestheAthenianshadtoomanyscruplestohavedestroyedthisstatue.98With the recent debate of attribution and date, there is disagreement among modernscholars. There are no other originals attributed to Kritios, and as far as scholars know fromliterary sources, Kritios and Nesiotes only worked in bronze.99 Ridgway stated, the mostinsistent tradition, that of assigning the team [of Kritios andNesiotes] theKritianBoy,hadnothingtorecommenditexceptthegeneralstyleandtheobviousinfluencefrombronze.100ThemodelingandmusculatureoftheBoyismuchmorenaturalandsofterthanthemodelingofthekouroi that came before this sculpture. The head of theKritios Boy has inlaid eyes, typical ofbronzesculptures. Itwasnotuncommonforartists towork inmultiplemedia, suchasbronzeandmarble.Althoughinmarble,thestatuesoftheKoreandtheBoyhelpprovideaninsighttothe styles of Antenor and Kritios and Nesiotes, the artists commissioned to work on theTyrannicidesculpturegroups.ItisimportanttostudytheaccountsofthestoryrelatedbyThucydidesandAristotletounderstandtheAtheniansrelationship,notonlytothecommemorativesculpturesproducedinAthens,butalsotheimpactthatthesetwomenhadontheothervariousartsincludingvisualandliteraryarts.BasedontheseaccountsbyThucydidesandAristotle,HarmodiosandAristogeitonwereindeedmotivatedbytheirpersonalvendettaagainstHarmodios.Tomaskanassassinationbasedcompletelyonrevengemotives,theyenlistedthehelpofothermentocreateaplottoridAthensofthetyrants.101Regardlessoftheirtruemotives,HarmodiosandAristogeitonwereamajorpartofAthenianhistory.TheaccountsalsohelptodescribewhyAristogeitonand98Hurwit1989,79.99Ibid.,66.100Ridgway1970,80.101Spivey1996,114.

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HarmodioswerevisuallyrecognizedandhailedasheroesintheancientworldforkillingHipparkhosandendingtyrannyinAthens.SignificanceintheAncientWorldTheTyrannicidesculpturegroupsheldgreatsignificanceintheancientworldforthepeopleofAthens.ItisknownthroughcopiesthatthesculpturesbyKritiosandNesioteswerecopiedintheRomanperiod.Basedondatedsculpturalevidence,theTyrannicideswerenotcopiedasmuchintheImperialperiodbecauseofwhattheysymbolized.102ThepeopleofancientAthenshailedthesesculpturesassymbolsofanewpoliticalclimateandasgreatheroesriddingtheircityoftyranny.TheactionsofHarmodiosandAristogeitondidnotendtyrannyinAthens.However,theywerepartofacatalyst.TheTyrannicideswerethefirstgroupcommemoratingtheheroesafterHippiaswasoverthrownin510BCE.ThisgrouprepresentedmortalheroesofAthens,anditwassetupatpublicexpense,settingaprecedentforpublicstatuaryeverywhere.103Plinydescribesthenewpracticeofhonoringmortalheroes,andtheuseofstatuarytotelltheirheroictales.Thepracticeoferectingstatuesfromamostcivilizedsenseofrivalrywasafterwardstakenupbythewholeoftheworld,andthecustomproceededtoariseofhavingstatuesadorningthepublicplacesofallmunicipaltownsandofperpetuatingthememoryofhumanbeingsandofinscribinglistsofhonorsonthebasestobereadforalltime,sothatsuchrecordsshouldnotbereadontheirtombsonly.104ThefirstsculpturegroupoftheTyrannicideswasexecutedinbronzebythemostwellknownartistoftheLateArchaicperiod,Antenor.105Plinysaccountofthedatehelpsarthistoriansplace102Spivey1996,114.103Mattusch1988,119.104Pliny,NH34.9.105Spivey1996,114.

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whentheTyrannicidesculpturegroupwasplacedintheagora.HereferredtothedateoftheirerectionintheAthenianAgorainhisNaturalHistory.TheAthenianswere,Ibelieve,introducinganewcustomwhentheysetupstatuesat the public expense in honor of Harmodios and Aristogeiton, who killed thetyrants.Thisoccurred thesameyearas theone inwhich thekingsweredrivenfromRome.106ThedatePlinyrefers to,510BCE, isbasedonthe legendofwhenthe lastof theRomankings,Tarquinius Superbus was exiled from Rome.107 The next literary source wrote of his travelsthroughoutGreece.Pausanias traveled throughGreece in the secondcenturyCEdocumentingwhathe sawanddescribing a sort of cultural geography includingworks of art. Pausanias claimed to haveseenbothTyrannicidesculpturegroups,andthereforeitisknownthatatthistimebothgroupswerestilltogether.HedescribedthelocationofthesculpturesintheAthenianAgoraaswellastheirhistory:NearthestateofDemosthenesisasanctuaryofAresHardbystandstatuesofHarmodiosandAristogeiton,whokilledHipparkhos.Thereasonofthisactandthemethodofitsexecutionhavebeenrelatedbyothers;ofthefiguressomeweremadebyKritios,theoldonesbeingtheworkofAntenor.WhenXerxestookAthensaftertheAthenianshadabandonedthecityhetookawaythesestatuesalsoamongthespoils,buttheywereafterwardsrestoredtotheAtheniansbyAntiochus.108Throughthisdescription,itisknownthattheystoodneartheTempleofAresintheAgora.PausaniasalsonamesthesculptorsapartfromNesiotes,andalsotellswhathappenedtothefirstsetofsculptures,leadingtothereasonwhythesecondsetwaserected.TheTyrannicideswerehighlyadmiredfortheirheroicactintheancientworld.OthersintheancientworldequatedtheirslayingoftheirlocaltyrantstotheactoftheTyrannicides.AfterthedeathofAlexanderin323BCE,Athensfellundercontroloftyrantsandanaristocratic106Pliny,NH34.9.107Boatwright2006,20.108Paus.1.8.5

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government.In317BCE,theAtheniangovernmentwastakenoverbyaristocrats,positioningKassanderastheirleader.Adecadelater,DemetriosofPhaleron,thetyrantatthistime,wasoverthrownbyDemetriosPoliorketesin307/6BCE,whoproclaimedAthensfreeandreestablisheddemocracy.109Demetriosandhisfather,Antigonos,wererewardedbytheAthenians.110Diodorosstatesthatin307BCE: TheAthenians,onproposalofStratokles,passedadecreetosetupgoldstatuesofAntigonosandDemetriosinachariot,nearHarmodiosandAristogeiton,andtocrownthembothatacostoftwohundredtalents,andtoestablishanaltarandcallitthealtaroftheSaviours;andtoaddtothetentribestwomore,DemetriasandAntigonis.111AfterGreecewasincorporatedintotheRomanEmpire,BrutusandCassiuswerehailedasthetyrantslayersaftertheassassinationofJuliusCaesarin44BCE,andtheywerealsoawardedwithanhonorarysculptureintheagora.DioCassiusstated,TheAtheniansalsovotedthembronzestatuesbesidethestatueofHarmodiosandthestatueofAristogeiton,onthegroundthattheyhademulatedthesemen.112ThedateinwhichthesculpturesofBrutusandCassiuswentupcanbeapproximatedtowithinaspecificrangeoftime.In42BCE,BrutusandCassiusweredefeatedattheBattleofPhilippibyOctavianandMarcAntony.113Thedateinwhichthestatueswereputupcanbeplacedbetween44BCEand42BCE.Thesegoldenstatuesarenowlost,buttheymusthavestoodintheagoranearthestatuesoftheTyrannicides.Theseliterarysourcesprovideevidenceastowherethesesculpturesstoodandhowmuchemphasiswasplacedontheirimportanceintheancientworld.109Camp1986,163110Ibid.,162.111Dio.Sic20.46.2112Dio.Cas.47.20.4113Boatwright2006,172173.

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In1954,asetofplastercastswerefoundatBaiaeontheCampaniancoastofItaly.Thereweremanypieces found, and someof the castsmatchextantRomanmarble sculptureswhichwere copies of Greek originals.114 Some of the casts, for example, represent the Sciarra andMatteiAmazons,discussedinthenextchapter.AnotherisapartofaheadofAristogeiton(Fig.23) from the Tyrannicides. These casts are likely from those ofmolds used in themaking ofbronzesculptures,anditwaspossibletoreusethemforlaterbronzereproductions.TheheadofAristogeitonhasasufficientportionoftherightsideofhisfacepreserved.Inthe1960s,Richterand a colleague were given permission to study the plaster casts, and she had reasoned bycomparisonwiththecopiesthatthefacewaspartoftheheadofAristogeiton.115Thisplastercastpreserved engraved hairs of the beard of Aristogeiton; these hairs are so delicate that it isprobablethattheyreproducethehairsastheywerecutintothewaxmodelfromtheproductionof a bronze sculpture.116 The copies and cast help in understanding the original sculptures intheircompositionandstyle.

114Mattusch1996,191.115Richter1970,296.116Mattusch1996,191.

Fig.23.CastofHeadofAristogeiton.FoundatBaiaeonCampaniancoast,Italy.

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ArrangementofTyrannicidesIn addition to problems of style and pose, there is a debate as to the arrangement ofHarmodios and Aristogeiton. Many scholars are in favor of various compositions of theTyrannicides,andthemostpopulararrangementsareasfollows,inorderofpopularity:Abreast,WedgeShaped, Panathenaic, Buschor, InOnePlane, andOnSeparateBases.Many scholarshave based their decisions on what they have seen in the physical evidence or chosen anarrangementbasedonaestheticbasis.117Unfortunately there isnoancient literaryevidencetosuggest the composition in which the Tyrannicides were arranged. However, the line fromAristophanes,ShouldertoShoulderwithAristogeiton,canbeusedtosupportthetheorythattheTyrannicidescouldhavebeenstandingbacktobackorchesttochestandwerelifesizeorslightlyoverlifesize.118ThesemustbethepossiblearrangementsoftheTyrannicidesifoneistostandShouldertoShoulderwithAristogeiton.Theonlydirectevidenceisabasefragmentwithpartof thenameofHarmodios inscribed thatwas found in theAgora.The statues themselvessupportachesttochestarrangement.119Brunnskerwritesofthemarblecopiesandtheslightasymmetryinthefaces,andthiscouldsuggestthatHarmodiosandAristogeitonweremeanttobeseenfromacertainangle.120Anotherissuefacingscholarsisthepossibilitythatonefigurewasplacedslightlyinfrontoftheother.Sheftonassertsthatthetwoheroesaremeanttobesidebyside,andtheyareeachinanattackingposebasedontheirnatures.Harmodiosisusingthebutchersblowduetohisageandinexperience,andAristogeitonbeingthemorematureandexperiencedwarriorthrustswithhisswordandputstheotherarmforwardtouseinprotection.121ThispointthatSheftonmakes117Brunnsker1971,151.118Aristoph.Lys.626119Shefton1960,175.120Brunnsker1971,152.121Shefton1960,176.

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issupportedbybothphysicalandaestheticevidence.Itisalsopossiblethattheyaredepictedinthisarrangementduetothenatureoftheirrelationship.Theotherpopularfigurearrangementisthat of the wedge shape, where the figures are not parallel with each other. This particulararrangementallowsthefigurestocastglancesatoneanotherwithoutstretchingtheirnecksorlooking backwards. The backtoback arrangement would be illogical for it appears thatHarmodioswould likely injure Aristogeiton in his attack..122 This particular arrangementwasadoptedbytheNaplesMuseumforH1andA1.Basedonthe logicof theattack, itwouldseemlikelythatthetwoheroesshouldbeplacedfacingoneanother.Theyarebothindifferentstrikingpositions,anditwouldbereasonablefortheheroestofaceeachotherastheystrucktheirenemydown. The literary evidence from Thucydides and Aristotle pointing out the revenge motivewould certainly substantiate this chesttochest arrangement of figures. The arrangement offigures can be observed on painted vases, but various arrangements of Harmodios andAristogeitonweredepicted.ConclusionsonTyrannicides Throughtheliterarysources,Romancopies,andothermediascholarscandevelopanunderstandingofwhattheoriginalTyrannicidesculptureslookedlike,especiallywiththesculpturesofKritiosandNesiotes.TowhatextentKritiosandNesiotesreplicatedAntenorscopyisunclear,orevenifitwascopied.Thevasesandreliefsculpturehavegiventhemostinformationtowardsthecomposition,aswellasaninsighttotheimportanceofHarmodiosandAristogeitontotheAthenianpeople.122Shefton1960,176.

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Chapter4:TheAmazons SimilartotheRomancopiesoftheTyrannicides,theAmazonsdescribedinPlinysNaturalHistorysurviveinanumberofcopies.AsinthechapteroftheTyrannicides,IoutlinethescholarshipoftheAmazongroupfocusingontheRomancopieswithconnectionstoliterarysourcesandothersculptures.First,andmostimportantly,PlinywroteapassagedescribingafifthcenturyBCEcompetitionbetweenthemastersculptorsofthetime,andthecompetitionofwhocouldcreatethebestAmazon.Likemostfreestandingsculpturesatthistime,theAmazonswouldhaveoriginallybeenmadeofbronze.Fourextanttypeshavegenerallybeenacceptedbyscholarsasbelongingtothegroup.Thetypesconsistoftwothatbearspearsandtwothatarerestingtheirarmsonpillars.Thethreetypeswithmultiplecopies,Mattei,Capitoline,andLansdowne,inspiregreaterconfidenceinPlinysaccountbecauseoftheirhigherqualityandgreaternumberofcopies.123Onlyonecopyofthefourthtype,theDoriaPamphili,isknown.TherehasbeencontinuousdebateamongstscholarsaboutwhichartistshouldbecreditedwitheachofthefourAmazontypes.Inaddition,thediscoveryofaprobablefifthAmazontypecameintodiscussioninthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury.Inthefollowingpages,thecompetition,location,andvariousattributionsarediscussedthroughancientliterarysourcesandphysicalevidence. InGreekmythology,theAmazonswereknowntobefiercewarriorwomenaswellasskilledhunterslocatedinthewesternpartofAnatolia.AlthoughthereisdebateabouttherealmodelsforAmazonwomenintheancientworld,formypurposes,Iwillcontinuetoreferonlytotheirmythology,notthediscussionoftheirexistence.TheAmazonswereknowntoworshipArtemis,thevirgingoddessofthehunt.124Accordingtothemyths,theAmazonsinteractedwith123Ridgway1974,4.124Larson2009,34.

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malesonlyinbattleandtoproducechildren.125TodistinguishthemselvesasAmazons,thewomenreportedlyhadtheirrightbreastremovedtodrawbackabowbetter.Numeroustimes,theAmazonscameintocontactwiththeGreeks,aswellasspecificheroes.Inthesemythologicalstories,theengagementswiththeAmazonsbecamearequirementformostGreekheroes.126IntheIliad,theAmazonsfoughtonthesideoftheTrojans,andasthesewomenweremeanttobeseenasbarbaric,theytendtoloseagainstthecivilizedGreeks.127DuringtheTrojanWar,AchillesfoughtPenthesilea,QueenoftheAmazons.Atthemomentwhenheplungedhisspearintoherside,thetwofellinlove,asseenonthisblackfigurevasebyExekias(Fig.24).128HeraklesalsocameintocontactwiththeAmazonsduringhisTwelveLabors.HistaskwastoacquirethegirdleofHippolyta,giventoherbyAres.129

125Larson2009,34.TheAmazonswereknownastheAntiGreeks.BecausetherewerenomalesofsignificanceintheAmazonsociety,theGreeksconsideredtheAmazonsamonstrousinversionofsocialnorms.GreekheroesfoughttheAmazonstoreaffirmingtheirpatriarchalrolesandmalesuperiorityoverfemales.126Larson2009,34.127Hamilton1942,301.128Larson2009,204.129Hamilton1942,172.

Fig.24.BlackFigureAmphora.AchilleskillingPenthesileabyExekias.C.540530BCE.FoundatVulci,nowatBritishMuseuminLondon.

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AnotherherowhocameintocontactwiththeAmazonswasTheseus.TheAmazonsweredefeatedinabattleagainstTheseusandtheAtheniansafterTheseuskidnappedAntiope,sistertotheAmazonqueenHippolyta.IthasbeensuggestedbyLehmannHartlebenthatthedefeatedAmazonsfledtothelocationofEphesos.ThemythoftheAmazonswho,defeatedinbattle,fledtothesanctuaryofEphesos,isthefirstmythicalexampleofprotectioninasacredasylum.130 Ephesos,inwesternTurkey,wasacitydedicatedtoArtemisandtheAmazons.AmajortempletoArtemisstoodinthiscity,anditwasbelievedthatitwastheAmazons,faithfulworshippersofArtemis,whofoundedthesanctuary.TheTempleofArtemisatEphesoswasawellknownplaceofprotection.Theplacewhereapersontookrefugewasgenerallyatthealtar,wheresacrificestothedeitytookplace.131ThereforethealtarwouldlikelybealocationforwoundedandrestingAmazonstobethenaturaldecoration.

AncientAccountsCompetitionsamongartistswerenotunusualintheancientworld.Therearemanyliterarysourcesthatdocumentsuchcompetitions.Pliny,forexample,wroteofacompetitionbetweenAlkamenesandAgorakritostocreateastatueofAphroditeinwhichtheAtheniancitizensgavethedecidingvote.132Amuchlatersource,thetwelfthcenturyByzantinewriter,Tzetzes,wroteofacontestbetweenPheidiasandAlkamenes,andPheidiaswasnamedthevictorofthiscompetition.133 ThestoryofthecompetitionoftheAmazonsisparticularlywellknown.InPlinysaccount,theancientwritercitesfivesculptors,thoughsometranslatorsgivethenumberasfourinstead.Polykleitos,Pheidias,Kresilas,andPhradmonwereallnamedinconjunctionwiththe130LehmannHartleben1936,11.131Ibid.,11.132PlinyNH36.17.133Chiliades8.353=SQ772.

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competition,buttherehasbeendisagreementabouttheparticipationofafifthsculptor,Kydon.134Plinysoriginalpassagestatesthattherewerefivesculptorsinthecompetition:Themostcelebratedoftheseartists,thoughbornatdifferentepochs,havejoinedinatrialofskillintheAmazonswhichtheyhaverespectivelymade.WhenthesestatueswerededicatedintheTempleofDiana(Artemis)atEphesos,itwasagreed,inordertoascertainwhichwasthebest,thatitshouldbelefttothejudgmentoftheartiststhemselveswhowerethenpresent:uponwhich,itwasevidentthatthatwasthebest,whichalltheartistsagreedinconsideringasthenextbesttohisown.Accordingly,thefirstrankwasassignedtoPolykleitos,thesecondtoPheidias,thethirdtoKresilas,thefourthtoKydon,andthefifthtoPhradmon.135LehmannHartlebenarguedthatKydonreferstotheregionfromwhichKresilashailed,whileothers,likeRidgway,acceptKydonasacompetitor.136Theorderofsculptorsreads:Polykelitos,Pheidias,Kresilas,Kydon,andPhradmon.ThediscoveryofafifthAmazontypeexcavatedinEphesosin1898leadstoRidgwaysdefenseoftheoriginalinterpretationofPlinystext.ShealsostatesthatKydonwasapropernameinancientGreece,andPlinysinformationshouldbeacceptedasawhole.137RichtersuggeststhatifonediscountsPlinysaccount,thentheymustalsoconsiderthestoryoftheEphesianAmazonsasanimaginaryanecdote.Shesuggeststhistobearbitrary,andsoonemustconsulttheoriginalancienttexttoreinterpretitasitwascommunicatedinantiquity.138Furtwnglerusedthetranslationcitingonlyfoursculptors,buttherewerefourtypesknownatthetime.ThereforeKydonshouldbeacceptedasasculptor.139TheAmazontypesareverysimilarinconceptionanddress,andareidenticalinmeasurements,andsubsequentlyreflectcharacteristicsbelongingtoartworkscreatedinthesameperiod.140Forthepurposesofthisstudy,thefifthsculptorwillbeacceptedandusedforthefiveextantAmazontypes.134Ridgway1974,1.135PlinyNH34.19.53.136LehmannHartleben1936,9.137Ridgway1974,2.138Richter1959,114.139Furtwngler1964,128.140Ibid.,129.

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TypesLikeallmythologicalgodsandheroes,theAmazonsalsohadcharacteristicstoidentifythemasAmazons.FemalesweregenerallynotrepresentedinthenudeuntiltheAphroditeofKnidos(Fig.25)createdinthefourthcentury.Femalescould,however,exhibitsomenudityunderconditionsofstressorrapidmovement.141ThemostidentifyingcharacteristicofanAmazonisasinglebreastexposed.Amazonsarealsoshownwearingashortbeltedchitontoallowformovementinbattle.Asstatedabove,theAmazonshavesimilarstyles,composition,andhavethesamemeasurements.Inthissection,IwilldiscussandanalyzethefiveAmazontypes;thefirsttwodiscussedarethespearbearingAmazons.ThesetwoAmazonswerementionedinliterarysources,thereforecreatingpossibleattributionstothesculptors.TherearetwoAmazonsleaningonspears,andthesearegenerallyattributedasbelongingtotheworkofPheidiasandKresilas.142Afterthespearbearers,thetwoAmazonsleaningonpillarswillbediscussedandthesearefollowedbythenewesttype,theEphesianAmazon.MatteiThefirstofthefourAmazonstobediscussedistheMatteitype(Fig.26Fig.27),generallyattributedtoPheidias.TheMatteitypehasalwaysbeenfoundheadlessandistheleastwellknownofthethreetypesthatexistinmultiplecopies.143Theposeofthistypeisthemostcomplexandactiverelativetotheothertypesandwasmeanttobeseenintheround.144Herweightisplacedontherightleg,leavingtheleftlegatrestandbentatthekneeastotakeastep.TheMatteitypeclutchesthespearwithtwohandswithonearmraisedaboveherhead.TheAmazonisdepictedwearingachitoniskos,ashortbeltedchiton,withonebreastexposed.141Ridgway1974,6.142LehmannHartleben1936,10.143Ridgway1974,4.144Ibid.,5.

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Fig.25.(Left)AphroditeofKnidosbyPraxiteles.C.350BCE.Romanycopy.Marble.Fig.26.(Belowleft)MatteiAmazon.C.430?Romancopy.MarbleFig.27.(Belowright).MatteiAmazon.C.430?FromHadriansVillainTivoli.

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Althoughtheliterarysources,mentionthatPheidiascreatedanAmazon,theknownworksofPheidiasincludeonlyimagesofthegods.FurtwnglerfirstmadetheattributiontoPheidiasbasedonanaccountcitedinatextbyLucian.Histheorywaschallengedandlateracceptedagain.RichteracceptedtheattributionoftheMatteitypetoPheidias,andRidgwayhasalsostatedthatsheacceptedtheattribution.Aspreviouslymentioned,LucianmadeareferencethatindicatestheMatteitypewastheworkofPheidias.Inaconversation,APortraitStudy,betweenLycinusandPolystratus,adiscussionensuesregardingwhatfeatureswouldbeusedtocreatetheperfectfemaletype.LycinusasksPolystratuswhichworkbyPheidiasheconsidersthebest.Polystratusresponds:Canyouask?TheLemnianAthene,whichbearstheartistsownsignature;oh,andofcoursetheAmazonleaningonherspear.Lycinusresponds,PheidiasandtheLemnianAthenewillgivetheoutlineoftheface,andthewellproportionednose,andlendnewsoftnesstothecheeks;andthesameartistmayshapeherneckandclosedlips,toresemblethoseofhisAmazon.145ThisAmazonisunlikeotherrepresentationsofAmazonsbecausethistypehastheleftbreastexposedinsteadoftheright.IfthisAmazonwereanarcher,thenshewouldhaveneededanunimpededrightarm.RidgwaystatedthatitwashighlyunusualtohavealefthandedAmazondepictedintheclassicalworld.146Alternatively,theAmazoncouldhavebeenapendanttoanother,moretraditionallyportrayedAmazonwheretherightbreastwasexposed.Creatingmirrorimagetypeswasnotuncommoninantiquity,andtheRomansgreatlyfavoredthistechnique.147

145Lucian.Imagines4,6146Ridgway1974,5.147Ibid.,5.

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Alostgem,knownastheNattergem(Fig.28),illustratesanAmazonholdingaspearwithbothhandsasifreadytovaultontoahorse.148FurtwnglersuggestedthepossibilityoftheMatteitypepreparingtovaultontoherhorsebecausetheAmazonsweredaringhorsewomen.149Thereisaresemblancebetweenthetwoworksbasedonthegemengraving,theMatteitypesarmsandheadcanbereconstructed.150AhermwithanAmazonheadfoundatHerculaneummayalsoaddtothepossiblepositioningoftheheadandarmsofthistype(Fig.29).AlthoughmanyscholarsdonotbelievethistypetorepresentawoundedAmazon,BoardmanstatedthattheMatteitypeiswoundedintheleftthigh.151ItislikelythatBoardmanreliedonaMatteitypereplicafoundin1955atHadriansVillainTivolitoapplytheattributeofawound.ThisAmazonfoundinTivoli,hasbloodplasticallyshownspurtingoutfromthewoundonherleftthigh.152

148Richter1950,230.149Furtwngler1964,132.150Richter1950,230.151Boardman1985,216.152Ridgway1974,5.

Fig.28.(Left)DrawingoftheNatterGem(nowlost)depictingtheMatteiAmazon.18thcentury.Fig.29.(Right)HeadofanAmazonfromaHerm.1stcenturyBCE.Bronzecopy.FoundatVillaPapyriatHerculaneumNowinNaples.

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Capitoline TheotherAmazonthatleansonaspearisknownastheCapitolinetype(Fig.30andFig.31).Inthepast,itwasattributedtothehandofPheidias,butscholarstodayfavoranattributiontoeitherKresilasorPolykleitos.153IbelievetheCapitolinetypetobetheworkofKresilasasissuggestedbyFurtwngler,Eichler,Richter,LehmannHartleben,andRidgway.154ThisAmazontypehasbeentheonlytypeunanimouslyacceptedbyscholarsaswoundedbecausesheisliftinghergarmentuptorevealthewound.155LiketheMattei,theCapitolinetypeisalsowearingashortened,beltedchiton.ThedressofthisAmazontype,althoughitoftendiffersconsiderablyfromcopytocopy,hasacommonstyle,whichbaresabreastwhilewearingashortenedchiton.156ShealsorestsherweightontheleftlegwhiletherightlegisrelaxedwhichgivesthefigureaslightcontrappostoposereminiscentofPolykleitosDoryphoros(Fig.32).Ofthefourfreestandingtypes,thistypeistheonlyonethatplacestheweightonherleftleg.TheCapitolinetypeisrevealingherrightbreastandraisesherarmtoshowawound.TheAmazonholdsthespearinherrighthand,placingemphasisonthewoundedrightside.Holdingthespearasshedoes,thepainwouldhavebeengreatforshestretchesthewoundopen,however,herfacedoesnotindicatethepainthatthispositionwouldhavecaused. Asnoted,scholarshavereadPlinystexttomentionawoundedAmazoncreatedbyKresilas.157Theoriginalreadingofthename,however,readsCtesilaus,creatingsomedoubt.158ItisknownfromelsewhereintheNaturalHistorythatKresilascreatedavolneratusdeficiens,awoundedwarrior;however,itisunsurewhetherhefavoredpatheticthemes.153Ridgway1974,6.154Furtwngler1964,135.155Ridgway1974,6.156Furtwngler135.157Ridgway1974,7.158PlinyNH34.76.

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Fig.30.CapitolineAmazon.C.440BCE.SignedbycopyistSosikles.Romancopy.Marble.NowatCapitolineMuseum,Rome.Fig.31.CapitolineAmazon.C.440BCE.Romancopy.Marble.NowatCapitolineMuseum.Fig.32DoryphorosbyPolykleitos.C.450440.RomanCopy.Marble.

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InFurtwnglersMasterpieces,heseparatesthesectionsbasedonsculptorsandthesculpturesattributedtoeachartist.OfthefivesculptorslistedbyPlinyonlythreeoftheartistsbelievedtohavecreatedAmazonshavesectionsinthisbook.InthesectionsdedicatedtoKresilasandPolykleitos,anAmazonislistedanddescribedamongtheirworks.However,inthesectiondedicatedtoPheidias,noAmazonislistedamongtheworks.TheseattributionsputforthbyFurtwnglerhavebeeninfluentialinstudyingtheAmazontypestothisday. TosupporttheattributionoftheCapitolinetypetoKresilasfurther,FurtwnglercomparedtheAmazonsstylisticcharacteristicstothoseofaportraitofPerikles(Fig.33).ThePeriklessculpture,alsoonlyknownthroughRomancopies,hasbeendefinitivelyattributedtotheworkofKresilas.Furtwnglercomparedtheeyesandstatedthatbothsculptureshadthesamegeneralshapedescribedaselongatedandnarrowwiththickheavylids.159InthisheadofanAmazon(Fig.34),thelittlefoldsaroundtheeyelids,adetailfromtheoriginal,whichmarksanelementofstyle,areoftenlackinginmostcopies.160

159Furtwngler1964,135.160Ibid.,135.

Fig.33.HeadofPeriklesbyKresilas.C.440430.Romancopy.Marble.Fig.34.HeadofCapitolineAmazon.Romancopy.Marble.

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WhiletheearlierscholarsmentionKresilasastheattributedartisttotheCapitolinetype,EichlerandFrel,associatedthestyleandwoundoftheSciarra(Lansdowne)typetotheworkofKresilas.Lansdowne/Berlin/Sciarra ThisAmazontypehasnumerousreplicasandvariousnames.Formypurposes,IwillrefertothistypeastheLansdowne.TheLansdownetypeleansherleftarmonapillar,assherestsherweightontheleftleg(Figs.35,36,37).Generally,whenscholarsseepillarsincorporatedintomarblesculptures,theyareanindicationthattheoriginalsculpturewasinbronzeandthatthepillarisastrutnecessaryinmarble.Liketheothertypes,theAmazoniswearingtheshortenedchiton,beltedatthewaist.UnliketheotherAmazontypes,theLansdownetypehasbothbreastsexposed.ThetypehasoftenbeenattributedtothehandofPolykleitos,Richterhowever,suggeststhatthepreviousattributionoftheCapitolinetoKresilasandthisonearemoreuncertainandshouldbeswitched.161RidgwayalsoassertsthathernewattributionoftheLansdownetypetoKresilashasbeendiscussedamongscholarsbeginningduringthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury.AccordingtoFurtwnglerthisAmazontypeisoneofthetwoAmazonsthathavegenerallybeenassociatedwithhavingwounds.162TheLansdownetypeinBerlinshowsawoundontherightsideofthebody,andRidgwayarguedthatthewoundwasanadditionmadebythecopyist(Fig.36).Ridgwaystatedthatthewoundhereisnotharmoniouswiththemovementoftherightarm,andthatthereisnowoundindicatedonthereliefcopyfromEphesos.163

161Richter1955,111.162Furtwngler1964,128.163LehmannHartleben1936,10.

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Fig.35.(Aboveleft)LansdowneAmazon.C.440BCE.RomanCopy.Marble.MetropolitianMuseumofArt,NewYork.Fig.36.(Above)Berlin(Sciarra)Amazon.C.440BCE.RomanCopy.Marble.StaatlicheMuseenzuBerlin,Antikensammlung.Fig.37.(Left)SciarraAmazon.C.440BCE.RomanCopy.Marble.NyCarlsbergGlyptotek.

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AlthoughthereisawoundontheAmazonfoundinBerlin,thewoundisnotthemostimportantpartofthestatue.Theartisticinterestliesinthecompositionofthefigure.164LikethegroupsoftheTyrannicidesandtheAmazons,thereareonlysmallscalecopiesleftoftheAthenaParthenosandhershield.TheshielddepictedanAmazonomachyontheexteriorandaGigantomachyontheinterior,butformypurposesIwillbefocusingontheAmazonomachy.ThebestevidenceforthecopiesofthisshieldistheStrangfordshieldlocatedintheBritishMuseum(Fig.38).Althoughtheupperleftportionoftheshieldismissing,theshieldcanbereconstructedthroughotherlessercopies(Fig.39).ThetwoAmazonsatthebottomoftheshieldhavebeendefeatedandareposedasdefeated.Thearmupovertheheadisanindicatorofdeathanddefeat.MuchlikethesetwoAmazonsontheshield,theLansdowneAmazonalsohasherarmraisedoverherhead,butsheisstandingup.ItisknownthatthisLansdowneAmazoniswounded,andthesignofherarmoverherheadcouldsuggestimpendingdeath.

164Richter1933,4.

Fig.38.StrangfordShield.CopyofShieldbyPheidias.AthenaParthenos.NowatBritishMuseuminLondon. Fig.39.ReconstructionoftheShieldbyEvelynHarrison.

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TheLansdownetypeandtheCapitolinetypewerethetwomostfrequentlycopiedtypesinantiquity.165Duetothefrequencyofthesecopies,scholarsbelievethatonemostlylikeshouldbeattributedtoPolykleitos.RichteralsoattributedthistypetoPolykleitosanddescribeditashavingaquietposeandharmoniousdesign.166ThesearequalitiesthathaveoftenbeenusedtodescribetheDoryphorosandDiadoumenos,bothworksknowntobebyPolykleitos.RidgwaybelievedthatthisrelieffoundatEphesos,possiblyfromanaltar,representedtheLansdowneAmazoninatwodimensionalform,anditprovidedaconfirmationforthepresenceofasupportpillarintheoriginalbronzework(Fig.40).

165Ridgway1974,8.166Richter1933,4.

Fig.40.AmazonRelief.PartofAltar?Foundin1900inEphesos.

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Thepillarwouldnothavebeenneededinareliefsculpturebecausethefigureswerealreadyincorporatedintothestoneandwouldnotneedthesupport.Thisreliefwasdiscoveredin1900amongdebrisamongapavedroadinEphesos.167Throughexcavationatthetemplesite,thefoundationsofalargealtarwerediscovered,andalsothesamekindofarchitecturalfragmentswerefoundnearthealtarandthesiteoftherelief.168 EichlerattributedtheLansdownetypetoKresilas.169Asmentionedabove,FrelalsoattributedtheLansdownetypetothehandofKresilas.Thereareafewsimilaritiesbetweenthewoundedwarrior,thoughttobeacopyofaprototypebyKresilasintheMetropolitanMuseuminNewYork(Fig.41)andthatoftheAmazoninCopenhagen(Fig.37)asnotedbyvonBothmer.

167Ridgway1974,15.168Ibid.,15.169Eichler195658,7.

Fig.41.WoundedWarrior.Protesilaos?Kresilas?Romancopy.Marble.MetropolitianMuseumofArt,NewYork.

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Thetreatmentofthedraperyisverysimilarinbothsculptures,andtheproportionsappeartobethesame.TheworkmanshipsuggeststhatthesetwosculptureswereexecutedbeforethemiddleofthesecondcenturyCE.170Frelstatesthatthewarriorisleaningonthespearpreciselybecauseheiswounded.Heremarksthatthereisahorizontalincisiono