a.dubanowicz_i6021903_master thesis (1)
TRANSCRIPT
Fast and furious? - The analysis of traffic
situation and driving behavior in Beijing
Master Thesis
Aleksandra Dubanowicz
I6021903
Master of Global Health
Thesis Supervisor: Thomas Krafft
Second examiner: Jan Ramaekers
Institution Supervisor: Wang Wuyi
Placement Institution: Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources, Beijing
5th May 2014 – 5th July 2014
Faculty of Medicine Health and Life Sciences
Maastricht University
August, 2014
Maastricht University
Abstract
Objectives: Traffic accidents happen alarmingly often and lead to injuries and death of
hundreds of people in China every day. Driving behavior, intentions and habits strongly
determine the traffic safety and significantly relates with the frequency of traffic violations.
Thus, a better understanding of the factors that influence the driving behavior among
Beijing drivers is the chief aim of this study.
Methods: This qualitative research provides an analysis of fourteen interviews conducted
amongst automobile drivers in Beijing and presents the perceptions and subjective opinions
of these traffic participants. Moreover, the study aggregates the available knowledge about
the current situation in China by means of a systematic literature review on the topic at
hand.
Theoretical background: Two behavioral theories, namely the theory of planned behavior
and the risk homeostasis theory are used as a supportive tool in analyzing the concept and
appear applicable in the Beijing context.
Results and discussion: The findings of the interview analysis, the researcher’s
observations and the literature search are combined which culminates into the theory being
readjusted to bring forth a new conceptual model. This model encompasses five main
factors that influence the driving behavior in Beijing: road situation, culture, self-
assessment of driving skills, risk perception and obedience of law and regulation. This study
emphasizes the relevance of the problem of traffic incidents with bodily harm in Beijing,
China and worldwide and induces a new perspective – the psychology of driving- that ought
to be included in further analysis, policy making and discussion in this field.
Conclusion: Reducing traffic accidents through alternating drivers’ behavior is possible and
desired especially in the low and middle income countries where the death rate from traffic
accidents is the highest. This public health issue should be better understood and tackled
from a holistic perspective.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Situation in China ....................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Steps taken ............................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Importance of psychology of driving ............................................................................. 4
1.4. Objectives of the study ............................................................................................... 5
1.5. Hypothesis ................................................................................................................ 5
2. Methods ....................................................................................................................... 6
2.1. Sampling and recruitment ........................................................................................... 7
2.2. Data analysis ............................................................................................................. 7
3. Results – literature review .............................................................................................. 8
3.1. Theory of planned behavior ......................................................................................... 8
3.2. Risk Homeostasis Theory ............................................................................................10
3.3. The risk factors for road accidents in Beijing .................................................................12
3.4. The applicability of TBH and RH theory in Chinese driving behavior ..................................13
3.5. Perceptions on driving behavior – China vs. United States ..............................................15
4. Presentation of interview results .....................................................................................16
4.1. Answers to questions .................................................................................................17
5. Discussion ...................................................................................................................21
5.1. Five major explanatory components of driving behavior .................................................22
5.2. Applicability of the behavioral models ..........................................................................22
5.2.1. Theory of Planned Behavior .................................................................................23
5.2.2. Risk Homeostasis ...............................................................................................24
5.3. Social and cultural influence .......................................................................................25
5.4. Analyzing the interview in the light of cultural notions ....................................................27
6. Adaptation of the theory ................................................................................................28
7. Ethical considerations and limitations ..............................................................................30
8. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................31
9. Final word and recommendations ....................................................................................32
References .............................................................................................................................34
Appendences ..........................................................................................................................38
Abbreviations
EU European Union
GBD Global Burden of Disease Study
IHME Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation
RH Risk Homeostasis
RHT Risk Homeostasis Theory
TPB Theory of Planned Behavior
UN United Nations
WHO World Health Organization
Figure Index
Figure 1. Overview of road safety initiatives in China. .................................................... 4
Figure 2. Ajzen, I. (2006) Theory of Planned Behavior. .................................................. 8
Figure 3. Homeostatic Mechanism by Wilde (1998). .................................................... 11
Figure 4. Dubanowicz, A., (2014) Factors influencing driving behavior in Beijing. ............ 28
Table Index
Table 1. Participants’ characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………..17
Table 2. Applicability of the TPB – from the interviews………………………………………………………..24
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to my research supervisors, Professor Thomas Krafft
and Professor Wang Wuyi who helped me during the process of writing this thesis, for their
supportive attitudes and valuable suggestions. I would also like to thank my second reader
Professor Jan Ramaekers. I owe special thanks to my colleagues from the Institute
of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources, for hosting me in their offices and helping
me adapting to Chinese culture. Special thanks to Chris who guided me through my time in
Beijing and was there for me whenever I needed help. I could never express enough thanks
to my beloved parents and closest family for believing in me throughout my studies,
encouraging me to grow and caring for me so much. Last but not least I am indebted
to many of my friends: Ola, Iga, Iwa, Pamela, Zen, Patryk, Klaudia and Dennis for their
constant support, optimism, and incredible amount of inspiration they give me. Thank you!
In a memory of all of those we know,
who lost their lives in traffic accident
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1. Introduction
Our society becomes increasingly mobilized. We travel more frequently, use more
vehicles and build more and more roads. The development of motorized road transport
brings in significant advantages trough enabling quicker connections, encourages travels
and opens new venues for innovation and progress.
Unfortunately, together with traffic’s growth, very serious global health burdens increasingly
surface. Transportation has turned into a social and public health problem due to escalated
accidents and fatality rates (Habibi, 2014). Fatal accidents on roads happen alarmingly
often, especially in low and middle- income countries and one can venture to say this
constitutes one of a major global public health threats today. Road injuries are currently
ranked the eighth leading death cause worldwide and the number one cause of life
termination of young people aged 15 to 24 (World Bank Group, 2014; Hole, 2007). The
global death toll has reached 1.24 million marks annually and it is predicted to increase
together with the development of motorization (Pulitzer Center, 2014). According to the
World Health Organization, by 2020 the number of deaths on roads may increase up to
65%, especially in low income countries (Habibi, 2014). Moreover, it is projected that by
this time, traffic accidents will become the third leading cause of disability-adjusted life
years burden (Lin, 2013).
Traffic-related fatalities are needless and tragic and are usually accompanied with adverse
consequences such as psychological suffering of families, depression, anxiety or trauma. In
addition, traffic accidents induce significant economic losses for countries. It is estimated
that accidents cost developing countries over US$ 100 billion annually (Lin, 2013). In many
cases, they also lead to poverty of the poorest as a result of necessity for medical treatment
of the injured (Habibi, 2014).
Sadly, despite the enormous negative impact - the destruction and death on roads is still
approached quite indifferently and the attention it is given by governments and the public is
still not in proportion with the damage inflicted (Hole, 2007).
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1.1. Situation in China
One of the places in the world that suffer the most from road deaths is China - most
populated country having the second leading market for automobiles (Zhang et.al, 2010).
The number of vehicles in China has been rising at tremendous pace, from about 9.4 million
in 1994 to over 24 million in 2003 and has been continuously increasing for more than 5
million vehicles yearly and is still rising (Zhang, 2006). As a result of fast economic growth,
the dramatic increase in number of express roads, high-quality motorways and all types of
vehicles is seen on road. As the motorization in the country rapidly increases, the adverse
consequences follow suit.
During the past decade, China’s average annual number of traffic accidents with bodily
harm was over 500,000, with an average annual death toll of more than 100,000. This
constitutes a significant life loss of the country’s population (Qing, 2014). Currently, China
has the highest relative number of accident deaths in the world and traffic fatalities have
become the number one killer among the younger Chinese population up to 45 years old
(Zhang, 2013; Qing, 2014). Moreover, The Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries and Risk
Factors Study revealed that among the risks for premature death in China, the rank for road
injury increased from 10th position in 1990 to position 4 in 2010 (IHME, 2010). It indicates
how important this problem is from a health perspecticve.
In 2010 the road traffic accident rate in China was estimated to be around 6.8 per 100.000
motorized vehicles. Interestingly, this rate appears to be relatively low when compared to
other low and middle- income countries though considerable doubt has been casted on the
reliability of these figures as they are believed to be based solely on police reports (WHO, 2011).
Thus, the WHO report investigated the death reports from the death registration database
and compared them to the police’s reports in order to obtain more reliable estimate of the
current situation. The results provided by WHO disclosed the estimated number of 16.7
deaths per 100.000 population (WHO, 2011). According to the reports of Pulitzer Center
from 2014 the number reached 20.5 per 100.000 (Pulitzer Center, 2014).
In 2003 there were 109,381 fatalities reported with fivefold increase in number of injured
and these already alarming statistics are as well still believed to be severely underestimated
(Zhang, 2006). According to Zhang (2006) China’s risk of traffic fatality between 1975 and
1998 increased by 234% in comparison to India (Zhang, 2006). In addition, accidents
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constitute for an important issue for the national Chinese economy. Mortalities due to road
accidents cost country around 1-3% of annual gross domestic product (GDP) and in 2010
they accounted for a direct property loss of at least 143 million US dollars (Zhang, 2013).
1.2. Steps taken
During recent years, several governmental countermeasures ( see Figure 1) have been
introduced in China in an attempt to curb the bodily harm caused by traffic accidents. These
measures included implementation of radars and technologies for road safety, changes in
insurance policy and stricter law enforcement (Zhang et al. 2010). The report delivered by
the Development and research Center of the Chinese State Council in 2007 have
significantly contributed to the improvement of road safety by proposing a strategic plan
and indicating main areas where the lack of safety has been the most severe ( Development
and Research Center of State Council, 2007).
Moreover, the problem is recognized on the international scale and by global interventions.
One example is the act of UN General Assembly which claimed 2011- 2020 as a Decade of
Action for Road Safety and decided to reduce the number of traffic deaths to about around 5
million by 2020 (UN, 2010; WHO, 2011; Larson et al, 2012). Another example is Road
Safety in 10 countries (RS-10) initiative which aims at decreasing the traffic accidents rate.
It currently covers China together with Russia, Vietnam, Mexico, Turkey, Cambodia, Kenya,
Brazil, India and Egypt as these countries account for roughly half of the total number of
road deaths worldwide ( Peden, 2010; Larson et al. 2012).
The majority of the aforementioned initiatives aim at developing new polices, law
application or implementing safety systems and improving infrastructure. It is however
important to acknowledge that the reduction in traffic fatalities can be influenced by several
different factors and legal measures are not always the most effective solutions (Chan,
2010). While the economic growth has a direct impact on a length of motorways and
number of vehicles used by the citizens, the culture and psychology of driving can be
perceived as more important long-term aspect that can determine drivers’ behavior and
habits, their approach towards driving laws and the law obedience (Zhang, 2010).
Therefore, there is an urgent need to enhance studies about traffic accidents with one more
aspect – psychology and psycho-sociology since behavior change may be an effective tool in
a battle for safer roads.
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Figure 1. The overview of road safety initiatives in China. A. Dubanowicz (2014).
1.3. Importance of psychology of driving
It is discussed to which extent road accidents can be lessened or avoided as from their
nature they occur unexpectedly and mostly not on purpose. So far, it is evident that
approaching the problem from many angles and multiple perspectives can help in defining
the most effective systems of mitigation. One of the important perspectives is contemporary
psychology and behavioral studies, as usually, accidents happen as a consequence of
human act rather than machine failure or infrastructure errors ( Hole, 2007).
This research presumes that including the aspect of behavioral changes and manipulations
in this area could possibly result in creating more effective strategies to tackle the problem
of road accidents. It supports current observations and studies on influence of behavior on
traffic safety and further emphasizes their importance. Next to enforcing legal regulations
and punishments as well as road safety in technical and infrastructural sense, altering the
behavior of Chinese drivers through different means could bring about positive outcomes.
There are risky or threat-bearing behaviors, habits and inaccurate perceptions drivers hold.
Eliminating these could help to reduce the frequency of road accidents and to further
perpetuate their prevention. Moreover, it is assumed that comprehension of risk
perceptions, social undertones, values and individual opinions of drivers in Beijing can be
stimulating and informative for mitigation of this relevant problem.
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Through the use of qualitative methods, this study obtains in-depth understanding of
perceptions on driving amongst Beijing drivers. It uses two popular behavioral models; the
theory of planned behavior and the risk homeostasis theory as a supportive framework,
analysis lens and as a foundation for the final model as promulgated by the researcher. This
paper is a basic step for further research on traffic safety and an additional tool to identify
the relevance and accuracy of the used psychological models in a real life setting.
1.4. Objectives of the study
The study has as an overarching goal to enrich the existing knowledge about traffic
accidents and supplement the evidence with an overview of the recent situation in China
where traffic accidents with bodily harm are one of the most visible and prominent public
health threats. This research focuses on the aspect of psychological and psychosocial factors
that may influence driver’s behavior. It takes into consideration the psychology of driving at
the individual level and seeks for an explanation of particular behaviors of drivers. The
rationale behind this emphasis is a result from both insufficient recognition and inclusion of
the psychological aspect in previous studies in a field combined with a general lack of
adequate appraisal of the psychosocial nuances of traffic accidents in assessment, decision
making processes and policy establishment. Moreover, the study purpose is to detect the
fields where the action is desired and needed the most, to determine the trending behaviors
and their consequences among Beijing drivers and to draw conclusions about the main
findings. Eventually, it is hopefully a brick in the wall type of contribution to the prevailing
strategy that aims to improve the situation, reduce the severity of the damage inflicted and
decrease the overall number of road accidents with bodily harm on Beijing roads and roads
elsewhere.
1.5. Hypothesis
This is a qualitative study, thus from its nature, it does not test or proves any exact
hypothesis. The outcomes of this study are meant to describe individual perceptions and are
bound to certain cultural and social contexts, in this case – Chinese. The findings are not
expected to be generalizable to population or groups from another context. The qualitative
research is based on interpretation of the descriptions and interviews. Because of this, the
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model (theory) emerges after the analysis of findings and data gathered and is presented in
the subsequent parts of this study.
This study primarily assumes that there are certain patterns in driving behavior of Beijing
drivers and common perceptions amongst the drivers and uses this as an assumption for
identifying patterns, codes, trends and for building up the eventual model. It also assumes
that knowing those perceptions can help identifying the dangers and risks induced and
suggest the ways of improving the situation on Beijing roads. In addition, the study strongly
relies on the two psychological models that helped develop the semi-structured interview
guide and questions and uses these to introduce the basic concepts of psychology of
driving.
2. Methods
This study concentrates mainly on qualitative methods. The semi-structured interviews
were conducted in order to provide a description of the current traffic situation in Beijing
from individual perspective and gain a deeper understanding of factors influencing driving
behavior in this city. The interview guide consisted of five questions about characteristics of
interviewee, namely: name, age, sex, occupation and driving experience followed by eight
qualitative open questions, which were grouped in three categories:
1. questions based on models which touched upon traffic situation in Beijing and
individual assessment of the participants’ own abilities and skills
2. questions about experiences and observations
3. question about recommendations for future.
All of the interviews were conducted in the building of Institute of Geographic Sciences and
Natural Resources. Each interview took between 15 to 30 minutes, depending on the
respondents’ willingness to respond openly and their individual manner of expression.
The systematic literature review complemented this study with statistics about the situation
with regards to road traffic, accidents and road safety measures accompanied by a brief
summary of existing legal regulations and policies that aim at reducing the harm. The
systematic literature review was also used for describing the models and to analyze the
application of these theories in real life in a Chinese capital city. In order to collect the data
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for the literature review three main databases were used: Science Direct
(sciencedirect.com), PubMed and Google Scholar. The example search keywords and
phrases were the following: “driving behavior” “traffic accidents” “road accidents” “risk
perception” “theory of planned behavior” “ risk compensation theory” “accidents” “traffic”
“RTIs” with multiple combinations. The literature was screened with an emphasis on the
psychology of driving, the applied theory of planned behavior, importance of motives and
drivers for specific behaviors of motorized traffic participants. In the last phase of the
interview analysis, the literature search was widened to incorporate aspects of Chinese
culture and social rules as they appeared to be crucial to understand some of the behaviors
and explanations.
2.1. Sampling and recruitment
This study employed a purposive sampling method. The interviewees were included in the
study according to preselected criteria. Those criteria narrowed the sample group to adult
drivers who hold a valid driving license. All the participants were incumbent inhabitants of
Beijing and daily car users. The recruitment process was supported and conducted with the
help of Professor Wang Wuyi who scheduled the interviews and primarily contacted the
participants. Due to time and language restraints, the sample was completely made out of
staff from the Chinese Academy of Sciences. It was deemed by the researcher to be a
sufficient sample for conducting a qualitative research and obtaining valuable insights in this
setting within the available time and resources. However, it cannot serve as a
representative sample for the whole Chinese population, neither it describes nor explains
the behaviors and opinions of drivers as a whole. It is also justifiable that only sample from
Beijing inhabitants was used due to time, language and logistical limitations. Nevertheless,
the sample provides various clues and a base for further analysis in the field of traffic safety
as it incorporates the individual perspectives, opinions and beliefs within this area of
research.
2.2. Data analysis
Semi structured interviews were turned into transcripts that were later analyzed according
to suggested methods for qualitative studies. First of all, the data was collected into one pile
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after conducting all the interviews and screened briefly for the general overview. A more
meticulous reading a few days later enabled the researcher to code it. Codes were used to
indicate similarities, differences and most striking information. After coding, the data was
assigned to categories that grouped the codes, left out the unnecessary elements and made
the further analysis easier and clearer. Eventually, the categories were labeled and grouped
into five main factors influencing the way Beijing inhabitants drive. The final explanatory
model of this study consisted of the labels created throughout that analysis.
3. Results – literature review
The first part of the result section of this paper explains two behavioral models (TPB and
RH theory) that are commonly applied in the analysis of driving behavior in literature. They
are used for the purposes of this study as well. They provide the reader with a better
understanding of a theoretical background and the way the driving may be influenced from
a psychological perspective. The second part consists out of the outcome section and
includes specific findings from the literature review on driving behavior in China and
presents the most interesting and relevant evidence in this topic. The subsequent part of
the result section presents outcomes and analysis of the interviews with Beijing drivers.
3.1. Theory of planned behavior
There exists a considerable amount of studies which inspect the driving behavior using the
theories of contemporary psychology. It is justified and interesting to use the model of the
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) while analyzing the driver’s behavior and attitudes
towards road violations. Firstly, the model explains why and how some people decide to act
risky on the roads and how it can lead to the risk factors for car accidents – speed, close
following, drunk driving, driving whilst being exhausted, driving through red traffic lights or
ignoring the safety signs. The TPB theory consists of three models of motivational factors
that are believed to imply further intention which eventually leads to certain behavior
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(Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen and Doll, 1992). They are represented in three main blocks: attitudes,
subjective norm and perceived behavioral control (Figure 2.).
Figure 2. Ajzen, I. (2006) Theory of Planned Behavior.
Attitude defines the individual evaluation of advantages and disadvantages of a certain
behavior in given circumstances and whether the behavior is positively or negatively valued
by an individual. The participant bears a behavioral belief; he or she bases his or her
intention on the anticipated consequence of the act ( Ajzen, 2006). Control beliefs are partly
related to self-efficacy – the concept of belief of external facilitators and obstacles in
performing certain behavior and the individual difficulties or ease – perceived behavioral
control. Normative beliefs are subjective and individual perceptions on normative social
requirements and the importance of opinion or pressure from others (Ajzen, 2006). The
inclusion of subjective norm is an asset of the model as it imposes understanding the beliefs
about the acceptance or disapproval of specific behaviors within the society.
This study uses the TBP model as a base for further analysis and the development of an
adequate questions which consider drivers ‘perceptions, attitudes and socially determined
rules that influence his or her driving behavior.
A number of previous studies applied the TPB to measure intentions, motives and attitudes
in driving and proved that there is a link between the deliberate individual propensity for
committing a traffic infringement and the accident involvement (Parker et al., 1992).
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Attitudes, subjective norms and perceived self-control have the power to determine the way
an individual acts. For example, if a person drives with a baby and this act has moral,
ethical or personal importance assigned with it and society imposes a pressure on driving
more carefully with children, the driver is more likely to actually do so. Similarly,
pedestrians admit that they are tempted more to cross the street in spite of the red light
when others do it as well (Parker et.al, 1992). Such behavior relates to one of the
components of the TPB, the subjective norms.
Amongst main hazards to road safety in China, the traffic violation is the leading one. This
study assumes that even though accidents are seen as randomly occurring, unfortunate and
difficult to predict, there are measures that can be taken to improve the traffic safety and
reduce the number of violations. Better control of drivers’ behavior is possible once it is
better understood and it is recognized that it is a driver’s intention rather than a number of
errors that makes him more accident prone ( Parker, 1992). The interviews conducted for
this research were analyzed using a conceptual framework of the TPB and the model was
used to guide the extraction of the most important conclusions.
3.2. Risk Homeostasis Theory
The concept of risk compensation has gained popularity and has been given consideration
especially in behavioral studies and fields related to traffic violations. This notion assumes
that humans in potentially hazardous situations act in a way that allows them to maintain a
constant level of risk. On the roads, risk compensation refers to drivers’ propensity to adjust
their behavior as to compensate for changes in perceived safety and its improvement
(Peltzman, 1975; Vrolix, 2006; Hole, 2009). Based on the initial economic model of risk
perception by Peltzman, the Wilde’s Risk Homeostasis Theory was developed (see Figure 3).
It suggests that people behave according to their subjective preferred level of risk that they
aim to keep constant and therefore individual would always try to eliminate the difference
between the riskiness of the behavior and the desired level of risk.
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Figure 3. Homeostatic Mechanism by Wilde (1998).
One of the classic examples of application of RHT is using the anti-lock brakes. These
systems are designed to reduce the skidding and increase safety of the car. However, as
several studies show, the owners of vehicles with ABS tend to brake later, drive with a
higher speed and keep smaller distance to other road users as to reach the target level of
risk that they usually tolerate, choose, prefer or desire (Grant & Smiley, 1993; Sagberg et
al., 1997; Hole, 2009 ). Further supporting evidence for the Risk Homeostasis theory can be
consulted in the study of Janssen ( 1994) and the Isles Report by Adams ( 1981) that
claims that using seatbelts does not result in significant reduction in road accident fatalities
frequency and that those who use seatbelts often take more risk by driving faster and less
carefully ( Janssen, 1994; Adams, 1981).
It is important to mention that this theory is contradicted, criticized and controversial in its
nature. For example according to a study of Evans (1986) the risk homeostasis is not
supported with convincing evidence, therefore not scientific and ought to be rejected
(Evans, 1986). In addition, a study of Oppe ( 1991) stated that the risk homeostasis theory
is misleading and that the safety measures implemented on roads are still more effective
than their lack in ensuring road safety (Oppe 1991). The insufficient evidence and the
‘common sense’ approach in thinking about safety are the most common factors in
criticizing the theory.
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However, if the assumption that the RHT is applicable is provable and true, the approaches
to traffic safety would need to be revised and changed dramatically. It would mean that
introducing systems or innovations that increase the feeling of safety among drivers
generate a higher risk as they follow the rule of equalizing target level of risk and perceived
level of risk and drive less carefully only because they feel that the potentially negative
consequences are mitigated by prearranged contingency measures. The theory of risk
compensation should not be downplayed because if the model is accurate, the brand new
approaches could be adapted and used in saving lives on roads in China. The theory has
already provoked discussions and new studies are still providing new evidence and data
favorable towards its validity.
3.3. The risk factors for road accidents in Beijing
Research suggests that there are several risk factors for traffic violations and causing or
becoming involved in a traffic accident in China. Among these, gender and age play an
important role. Male drivers appear to have a significantly higher risk to be the subject of
serious or fatal accidents ( Yau, 2004; Zhang, 2013). Young and novice drivers as well as
old drivers constitute groups which are most likely to be involved in traffic violations (Zhang
et al. 2000; Zhang, 2013; Yau, 2004). Parker at al. (1992) explains that young males form
the highest risk group for committing traffic violations because of their propensity to engage
in risky behaviors ( Parker et al. 1992).
Moreover, literature suggests multiple other risk factors for traffic accidents in China that
include not only the characteristics of a typical victim or perpetuator of an incident, but also
infrastructure, vehicle malfunctions, distractions such as mobile phone use or advertising
banners, ambiguous road intersections or social and behavioral factors such as drunk -or
high speed driving (Zhang, 2013, Lin et a. 2013). However, for this research, the
psychological and behavioral factors remain the central focus.
Though many studies (Yau, 2004; Zhang, 2013; Xiu et al, 2002) include age as a predictor
for a traffic violation, some studies do not share the same results. The study of Jing (2010)
investigated the aberrant driving behaviors among the drivers in Beijing. In order to find out
what affects the way they drive their vehicles, several factors used in previous studies in
this area were once more examined. The paper-based and interview survey were distributed
and measured the errors and violations on roads committed by Beijing road users. The
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errors were classified into distraction errors and inexperience errors and the violations into
intended violations, risky violations and emotional violations. As mentioned, many previous
studies found the relationship between age of a driver and his or her chance to be involved
in an accident or intend to take a risky driving behavior (Yau, 2004; Zhang, 2013; Xiu et al,
2002). The main concept in a study by Jing however, perceived the key factor to the
problem of committing violations or errors to be experience rather than age per se as the
variable age was found to not be significantly associated with any of the five driving
behaviors (Jing, 2010). Thus, the study by Jing (2010) provides contradicting evidence and
questions the usefulness of using age as a predictor of violations on roads in Beijing. The
explanation of this finding is deduced to the important fact that the amount of cars in
Beijing has started increasing very rapidly only since the turn of the Millennium. Therefore,
the age of a driver in China does not necessarily (yet) indicate the length of license holding
period nor the experience level unlike other heavily motorized countries ( Jing, 2010).
Moreover, in this study the level of education and training of drivers was also not found to
be a significant predictor. Instead, the on-road experience appeared to be the more valid
factor. For example; the distraction errors appeared to decrease in number together with
years of on-road experience. The conclusion that experienced drivers are more aware,
skillful and less distraction-prone is confirmed also by Xie et al. (2002).
3.4. The applicability of TBH and RH theory in Chinese driving behavior
Once the risk factors and the main characteristics of those at the highest risk for traffic
violations are identified, it is interesting to investigate further in how these characteristics
relate to the behavior. Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) claim that the theory of planned behavior
was developed to promulgate that the influence of external variables such as age,
personality traits, sex etc. can be explained by observing how they impact the subjective
norm, perception, attitudes and beliefs as these, so goes the theory, predetermine
intentions to act in certain way. In this sense, using behavioral models to predict the driving
violations prosperity is justified and seems to be relevant. The study of Parker et al. (1992)
fully supports this approach and examines how the components of the model can actually
statistically explain the intention to commit driving violations and moreover, how traffic
violations are associated with car accidents (Parket et al. 1992; Xie, 2002).
The theory of planned behavior can be applied in studies of other specific behaviors that
indirectly impose risks for driving safety. One such risk is drunk driving. Alcohol is one of
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the risk factors for accidents and is often correlated with traffic violations. As a response, in
Macao for example, The Road Traffic Law introduced in 2007 lowered the limit of acceptable
content of alcohol in blood to 0.5g/l and subjected those possessing of more than 1.2g of
alcohol per liter of blood to the punishment of imprisonment (Chan, 2010 ). Despite this
intervention, 18,371 people died and more than 76,000 were injured in traffic accidents
reported to be alcohol-related in 2008. As harsher penalties did not turn out to be as
effective as was expected, the study of Chan (2010) attempted to explain the intention to
drunk driving using the theory of planned behavior and investigated the influence the
psychological factors may have on Chinese drivers’ behaviors. According to Chan, attitudes,
subjective norms people possess, their perceived behavioral control and perceived
invulnerability to danger are all positively associated with the eventual intention to drink
(p<0.5) which in most cases, define the behavior (Chan, 2010).
Another issue in traffic safety where the theory of planned behavior and the risk
compensation theory can be applied is pedestrian’s road-crossing behavior patterns.
According to the study of Zhou (2009), Beijing inhabitants tend to cross the road on
signalized intersections despite the red light. In consequence the overall safety on roads
decreases as such behavior exposes the individual and other road users to high risks and
often end up in fatalities or severe injuries. Again, the main finding of the study showed that
aspects as perceived control, social conformity, attitudes and risk estimations appeared to
be related to the intention of risky road crossing. It supports the notion that traffic safety is
associated and could be improved by imposing behavioral changes in drivers and road user
(Zhou, 2009). In similar fashion, the risk compensation theory is applied in such a scenario.
Available literature suggests that pedestrians decide to take up risky and dangerous
behaviors regardless of the presence of safety measures or road infrastructure. In fact,
people tend to cross the zebra on red light in well-lighted, signalized intersections more
often as it gives them the subjective feeling of safety and control over the situation (Hole,
2007).
Finally, there are several studies that provide additional factors for explaining the driving
behavior, next to those presented in studied models. Those are very important as they
serve sensitive, country and background-specific perspectives that indicate that driving
behavior in countries like China can be influenced more significantly through cultural and
social contexts than elsewhere. According to Xie (2002), what plays a very significant role in
predetermining the intention to violate the traffic law among Chinese are (in addition to
normative beliefs (eg. Parker et al. 1992) affect and anticipated regret) more culturally
15
bound factors. Among them the most prominent appear to be the sense of social hierarchy,
belief in ‘keeping the face’, competition, desire for dominance and tendency, especially
among younger population, to challenge legitimate authority (Xie, 2002). This cultural and
social context became a very important filter in this study for understanding and analyzing
the interviews and a separate chapter of discussion explains this aspect closer.
3.5. Perceptions on driving behavior – China vs. United States
Among the reviewed literature, the article of Zhang et al. (2006) deserves closer
attention. It is a qualitative study which investigates the views and behavior of Chinese
drivers on traffic safety and driving behavior. After this outcomes are compared with those
gathered in the United States in order to draw conclusions and highlight intercultural
differences. The underlying aim of the study is to once more emphasize the importance of a
deep understanding and a sensitive observation of people’s behavior taking into account the
social and cultural differences. Both U.S. and Chinese drivers indicated that a safe driver
should obey rules, drive defensively avoid driving whilst fatigue and avoid giving in to
distractions. Both groups stated also that those too young and too old constitute the most
dangerous drivers due to their psychological or psychical limitations. Furthermore, according
to Chinese and U.S. study participants, a good driver should be healthy, avoid substance
use, have a decent vehicle and be aware of safety of others and himself or herself.
There were striking differences in views about assuring traffic safety between Chinese and
American participants. Chinese drivers put more emphasis on drivers’ skills, experience,
intelligence, education, gender, age and general capabilities to react quickly. Drivers’ skills
were not of much importance for US participants. They rather mentioned factors related to
the ways of handling other drivers, the circumstances, the car and the road environment.
The U.S. participants of the study put emphasis on adequate seat adjustment, using lights,
importance of being sober, knowing the limits of one’s own abilities, signalizing turns, using
mirrors, respecting red lights and STOP signs, using safety belts etc.
In China, being a professional driver was associated with a well-paid job, higher status and
having some better, required skills. Participants would say: “safe drivers need to have a
‘quick vision and reaction’ (Chinese phrase) but not everyone is qualified “(Zhang, 2006;
pp. 25). About 50% of drivers in China are professional drivers that drive for corporations,
firms, and army or government institutions. This, in Chinese society, makes them assumed
16
as privileged over private drivers. Therefore they may be less afraid of police tickets,
potentially attribute their speeding or violations to the time pressure at the job which
effectively make them drive more dangerously. This shows another interesting aspect of
Chinese circumstances where the position within society can determine the way of driving.
Furthermore, this study revealed that Chinese drivers did not really know nor cared for
actual safety, correct application of driving rules, traffic devices or interaction with other
drivers and vehicles. What was important for them to be a safe driver were the abilities to
react quickly, being mentally prepared, having adequate gender, age and experience.
Chinese participants admitted that they do not use seat belts in parts of cities where there
is less police control or rural areas. They also pointed out the presence of distractions such
as frequent mobile phone use (phone as “a must to survive”), more passengers per car,
more pedestrians and bike routes mixed with roads, more traffic signals and signs. In
addition, Chinese participants discussed the habit of drunk driving and pointed out that
despite law and imprisonment penalties, drunk driving still occurs on a regular basis. The
study indicated that Chinese drivers do not give much attention to adequate use of lights or
signalizing when turning, changing lines or driving in unfavorable weather conditions. The
safety belt use percentage on Beijing roads (62.7%) was also lower than in U.S (75%). The
use of light in bad weather condition was alarmingly low amongst the Chinese participants.
This was also reflected in their shared views that as long as the road is visible, using
running lights is unnecessary and saving the energy is more important in such a case
(Zhang, 2006).
4. Presentation of interview results
Fourteen interviews were conducted during the data collection period. All of them took
place in the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources, the department of
Chinese Academy of Sciences. In most cases, the interviewees were in their own offices or
workplace and the interviews took place during their working hours. Table 1 presents the
main characteristics of the interviewed sample. In short, there were 7 female participants
and 7 male participants in the study. The majority of the drivers included in the interview
phase came from a research and education field; however there were also editors,
engineers, office clerks and administrators involved. The youngest participant was 26 years
old while the oldest was 58 years old. The respondents varied in regard to their driving
experience measured in the amount of years of holding a driving license and active driving.
17
Table 1 . Participant’s characteristics.
Number of participants 14
Sex ratio 7:7
Age (years ) 46.5 (26;58)
Driving experience ( years) 16.9 (2;21)
Data are n or mean (SD; range)
4.1. Answers to questions
The first question of the interview was geared to acquire a general notion of how people in
Beijing perceive the traffic and traffic safety in Beijing. It aimed to obtain an overview of
individual observations and a grasp of how these aspects are viewed by the inhabitants. The
vast majority of respondents indicated that the traffic in Beijing is tense and inconvenient.
Participants often referred to it using phrases such as “bad”, “too crowded” or “very busy”.
Moreover, they mentioned the traffic jams as the major issue on the roads and the cause of
tension and overall negative experience. Traffic jams were seen as the cause of delays and
frustration. According to most participants, the traffic safety in Beijing is “good” despite the
congested traffic pressure. One of the interviewed researchers stated that while the safety
on main roads of Beijing is “generally ok”, the narrow side streets may be hazardous in
terms of safety. On the other side, there were three interviewees that assessed the safety
on roads as poor and attested that they experienced the current situation as a real problem.
The participants expressed their concern about the rapid increase of the number of private
cars, the incapability of public transport to handle the amount of people and the elevated
danger on the roads due to the large number of vehicles and pedestrians.
18
The second question of the interview was designed in order to determine the drivers’ self-
assessment of skills and experience. The analysis of answers revealed that almost every
participant of the study finds him or herself a good, decent and careful driver. People often
mentioned that they pay attention to the safety and that they obey rules. Most of the
drivers claimed they basically never exceed the speed limit and that they perceive
themselves as experienced and qualified drivers. Only two respondents admitted that they
tend to be impatient on roads and easily frustrated. When asked about the driving habits,
people usually mentioned obeying rules accompanied by a smooth and focused driving
pattern with moderate speed. Three interviewees mentioned that they try to assure the
safety of their own car and therefore pay too much attention to the potential threat of
bodywork damage whilst driving. Some of the respondents admitted however, that they
enjoy driving fast and that they sometimes engage in ‘road rage’. Many participants, instead
of directly answering the question about their own driving, mentioned how other drivers’
behavior may make them annoyed or impatient.
“Other drivers often ignore my rights, especially when they change lanes and do not make it
clear to me or give me enough time to prepare. Last time I didn’t let him and we crashed. I
am impatient and I don’t give up easily.” Liu
“When most of people don’t obey the rules, and at this time you do, it is not very easy for
you and they may even get angry and impatient.” Zhang Xiu
Picture 1. Beijing facing massive traffic jam.
Retrieved from: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn
Picture 2. Tao, A. (2012) Traffic Paralysis: A Soul-
Crushing Jam In Shenyang. Retrieved from :
http://beigingcream.com
19
The second sub question within the topic, attempted to indentify the potential shortcomings
in Beijing drivers. Here the respondents often mention speeding, following other vehicles
“too close”, lack of patience and occasionally disobeying rules such as ignoring STOP signs
or parking in prohibited places. Four participants admitted that they are more likely to drive
too fast if they feel safe.
The following sub question within the Question 2 considered the factors that, according to
drivers, influence the way they drive. The vast majority of respondents indicated the factors
that were classified into labels of fatigue, mood and characteristics of personality, traffic
infrastructure and the situation on road. A few of the interviewed drivers also mentioned
distractions: chatting, mobile phones, other drivers’ behavior and vehicles as sources of
alternation of the way of driving. One person admitted that the familiarity of the road and
the area may change the way of driving as well. Many people mentioned the way of steering
a vehicle depends on the traffic jams and the external factors and situation on road in
general alongside with the internal factors such as having a bad day, anger, nervousness or
tiredness. What was important and distinguishable was the emphasis that the majority of
respondents put on social norms and lawful rules existing in the city. The “traffic
regulations” was a popular answer to this sub question and it was seen as a factor that
significantly influenced driving behavior. Interviewees listed the public pressure and the
societal principles as motives that strongly influence their own driving as well.
Question 3 was slightly different as it aimed at detecting what drivers think of others and
how do they perceive the co-users of the roads. More specifically, the respondents were
asked to share their opinion on how the drivers should be to assure the traffic safety in the
city of Beijing. Here the answers were rather concise. The majority of participants
emphasized the importance of obeying rules and following the lawful driving principles. It
shows again the relationship between the perception of power of law and its influence on
Chinese society that have been observed in many studies concerning this country (Kleinman
& Lin, 1981). Among the remaining answers to this question, the following were commonly
mentioned as well: keep awake and concentrated, do not speed, keep safe distance
between vehicles, do not drive when you are tired and avoid using mobile phones. In
addition, some of the respondents mentioned that paying attention to road signs,
pedestrians and behavior of other drivers as other important factors for ensuring safety.
One interviewee said that road users should watch their temper, do not hurry and try not to
get irritated whilst standing in the traffic jams. Surprisingly, none of the interviewed drivers
20
mentioned the problem of drunk
driving despite the efforts of Beijing
government to raise the awareness
about this issue (e.g. Hu, 2012).
The next question was closely
connected to question 3. It aimed at
collecting the opinions on what are, in
according to Beijing drivers, effective
ways of improving the driving
behavior of road users. Here again,
the notion of teaching through
punishment appeared to be a common
suggestion. Many respondents said
that the most effective way to alternate wrong or dangerous driving behaviors are fines and
penalties and that those should be enhanced. Besides stricter regulations, the interviewees
named raising awareness through media and social policies as well as education as
important solutions in deterring traffic infringements and risky behaviors. A single
participant suggested that attention should be paid to the infrastructure revision and to
improving the overall mindsets of drivers so that they can become more responsible, careful
and possess a better understanding of the rules and regulations.
Another three questions were developed to gain insight on the experiences with driving
violations. Respondents were asked about whether they have ever been involved in traffic
violation or accident. In case the answer was negative, the alternative question considered
the possible “observed” traffic violation or accident. Out of 14 interviewed people, 9 of them
experienced an incident themselves. Seven participants admitted that they drove too fast
and had a minor collision with another vehicle. Amongst the participants there was no one
who was directly involved in a serious accident or suffered a serious injury. One respondent
recalled having one minor collusion while driving her child to school when her car was hit by
another vehicle while she was changing lanes.
The reason, according to the interviewee was the temper and lack of patience of the other
driver. Some respondents mentioned that they parked in a wrong place and paid a fine
afterwards. The answers to these questions were short and the participants seemed a bit
uncomfortable answering them. In summary, there were no major traffic offences or
accidents among participants of the study. The usual response to the question of “what did
Picture 3. China Daily (2009) Traffic accident kills 7.
Retrieved from: http://chinadaily.com.cn
21
you do after it happened” was calling the police. The reasons for committing the mentioned
violations were mostly the lack of time, pressure, lack of concentration or unclear road
signs.
“Reasons for speeding are complex: sometimes because the task in urgent and due to time
pressure; sometimes the road speed limit signs are not obvious” Zhu Nong
The closing question of the interview was obtaining the recommendation the driver in
Beijing might have had. The question was constructed in such a way that it tried to engage
the respondents to think of any possibilities and suggestions which were slightly out of the
box and not necessarily according to the existing schemes. However, the vast majority of
participants still showed a clear tendency to rely on the law and solutions thorough
regulations. The most common suggestions were stricter penalties and punishment on those
who disobey the traffic laws and to introduce more traffic and speed control mechanisms. In
addition, some drivers stated that the installation of monitors and speed radars could help
in executing the traffic law. The second main recommendation considered strengthening the
education. According to the participants, children should be thought about the road situation
and risky behaviors and their consequences from an early age, “better new drivers’
trainings” should be introduced and raising awareness about the issue through media
campaigns should become a current focus. Some participants mentioned changes in road
infrastructure, road planning and the development of a holistic system to accommodate for
the inevitable increase in traffic in order to ensure vehicle safety. A shift to public means of
transport and enlarging its capacity and popularity in order to reduce the number of private
cars on the roads was mentioned as well. A few participants indicated that influencing the
individuals’ behavior is the only way to improve the road safety trough making people
understand the rules, community responsibility, and the importance of life and the common
good of society.
5. Discussion
This section of the paper presents the result of the process of analysis. It identifies the most
important findings and provides explanations from different perspectives. Firstly, the five
main obtained factors are shortly presented. Secondly, the assessment of applicability of
used models - TPB and risk homeostasis theory and the overview of influence of culture is
presented. It is important to note that the need to provide insight according to the Chinese
22
context and to create the summary of cultural factors in China arise as a result of an
analysis of interviews. Apparently, cultural background of Chinese citizens is an important
element that influences the way people act, perceive and judge their own driving abilities
and abilities of others in China and it would be a pitfall not to take this factor into account.
5.1. Five major explanatory components of driving behavior
The conclusion which arises after the analysis of results of this research is presented in this
paper in several ways. Firstly, there were finally five main labels that seem to be significant
in analyzing the material about driving habits of people in Beijing and their main
explanatory components:
- Road situation: infrastructure, traffic jams, road obstacles
- Culture: “saving face”, dominance, hierarchy, assumptions of Confucianism
- Self-assessment of driving skills: efficacy, subjective feelings, self-perception
- Risk perception: definition of dangerous, individual opinions, experience of
accidents
- Obedience of Law and Regulation: respect for authority, faith in effectiveness of
punishment, Governmental proposals and the politics
The above categories that were developed during coding the transcripts are labeled and
again presented, discussed and used in building a final model. They helped in better
classification and picturing a cleared overview of what in Beijing appears to be important if
it comes to driving behavior. Their interrelation and possible links were examined and
served for a base in developing the final model of this study which is presented in the last
paragraph of this Discussion chapter.
5.2. Applicability of the behavioral models
One of the focuses of this study was to investigate whether the two existing psychological
models, the TPB and RH theory are mirrored in driving behavior of Beijing drivers and
whether those behaviors could be explained using the main assumption of models. The
23
applicability of models was well represented in the answers to this specific sub question.
There were elements of both, the TPB and the Risk Compensation theory that could be
deducted from the responses. For example, the importance of the road principles and social
norms, as well as understanding the risk imposed by fatigue or mood may indicate that the
assumptions of the theory of planned behavior are represented in real life among drivers in
Beijing. Moreover, the risk perception, the adaptation to the perceived road safety and the
calculation of consequences relate back to the theories too. The quote below sums up the
relation of real-life experience and the theories’ assumptions:
“The way others drive make me rethink my driving. If I see patient drivers, I want to
become more patient myself. But then I adjust to the situation on road too…I drive faster
when the road is empty and also when I have no passengers” Liu
5.2.1. Theory of Planned Behavior
More specifically, in order to observe and analyze the relation between the driving
behavior and the notions of the theory of planned behavior, the model was split into parts
which represented the separate blocks of it. Then, some direct quotes from the interviews
were matched with the blocks of the model if they were thought to be applicable. This way,
the visual and clear representation of analysis outcomes was derived. It is important to note
that this sort of analysis is based on coding, classifying and analytical skills of one
researcher, therefore may be subjective. However, this method enabled to observe the links
and enhanced the more careful analysis of the transcripts. The figure below graphically
shows examples of the quotes matched with the components of the model of the TPB. This
table partly presents how the assumptions of the theory of planned behavior are
represented in driving behavior of Beijing drivers.
24
Table 2. Applicability of the TPB – from the interviews.
5.2.2. Risk Homeostasis
Many of the participants of this study mentioned the statements that can be interpreted as
supportive for the concept of compensation of risk or maintaining its constant level. For
example, four interviewees admitted that if the road is empty or it “looks safe” they tend to
drive faster or be less conscious:
“I would go over speed limit if I feel safe” Wu Qiong
“I often don’t pay attention to the speed limit when there is no traffic jam” Cai Xiaoguang
Behavioral Beliefs Attitude
“If I disobey the law, I will pay a fine.”
“If I act according to the law, I am a good
driver/inhabitant; I fit into the society and
I am responsible. “
Normative Beliefs Subjective Norm
“The Government does not want me to
disobey the law.”
“People shouldn’t drive impatiently and
unsafe.”
“I drive slower when I see the Police. “
“When I drive my daughter to school. I
drive more carefully and I try to be
patient.”
Control Beliefs Perceived Behavioral Control
“I am a good driver.”
“I know the driving laws and I respect
them.”
“I know my car and the conditions so I
know what I can do.”
“The more experienced the driver, the
more he can do on the road.”
25
Furthermore, one participant mentioned that he feels allowed to take more risk once he has
enough years of driving experience or drives a safer car. Generally, the traits of risk
homeostasis theory are expressed in the interviews and the factors that lead Beijing drivers
to take up risk are usually good infrastructure, safer vehicles, good mood and the perceived
experience. Such examples indeed indicate some of the components of the second
behavioral model. Drivers do calculate costs and benefits and adjust risk based on this
balance. Their judgments seem to be significantly influenced by the respect for authority,
national and city regulations and the norms of society existing in the country. Perceived risk
is a driver in this case as well, since when people feel safer or more they are acquainted
with the road the more likely they are to drive in a dangerous way according to the
interviews. Moreover, the “perceptual skills” block in the model could refer to the experience
and age that the respondents mentioned. Some of them claimed that more years they hold
a license and actively drive, the more they can let themselves to do on the roads as they
perceive themselves more experienced and better at driving. In summary, there are visible
notions of the risk homeostasis theory that were found in the interviews and it suggests that
the theory is possibly applicable elsewhere.
5.3. Social and cultural influence
In Chinese setting, the concept of social and cultural influence cannot be overseen. In
order to start analyzing the behavior of a Chinese person or the Chinese society as a whole,
one must acquire some knowledge on values and underlying principles that has been built
on from ancient times.
China is a country of a deeply rooted societal norms and behaviors different from Western,
Arabic, Latin American or any other culture in the world (Clark, 2013). Firstly, vast part of
the Chinese societal structure is still based on Confucianism and its primary assumptions
that create a kind of moral guide for a proper behavior and governing. It is a system which
values a role of family especially the kinship, “filial piety” and respect towards parents,
tradition and age. In general, Chinese believe in work for common benefit, hierarchy and
superiority of Chinese over other cultures (China Mike, 2013). Furthermore, as the
government is respected and trusted and seen as the only right ruling body, criticizing it is
in general inaccurate and unacceptable within the society. This approach comes as well from
the fact that the People’s Republic of China is a communistic country and it functions on
different, often unspoken but widely agreed rules which no longer exist in Western
26
capitalistic societies. In fact, the Confucianism matches the modern way of governance in
China, being in line with communistic attempts to maintain harmonious societal stability.
Another aspect of Chinese culture which is derived primarily from Confucianism is the role of
the hierarchy, the status and the notion of authority. It is believed that everyone has his or
her own place in the universe and in the societal structure and people should strive to
understand and adjust to the order and behave in the way their rank is expected to behave
(China Mike, 2013). The hierarchy and a rule of a lower obeying the higher is dissociated
within society from a family level to a national level. Though modern China is rapidly
changing, some societal and cultural traits remained rather stable and it is easily
observable, that people do act according to the principle: “A place for everyone and
everyone in their place”. Even though Confucius has long been gone, his ideology left a
deep mark on cognition of Chinese people thinking and it has its influence on many daily life
behaviors, including driving.
Another cultural factor found in China is the “poker face” attitude. According to Confucius, in
order to maintain the hierarchy and hramony, people should act in accordance to their
position rather than what they feel like. Taking this issue into consideration, it is easier to
understand that, especially if formal context (as an interview with a researcher), Chinese
people prefer to stay neutral, avoid sharing strong opinions or criticize the government.
From the Western point of view, Chinese people may therefore seem reserved and
inscrutable in many situations ( Kleinman & Lin, 1981) .
Collectivism is an important value for Chinese society. For thousands of years, people in
China have been conditioned to suppress their own needs and thought into thinking in terms
of collective responsibility—to family, community, clan or a nation as a whole ( China Mike,
2013). Presenting the individuality openly is still quite a rare thing to do in this country.
Overall, Chinese society is rather humble, concerned about the family relationships and
community at large and unutterably modest.
The summary of Chinese cultural background and the functioning of the society cannot omit
“saving face” aspect, which defines and explains the behavior of people in this country as
well. It is one of the most important values and the main driving force in Chinese society
and it can be vaguely defined as “pride”, “prestige” or “dignity”. According to this concept,
people usually avoid strong statements, criticism and they are highly reserved in admitting
failure or losing in order to save the face. They also step aside from saying something that
could cause them losing the face or pride. Therefore, the information they may reveal,
27
especially on sensitive topics, may not be genuine. It is important to understand that such
behavior do not come from the intention of being rude or false but rather from deeply
rooted cultural tendencies. Finally, it is worth to mention, that this society is constantly and
rapidly changing and the influence of the West becomes increasingly widespread. The
attempt to enrich the existing culture with the westernized elements is visible and popular
and within few years or decades, the chances in behavior and perceptions should be
anticipated. As for now, the cultural differences and factors influencing behaviors are still
quite clear and remarkable and without acknowledging them in this research, the outcomes
would be incomplete and even incomprehensible.
5.4. Analyzing the interview in the light of cultural notions
“ Driving is dangerous work, we must think of others’ life and safety, respect the life. We
must obey rules.” Wei Cheoyang
The given answers to the interviews’ questions revealed how much of importance the
culture plays in Chinese society. First of all, the hierarchy and authority defines the way
people act and feel like they should behave in certain moments. Most of respondents
admitted the superiority of the national law and the governmental decisions indicating the
hierarchical model of the society. Furthermore, the concept of “saving the face” was quite
visible throughout the transcripts. People assess themselves as good and careful drivers and
claim they have never been involved or observed accidents. Findings of this study also go in
line with a study of Zhang (2006) who argued that drivers usually tend to assess their
driving abilities as better than they are in real life ( Zhang, 2006). The sample was quite a
good representation of a Chinese society as a whole which is rather reserved with sharing
stories that could somehow deprive them the “face”, especially among strangers. The
criticism towards the government’s efforts was almost absent and never straightforward
which supported the assumption of the respect for the law, authorities and a political
system.
28
6. Adaptation of the theory
The combination of analysis of interviews, observation and literature review clustered out
and distinguished five main and most significant factors that are believed to influence the
behavior of drivers in Beijing. The following: road situation, culture, self-assessment of
driving skills, risk perception and obedience of law and regulation represent a simplified
summary of the results of this research. They are presented in order to help to capture the
most important findings and condense the knowledge this study shares. In combination with
the examined models used in the study and additional literature search the elements of an
explanatory model were deducted and put together into the new, redrawn theoretical
model.
This model shows the interrelations of the deducted five factors. All of the elements directly
influence the behavior of the drivers in Beijing. All together or separately they have a power
to indicate the way the river may act. Aside from being directly related to the behavior, they
also co-exist (such as self-assessment of skills and risk perception) or interplay with each
other.
Self-assessment of skills
Risk perception
Culture
Behavior of a Driver Obedience of Law
Road situation
Figure 4. Dubanowicz, A., (2014) Factors influencing driving behavior in Beijing.
29
Self-assessment of skills is a concept similar to the self-efficacy from the TPB. The way
the driver feels about his or her driving, the mood in certain situation and the subjective
preparedness or experience one perceives has an impact of the driving behavior itself.
Moreover, it is closely related to the perception of risk. More experienced, young or
furious driver can be more prone to notice less risk in speeding, over running red lights or
cutting the turns. The individual character, the awareness or its lack define the way the risk
is seemed. Those blocks together and both separately are believed to be a part of the
complex theory of driving behavior in Beijing.
Secondly, the road situation is a cluster for factors such as infrastructure, weather
condition, traffic lights and signs, traffic jams or obstacles on a road. Such elements
determine what the driver can ”afford” or how fast she or he can drive. The conditions on
the road sometimes naturally slow down the driver or allow him or her to speed. They
regulate and manage the traffic and if respected, make the traffic more organized and safer.
In some case however, the unexpected obstacles can be dangerous. The road may be
slippery or blocked by a hazardous object. On the other side, good weather and wide and
empty road may be tempting for driving fast and less careful. Beside influencing the driving
behavior directly, road conditions seem to be interlinked with self-assessment of risk and
risk perception the same way it is described above: safer the road , better the feeling of
driving or self-confidence.
Obedience to law and regulations is a highly important aspect of driving behavior in
Beijing. Many of the respondents admitted that they feel influenced by the existing traffic
rules and that authority matters to them. People in Beijing fear the fines and punishment
and claim that strengthening the law and its execution is the only necessary and effective
method to help to improve traffic safety in their city. Beijing drivers say they respect the
rules and they avoid repeating mistakes they were fined for. Together with the obedience,
there is a cultural background.
Culture, as explained in previous chapters of this paper has an enormous impact on
shaping people’s behavior, including the behavior on roads through Confucianism,
hierarchy, feeling of a necessity to obey the rules and remain harmony. Culture influences
majority of aspects of a Chinese life and in our model we can assume it influences the self-
assessment of skills and risk perceptions as well as the obedience of the laws.
The final model is just a pilot attempt to picture and explain the behavior of drivers in
Beijing. It is solely based on the results of the conducted interviews and the literature
30
search. It contains elements of both models included in this study and adds county and
culture specific elements, emphasizing their major role. It is not a definite neither proven
theory however it sums up the main findings of this qualitative research.
7. Ethical considerations and limitations
The study is ethically correct according to The Belmont Report by the National Commission
for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research criteria.
Traffic accidents and road safety is a sensible subject and can possibly bring about political
notions in the People’s Republic of China. Already the Police underreports of road traffic
mortality show that the data in the country may not be unaffected. It is also extremely
difficult to track and report all the road deaths and accidents in a country of billions of
people and vehicles. Besides the technological and logistical difficulties in reporting, there
are sensitive political issues involved in the representation of the road traffic situation in
China nowadays. Since the Chinese Government has recently implemented revised road
signals and signs, set new speed limits, zero alcohol tolerance and novel traffic safety laws,
the positive outcomes are highly desired and anticipated in the country. The actual data
might have therefore been not genuine as to maintain the positive opinion of government’s
work and performance. Moreover, there was a great risk of reporting bias and memory bias
in self-assessment of the driving behavior. It is common for participants of such interviews
to forget about certain events like running over pedestrian years before or exceeding the
speed limit. In addition, participants might have been reluctant to reveal the uncomfortable
information considering their behavior such as drunk driving or causing collisions. Most of
all, the cultural variations need to be taken into account. Since the traffic violations are
greatly punished in China, there was a possibility of deliberate cheating and giving false
answers as to stay far from legal responsibilities and as explained before, losing the face or
being politically incorrect. Bias in answering the questions or unwillingness to share the
sincere experiences cannot be seen as a fault of participants. As explained in the earlier
parts of the study, the culture and the societal system plays a significant role for most of
the people and very often it is the nature of the Chinese person rather than their conscious
decision to hide facts, do not brag or avoid losing dignity in the eyes of outsiders. Chinese
societal setting is difficult for qualitative study, especially in sensitive topics.
There were some technical and logistic limitations it this study as well. First of all, the
sample was quite small and the participants although in different age, came from the same
31
environment. Therefore, the conclusion should not be treated as entirely representative for
the whole city of Beijing, county of China or drivers as a group. Whereas some general facts
and findings most probably apply to the interviewed drivers, some links are not definite nor
proven, but rather based on researcher’s observations and assumptions. The time was an
issue as well as the scheduling of interviews and the numbers of possible appointments
were decided top-down and most of them took place during the last weeks of the
placement. Furthermore, some of the interviews required translation which was not done by
a professional and has not been validated. Due to multiple restrictions and a rather small
size and extent of the study, such methodology had to be, agreed on.
8. Conclusion
In general, an urge to tackle the problem of traffic injuries and fatalities does not merely
apply to China alone. In fact, it is an emerging and important issue worldwide and it
constitutes for a serious global problem as the number of vehicles, express roads and
demands for quick transportation constantly and quickly increases elsewhere. It is crucial to
track the recent situation and emphasize the scope of the problem. Most importantly
however, there is a need for innovative and more complex solutions and more effective
policies that will no longer base on “intuitively obvious” notions such us “older drivers get
involved in accidents more often because of a bad sight” or “mobile phones use is
dangerous for drivers because it does not allow them to have both hands on the wheel” as
they, in fact, have no supporting evidence (Hole, 2007). As policies which rely on common
sense are believed to be ineffective, there is a need of better understanding what and how it
may influence a driver or make him more prone to be involved in a car accident.
There are multiple aspects of such and the definite conclusions are often difficult to draw.
Police underreports are a serious problem in China and it is often forgotten that accident is a
result of multiple coexisting events and conditions occurring simultaneously rather than an
outcome of a single error and there is a high chance that what is stated as a cause of
accident in a police report is not and actual cause.
This paper investigated more into psychosocial factors that may lead drivers to certain
behaviors which can then possibly develop into risk for violations. Psychology plays a
significant role in traffic safety in a sense that it determines some of the driving behaviors
and it was represented in this paper. Moreover, this study assumes the dramatic situation
on Beijing roads could be improved once people understand and know about the problem in
32
its current state of art. Once people become more aware the more definite steps can be
taken. For now, Chinese people tend not to “see” or admit the existence of a serious issue
of traffic related morbidity and mortality. The reasons for such attitude are rather complex
and not easily eradicated since they are deeply rooted in culture and politics of the country.
Nevertheless, more precise and effective action to reduce traffic deaths should be taken and
the psychology of driving in case of Chinese drivers must not be omitted.
Chinese drivers may not be “fast and furious” but neither are they examples of ideal
drivers, regardless of what they think of themselves or what they express openly. Facts,
police recordings and evidence speak for itself and puts traffic safety and the behavior of
Chinese drivers in rather dark shades. Nothing is impossible to change and as this study
shows, the most important goal in this country should be to eradicate the false
misconceptions, habits and perceptions that are not sincere. In order to alternate the
behavior of drivers, they must admit the existence of the problem and truly understand its
consequences.
Finally, China is experiencing the times, when the influence of Western countries is visible,
welcomed and somewhat popular especially among younger generations. Young people look
up the foreign cultures and try to adapt to them and adopt them. It opens an opportunity
window for that through a good example, road users in China may start behaving differently
and start demanding changes from administrative and ruling bodies. It is worth to mention
that it is highly possible to make the situation better and the roads safer. With a proper and
well-designed policy and attention from legal bodies, a lot of lives can be saved.
9. Final word and recommendations
The problem of traffic accidents and injuries in China and worldwide is an important and
relevant issue. With increased number of vehicles and higher mobility of people, the safety
has to be endured and improved. The collection of up-to-date, full and genuine data is
necessary and crucial for further steps to be successfully implemented. There is a need for
more research, focus and awareness in the field of traffic related problems, road injuries,
cultural differences and driving behavior. It is promising and very likely that together with
altering the behavior of drivers, the safety of Beijing roads and any roads in the world can
increase and the numbers of accident victims will significantly decrease. Changing ones
behavior is however an extremely complex, challenging and timely process that needs
33
holistic approach and multidisciplinary cooperation as well as working strategies and
incentives. This is the issue to be considered and solved by authorities.
It is important to highlight the problem of traffic deaths and injuries and their causes in
media campaigns, at schools and in academic world. Every death is tragic and painful and if
there is something that can be done to prevent it, with no doubt, should be done. The main
idea for this study is to raise some more awareness and make the problem count in a
political agenda especially in countries when the situation is getting worse, such as China. It
is highly possible to act on this issue with a great success through combining different
strategies and becoming proactive. If we want to protect public health, we should protect
people from instant and unpredictable deaths as much as we can.
34
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Appendences
Appendix 1. Interview Guide used in the study.
INTERVIEW GUIDE
1. Name
2. Age
3. Sex
4. Occupation
5. Driving experience ( in years)
Questions: Models
1. What do you think about the traffic and traffic safety in Beijing?
2. How would you describe yourself as a driver?
- What are your habits, fails, advantages, disadvantages?
- What influences your driving skills and the way you drive?
3. How drivers should be to assure road safety?
4. In your opinion, what would be the effective way of improving driving behaviors?
Questions: Experience
5. Have you ever been involved in a traffic violation, car accident etc. and how did you
experience it?
- Why do you think it happened
6. Was there anything you’d change in yours or others’ behavior?
7. If not, have you observed traffic violation, car accident etc. and how did you
experience it?
Questions : Possible recommendations
8. Forget about all existing policies, regulations, prohibitions and laws
regarding driving in China and elsewhere. If you were there to make
recommendations and policies about traffic safety and accident mortality and
morbidity reduction what would you suggest?
39