16-ADR, MOA, USE, PRODRUG, RESISTANCE

DRUG-ADR ACEI-affect lung&kidn developm, dry cough, angioedema, hyperkalem, ren dysfn acetazolamide-metab acidosis, tingling numbness actinomycinD(Dactinomycin)-radiation recall phenom acyclovir-nephrotox adriamycin(doxorubicin)-cardiotoxic, hand foot synd alkylat agent-venoocclus ds liver(Rx-defibrotide) α1adr antag-retrograde ejaculation, miosis α2adr agonist-depression, anticholinergic, rebound HTN(Rx-phentolamine, tolazoline) alosetron-ischemic colitis amantadine-ankle edema, livido reticularis aminoglycoside-irrevers ototoxicity(mtDNA), nephrotoxicity amiodarone Please-Photosensitivity, blue grey Pigmentat skin, Periph neuropathy Check-Corneal microdeposition PFT-Pulm Fibrosis LFT-Liver cirrhosis, pseudoalcoh Liver inj, Mallory hyaline body TFT-hypoThy, hyperThy

amlodipine-ankle edema amoxapine-EPS, galactorrhea, NMS, tardive dyskinesia

↓ amphetamine-addiction, appetite, cardiotoxicity amphotericin B-dose limit RTA, AKI, hypokalem, hypomagnesem, anem ampicillin, cisapride, mosapride, tegaserod, colchicine, fosfomycin, irinotecan, leflunomide-diarrh antimetabolite-acidic urine(crystaluria) apraclonidine-lid lag, itch, lid dermatitis, follicular conjunctivitis, mydriasis, dry mouth aprotinin-death atenolol-fatigue azathioprine-bone marrow suppression

↑ β2adr agonist-hyperglycemia, hypokalemia, tremor(MC), HR, MI, card arrest, pulm edem bimatoprost-iris pigmentation, eyelash growth bleomycin-pulm fibrosis, HSR, mucocut fibrosis bortezomib-periph neuropath bosentan, flutamide, lumiracoxib, nefazodone, sitaxentan, stanozolol, ximelagatran-hepatotox bremelanotide, methergin-HTN

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bRimOnidINE-ant uveitis, dROwsINEss, headache, allergic blepharoconjunctivitis bromocryptine-psychosis, confusion, erythromelalgia

↑ bupropion- suicidal tendency, wt loss, sz, restlessness, tremor busulphan-pulm fibrosis, cataract, gynaecomastia, adr insuff, hyperpigmentation, hyperuricemia CBZ-hyponatremia, aplastic anem capecitabine-hand foot mouth synd

↓ carbenicillin- PLT aggregat carbimazole-maculopapular rash(MC), agranulocytosis carboplatin-myelosuppression carboprost-diarrh(MC), asthma carmustine-sustained myelosuppress cefoperazone-disulfiram rxn

↓ ceftazidime-neutropenia, PLT cephaloridine-nephrotoxicity chloroquine-retinal pigmentation, optic neuritis, lichenoid erupt, sz

↓ chlorpropamide- PLT cisplatin-vomiting, nephrotox(Rx-amifostine), neurotox, ototox, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, hypocalcemia, hypophosphatemia, sec ca clarithromycin-reversible hearing loss clofazimine-brown black skin discoloration, icthyosis(crocodile skin/sauroderma) clomiphene citrate-hotflush(MC), ovarian cyst, ovarian hyperstimulat synd(<1%), multiple preg(6-8%), gynecomastia mal

↑ clozapine- appetite, wt gain, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, sedation, ↓sialorrhoea(pilow wet synd), sz threshold, flu like synd, agranulocytosis(most

dangerous), ileus, myocarditis, cholestatic jaundice cocaine-cerebral infarct in fetus cycloserine, mefloquine-neuropsychosis Cyclosporine-gingival hyperplasia, DM, neurotox, hepatotox, diarrh, alopecia, HTN(Rx-CCB), hyperkalemia, hirsutism cyclophosphamide-hgic cystitis(Rx-formalin irrigat, mesna, N acetyl cysteine, carboprost), cardiotox, SIADH CyTArabine-Cerebellar aTAxia dantrolene-m weakn, diarrh, hepatotox dapsone-hemolyt anem, methHbemia, nausea, anorexia, fix drug eruption, hepatitis, agranulocytosis, mental sympt daptomycin-myopathy DES-clear cell ca vag, vag adenosis, cx anat anomaly, CIN, adenoca cx, hypoplasia uterus(MC), T shape uterus(most characterist), parafimbrial cyst, ren anomaly(mal), testicular hypoplasia, cryptorchidism digitalis-optic neuritis dipivefrine-cystoid macular edema disopyramide-dryness of mouth, urine retention

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disulfiram-nausea, vomiting, headache, flushing, hypotension diuretic-oligohydramnios dorsolamide-corneal edema echothiophate-cataract ergot alkaloid-HTN, IHD, ergotism(foot gangrene, Saint Antony fire) estrogen-vomiting, ca breast, ca endom, DVT, hep adenoma, cholestat jaundice, migraine etanercept-TB reactivation Ethambutol-optic neuritis(grEEn) ethionamide-hypothy

↑ ethosuximide- sedat etoposide-sec leukemia(early) exenatide-nausea felbamate-aplastic anem, sever hepatitis fenfluramine-ECG abnorm, valvular def, pulm HTN, sudden death fibrate-GB stone, pancreatitis, myopathy

↓ fingolimod- HR, 1°AV node block 5FU-diarrh(MC), myelosuppress, hand foot synd fluoxetine-nausea, vomiting(MC), delayed orgasm, insomnia, anxiety, sweating, diarrh, urinary retention furosemide-hypomagnesemia Gatifloxacin-dysGlycemia

↓ GnRH agonist-hist release, hot flush, flare up after 12h, nausea, headache, libido, hypercholesterolem, osteoporosis, depression griseofulvin-disulfiram rxn halothane-hepatic necrosis, jaundice hCG-ovarian hyperstimulat synd(VEGF) heparin A-Alopecia B-Blding O-Osteoporosis U-Urticaria T-Thrombocytopenia HEpaRin-HypERkalemia

↑ hydralazine-reflex HR hydrochlorothiazide-photosensitivity ifosfamide-neurotox, RTA IL2, permetrexed-hand foot synd imipenem, loracarbef, procaine penicillin-sz ipratropium-dry mouth(MC), bad taste, scratch in trachea, urine retention INH-periph neuropathy, neuropsychosis, SLE, hepatotox, shoulder hand synd, RA, gynecomastia ivabradine-luminous phen(object app bright)

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lamotrigine-SJS l asparaginase-hypercoagulation, hgic pancreatitis

↑ latanoprost-iris pigmentation, conjunct hyperemia, periocular dermatitis, lth ↑eyelash(hypertrichosis), inflammation

levodopa-visual nonthreatening hallucination, chorea, mydriasis Li-hypothy, nephrogenic DI like nephropathy, bn&coarse tremor lignocaine-sz, nystagmus, cardiotox, HSR

↓ linezolid- PLT, neutropenia melphalan-sec ca metformin-vitB12 def methicillin-interstitial nephritis mtx-periph neuropathy, oligospermia/defect oogenesis, acidic urine, hepatotox, myelosuppression methyldopa-hemolysis in mother methysergide-retrolental/orbital fibrosis, retroperit fibrosis, pulm fibrosis mexiletine-nausea, tremor MianSerin-sz, Myelosuppress minocycline-blue black pigmentation nail minoxidil-hirsutism, fluid retention Misoprostol-shivering, hyperpyrexia, hyperstimulat, Moebius synd(CNVI,VII palsy) Mitomycin-Myelosuppress, HUS, delay bronchospasm mitoxantrone-cardiomyopathy molindone-wt loss montelukast, zafirlukast-headache, eosinophilia, vasculitis mycophenolate mofetil-diarrh, vomiting Naficillin-Neutropenia naloxone-HTN, pulm edema, ventr dysrrhythmia naproxen-pseudoporphyria nitrate-throbbing headache, hypotension, tolerance(Monday morning headache), MethHbemia, rash nitrofurantoin-nausea, vomiting, coffee colour urine, disulfiram rxn, pulm fibrosis nitrosourea-delayed myelosuppress octreotide-GB stone, vitB12 def olanzapine-stroke, sedation, wt gain(max), DM omeprazole-carcinoid tm in rat ondansetron-headache

↓ IA antiarrhythmic-diarrh(35%), PLT oxacillin-hepatitis oxaliplatin-neuropathy, laryngopharyngeal paraesthesia OxytOcin-hypOtension paracetamol-RCC, phototox, metab acidosis paroxetine-teratogenic(CVS anomal), wt gain pentaerythritol tetraNO3-skin rash

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pentazocin, pethidine-angina pergolide-cardiac valvular fibrosis phenylbutazone-agranulocytosis pHenytoin-Hypersensitivity, Hyperglycem, Hyperplasia gum(MC, collagen accumulat), Hirsutism, Hepatitis, Hypotension, osteomalacia, megaloblast anem, gynecomastia, ataxia Pilocarpine-cataract, Pseudomyopia, headache pioGlitazone-Na,H2O retent, wt Gain plicamYCin-hypoglYCemia procainamide-lupus, arthritis procarbazine-disulfiram rxn, sec ca propafenone-asthma, PVD, hypoglycem pyrazinamid-hepatotox, hyperuricemia quetIAPIne-cataract, prIAPIsm quinidine-VT, nausea, vomiting, diarrh, ataxia, tinnitus, vertigo

↓ quinine-optic neuritis, PLT, hemolysis reserpine-suicidal depression retinoid-dryness of skin& mucosa

↓ Rifampicin-AI PLT, flu like syndR, red orange urine, contact lens staining, hepatotox, purpura, jaundice, resp synd rimonabant-psychiatric ds, wt loss risperidone, rofecoxib, SibuTRamine, tegaserod, valdecoxib-MI, STRoke RopiniroLE-RestLEss LEg synd rosiglitazone-CHF

↑ ↑ rotigotine-impulsibe behav, shopping, sexual desire↓ sildenafil-blue vision defect( PDE6 enz in retina), flushing, hypotension, headache

Na nitrOprusside-hypOthy soFosbuvir-Fatigue, headache sotalol-torsade de pointes steroid-glaucOma(tOpical), post subcapsular CataraCt(systemiC), behav worsen child, osteoporosis, avasc necrosis fem neck streptogRAmin-arthRAlgia sulfonamide-acidic urine(crystaluria) surfactant-pulm hge(MC) tamoxifen-ca endom, cataract, hotflush, thromboembolism tamsulosin-floppy iris synd taxane-myelosuppress, periph neuropathy teriparatide-osteogenic sarcoma tetrazepam-skin rxn thalidomide-constipation, periph neuropathy

↓ thiazide-impotence, PLT thioridazin-pigm retinopathy, arrhythmia thiothixene-neuroleptic malign synd

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timolol-epith toxicity, allergic conjunctivitis tocainamide-agranulocytosis tOlcapOne-rhabdOmyOlysis, diarrhOea, hepatOtOx, yellOwish Orange urine topiramate-wt loss, ren stone trazodone-sedation, priapism trimethadione-day blindness, nephrotox

↓ valproate-hepatotox, PLT, GI irritat, wt gain, transient alopecia, hyperammonemia, pancreatitis, coagulat disord, ataxia, sedation, tremor vancomycin-red man synd(hist release), nephrotox, ototoxic varenicillin-suicidal tendency

↓ verapamil-constipation(max), HR, AV node block, ankle edema vinbLastin-myeLosuppress vincristine-periph neuropathy, SIADH vitB3-acanthosis nigricans voriconazole-drug-drug interact, hepatotox, photosensitivity warfarin A-Alopecia B-Blding, purple toe synd, dermal vasc necrosis O-Oral GI tolerance U-Dermatitis T-Teratogenic

ximelagatran-liver failure yohimbine-postural hypotension, depression, sexual stimulat zileuton-hepatitis ziprasidone-cardiotoxic

DRUG-MOA↓ actinomycinD- DNA dep RNA synth

aldesleukin-IL2 agonist alkylating agent-abnorm base pairing, DNA strand breakage

→ aminoglycoside-bind 30S ribosome misreading mRNA↑ amphetamine- cellular release catecholamine

→ amphotericinB-bind ergosterol pore in cell memb↓ anagrelide- PLT maturat ↓ → ↓ bacitracin- dephosphorylation of bactoprenol cell wall synth

barbiturat-bind βsubunit at α-βinterface↓ bedaquiline- myocobact ATP synthase

BDZ-bind αsubunit at α-γinterface↓ → ↓ βlactam antibiotic- transpeptidase cross link peptide chain cell wall

bleomycin-DNA break, free radicle formation↓ bortezomib, cartilzomib- proteosome

↑ bremelanotide-cyclic heptapeptide lactam analog, MCR3,4 buprenorphine-partial μagonist

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→ ↓ → chloramphenicol-bind 50S ribosome transfer of peptide chain fr P A site↓ clofazimine- template fn DNA

↓ cocaine- reuptake of 5HT,NE,D→ → colchicine-bind Microtubule of Mitotic spindle Metaphase arrest Mitotic arrest

↓ → ↓ → ↓ cycloserine- Ala ligase N acetyl muramic acid cell wall synth↓ → cyclosporine, voclosporine, tacrolimus, sirolimus, everolimus- calcineurin NFATc

→ ↓ → ↓does not move fr cytoplasm to nucleus transcript IL2 act on MTOR recept↓ daunorubicin, doxorubicin- topoisomerase I&II

↓ Disulfiram- alDehyde DH>alcohol DH↓ ecallanitide- kallikrien↓ echinocandin- β1,3glucan synthase

↓ ethambutol- arabinogalactan↓ ezetimibe- cholesterol absorpt intest

↓ fasudil- Rho kinase 5fluorocytosine-attack fungal nucleus GABA-bind βsubunit glucarpidase-mtx adjuvant

↓ griseofUlvin- microtUbUle↓ hemicholinium- choline cotransporter

↑ heparin- antithrombin III→ ↓ → ↓ hydroxyurea-Sphase ribonucleoside diP reductase DNA synth

icatibant-bradykinin antag→ ↓ INH-INHA gene mycolic acid synth

↓ Pb- ALA synthase, ALA dehydratase, ferrochelatase↓ leflunomide- dihydroorotate DH

levosimendon-Ca sensitiser, open ATP sensit Kch→ ↓ lincosamide, macrolide, streptogramin-bind 50s ribosome translocation of

→elongated peptide chain fr A P site↓ → ↓ linezolid- 23S,50S ribosome prot synth

↓ mtx- DHFR↓ metyrosine- αmethyl paraTyr

↓ mitoxantrone-break DNA strand, DNA&RNA synth↓ mycophenolate mofetil- IMP DH

↓ nikkomycin- chitin synth↓ nitisone- urine excretion homogentisic acid

→ → ↑ → → nitrate-bind SH-cysteine NO release soluble guanyl cyclase cGMP →(Ca)(phosphorylat MLCK) sm m relax

↓ panobinostat, vorinostat, romidepsin- histone deacetylase pegvisomant-GH antag

↓ pentostatin- adenosine deaminase Piperazine citrate-flaccid Paralysis worm

↓ protC- fact V,VIII↓ pyrazinamide- mycolic acid

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↓ pyrimidine antimetab- thiamidylate synthase↓ racecadotril- encephalinase

↓ → ↓ rifampicin- DNA dep RNA polymerase initiat RNA synth↓ riluzole- NMDA

↓ riuonest-hr C1 esterase↓ ruxolitinib- JAK

↓ sulfonamide- dihydropteroate(folate) synthase competitively↓ taxane- depolymerisat mitotic spindle

↓ teicoplanin,vancomycin- elongat peptide chain cell wall↓ → ↓ terbinafine- squalene epoxide cell memb

tetrabenazine-D depleter→ tetracycline-bind 30S ribosome block AA deposition

↓ ↓ ↑ theophylline- phosphodiesterase, ade nosine, histone deacetylation↓ trilostane- 3βOHsteroidDH↓ ulinastatin- trypsin↓ → vesamicol- ACh tpt synaptic vesicle

↓ → ↓ vinka alkaloid- microtubule polymerisation mitotic spindle↓ warfarin- epoxide reductase

↑ black widow spider toxin- ACh release& depletion→ ↓ → ↓ → botulinum toxin-close presynapt Ca ch ACh release NM transm flaccid

paralysis↑ → ↑ → ↑ choler tox- ADP ribosylat Gs adenyl cyclase GI epith cAMP

Cl difficle toxinA(enterotoxin)-neutrophil chemoattractant, GTP binding prot glycosylat toxinB(cytotoxin)-cytoskeleton disrupt

↑ → ↓ diphtheria toxin- ADP ribosylat AA(diphthamide) on elongat fact2 translocation → ↓rRNA prot synth

↓ → ↓ EHEC verocytotoxin/shigalike toxin- ribosome prot synth↑ → ↑ ETEC heat labile toxin- adenyl cyclase cAMP

↑ → ↑ ETEC stable toxin- guanylyl cyclase cGMP→ → ↑ → ↓ pertussis toxin-modif α(i) fail to inh adenyl cyclase ADP ribosylat Gprot fn

adenyl cyclase, phospholipase, ion ch↓ → ↓ Pseudomonas exotoxinA- ADP ribosylation elongat fact2 prot synth

↓ → ↓ shiga toxin- 28sRNA prot synth→ → tetanospasmin-bind periph motor neuron enter axon retrograde tpt to cell body

→in brain&spinal cord presynaptic block release of Gly&GABA

DRUG-USE ACEI-CHF, HTN+DM, HTN+proteinuria, scleroderma crisis acetazolamide-periodic paralysis, abs sz, catamenial epilepsy(menstruation) aldesleukin-malign melanoma, RCC alosetron-diarrh dominant IBS fem

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alprostadil-erectile dysfn, maintain PDA patency amifostine-radioprotector, cisplatin induced nephrotox anagrelide-essential thrombocytosis apafant, lexipafant-pancreatitis BCG, mitomycinC-ca UB bleomycin-GCT, capillary hemangioma bortezomib-multiple myeloma, mantle cell lymphoma botulinum toxA-wrinkle, blepharospasm, cosmetic Sx, strabismus, dystonia botulinum toxB-SMR, cervical dystonia bremelanotide-erectile dysfn bretylium-hypothermia induced VT, bupivacaine induced VT bromocryptine, cabergoline, quinagolide (D2agonist)-galactorrhoea, hepat coma, cyclic mastalgia, Parkinson ds, acromegaly, T2DM carboprost-PPH carmustine-brain tm cephalosporine I-G+ve bact II-Pseudomonas, B fragilis III-Pseudomonas V-MRSA

cisplatin-ca cx, ca ovary clonidine-HTN, secretory diarrh cycloserine-TB cytarabine, doxorubicin-AML dapsone-acne, leprosy, pemph vulgaris, SLE, subcorneal pustule

↑ dalfampridin(4aminopyridin)- walking ability multiple sclerosis pt, Lambert Eaton synd denileukin deftitox(IL2+diphtheria tox)-cutan Tcell lymphoma dexmedetomidine-sedation in ICU pt diazoxide-HTN, insulinoma

↑ digoxin-CHF, disopyramide induced HR ecallanitide, riunest-heredit angioedema echinocandin-Candida, Aspergillus epoprostenol-dialysis, CABG, store PLT, maintain PDA fasudil-angina, SAH

↑ felypressin- lignocaine action, esoph varices 5FU-ca colon, keratosis, superf BCC fludarabine-CLL, hairy cell leukemia flutamide-ca prostate fosfomycin-UTI ganaxolone-abs sz, catamenial sz GCSF-neutropenia gemcitabine-radiosensitiser

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hydroxyurea-polycythemia vera, essential thrombocytosis, CML, psoriasis, sickle cell anem icatibant-dry cough interferon α-HBV, HCV, Hairy cell leukemia interferon β1A,B-multiple sclerosis interferon Gam-c/c Granulomatous ds irinotecan-ca colon IVIg-Kawasaki ds, GBS, myasth gravis, ITP ixabepilone-locally adv ca breast L asparaginase-ALL lenalidomide-multiple myeloma, MDS, mantle cell lymphoma, sickle cell anem levamisole-antihelminthic mecasermin-impaired growth d/t GH def metyrosin-pheochromocytoma mexiletine-VT, DM neuropathy, phantom limb midodrine-supine hypotension synd minoxidil-HTN, angina misoprostol-MTP, NSAID peptic ulcer mithramycin(plicamycin)-hypercalcemia mitoxantrone-AML,ca prostate mivabagran-overactive UB modafinil-narcolepsy, shift worker, obstr sleep apnea, multiple sclerosis montelukast, zafirlukast-asthma prophylaxis, Churg Strauss synd mtx(CANCErPO)-Chorioca, Abortion, NHL, Crohn ds, Ectopic preg, Psoriasis, Osteosarcoma nimodipine-SAH nitisone-alkaptonuria, tyrosinemia I nitrosourea-brain tm octreotide-carcinoid tm onabotulinum tox-prophylaxis c/c migraine ospemifine-dyspareunia ozurdex(0.7%dexamethasone)-CRVO paclitaxel-prevent stent reject palifermin-mucositis pentostatin-hairy cell leukemia perMEtrexed, triMEtrexed-MEsothelioma phentolamine-cheese rxn, pheochromocytoma, oxime induced HTN, Phentolamine Induced Penile Erection(PIPE) therapy phenytoin-AED, digoxin induced VT pitolisant, tiprolisant-schizophrenia, PD, narcolepsy rifaximin-pseudomemb enterocolitis, IBS, hep encephalopathy, ETEC riluzole-amyotroph lat sclerosis sirolimus, everolimus-prevent stent rejection

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streptograMin-Enterococcus faeciuM tamsulosin-ureteric stone temozolomide-glioblastoma multiforma, malign melanoma tezosentan-a/c heart failure thalidomide(R)-multiple myeloma, lepra rxn2, aphthous ulcer, SLE topiramate-anticraving for both smoking &alcohol topotecan-ca ovary ulinastatin-pancreatitis, sepsis valrubin-BCG resist ca UB vancomycin-inf endocarditis voclosporin-inf uveitis(LUMINATE)

DRUG-RESISTANCE ceftriaxone-horizont tranfer plasmid coated AmpC βlactamase ethambutol-embB gene fluoroquinolone-pt mutat DNA gyrase gene gyrA,B

→ → INH-katG gene mutat(katG catalase peroxidase activat INH), mycobact inh A, kasA gen mutat, cross resist-ethionamide mtx-DHFR overexpression, efflux by P glycoprot rifampicin-rpoB gene pyrazinamide-pncA gene streptomycin-16S rRNA, ribosom prot S12 gene zidovudine-alter reverse transcriptase

PRODRUG-ACTIVE FORM αmethyldopa-αmethylNE bacampicillin-ampicillin bambuterol-terbutaline capecitabine-5FU canrenone-spironolactone cyclophosphamide-phosphoramide mustard, aldophosphamide dabigatran dipivefrine-epinephrine dipyridamole-adenosine enalapril-enalaprilat 5fluorocytosine-5fluorouracil fluoxetine fosphenytoin-phenytoin heroin-morphine hydralazine MAOI-hydrazide derivative isoniazid levodopa-dopamine lovastatin&simvastatin-OH derivative

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melagatran-ximelagatran mercaptopurine-methylmercaptopurine ribonucleotide minoxidil-minoxidil SO4 mycophenolate mofetil nitazoxanide omeprazole phenacetin-acetaminophen prednisone-prednisolone proguanil-proguanil triazine psylocybin-psylocin sertraline sulfasalazine-5ASA sulindac-sulfide metabolite valaciclovir-aciclovir

Abbreviations a-artery, AA-amino acid, abtc-antibiotic, AI-autoimmune bef-before, bel-below, b/l-bilateral, bld-blood, b/n-between, bn-benign, br-branch, Bx-biopsy ca-carcinoma, carb-carbohydrate, c/i-contraindication, c/l-contralateral, conc-concentration, cong-congenital, Cx-cervix d-day, def-deficient, ds-disease, d/t-due to, Dx-diagnosis E-estrogen fem-female, fr-from gld-gland, glu-glucose h-hormone idiop-idiopathic, i/l-ipsilateral, inf-infection, inj-injury lig-ligament, LL-lower limb, l/t-leading to m-muscle, maj-major, mal-male, MC-most common, met-metastasis, min-minor, mtx-methotrexate, Mx-management n-nerve, norm-normal P-progesterone, pl-plasma, prot-protein, pt-patient Rx-treatment SCC-squamous cell carcinoma, sr-serum, Sx-surgery, sz-seizure tm-tumour, ts-tissue UL-upper limb, u/l-unilateral vag-vagina, VC-vocal cord, vel-velocity, vert-vertebra, vit-vitamin, vol-volume w-week, wt-weight Xr-X ray y-year #-fracture °-degree

THESE NOTES ARE ONLY FOR THE PURPOSE OF GUIDANCE AND HELP TO PG ASPIRANTS, NOT FOR COMMERCIAL OR OTHER PURPOSE. REFERENCE HAS BEEN TAKEN FROM VARIOUS STANDARD TEXTBOOKS. Aim

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