Aircraft Aircraft Technology Technology

EvolutionEvolution

AVIATION AVIATION HISTORYHISTORY

By By Ms. ZulianaMs. Zuliana

Future Future ChallengesChallenges

OutlinesOutlinesPart 1: Aircraft PressurizationPart 1: Aircraft Pressurization

Part 2: Flight InstrumentsPart 2: Flight Instruments

Part 3: Aviation GrowthPart 3: Aviation Growth Uses of AircraftUses of Aircraft 1918 – 1939: World War One Aircraft1918 – 1939: World War One Aircraft 1939 – 1945: World War Two Aircraft 1939 – 1945: World War Two Aircraft 1945 – 1991: The Cold War 1945 – 1991: The Cold War

Part 4: Aviation Future ChallengesPart 4: Aviation Future Challenges

Part 1Why Aircraft need to be

‘Pressurized’?

Definition

‘Cabin Pressurization’

Active pumping of compressed air into an aircraft cabin when flying at high altitude in

order to increase the air pressure within the cabin.

Why Aircraft needs to be ‘Pressurized’?

To provide the crew and passengers a safe & comfortable environment.

Pressurized means maintains a constant pressure even aircraft flying in high altitude.

At higher altitude (> 3000m), the outside atmospheric pressure is very low.

Risks of unpressurized aircraft

Hypoxia: Lacks of oxygen Crew/passengers can loss their consciousness.

Altitude sickness: Increase in the blood pH Crew/passengers may experience fatigue, nausea, headaches &

sleeplessness.

Decompression sickness: Bubbles in the bloodstream Crew/passengers may feel tiredness, forgetfulness and can lead

to stroke

Barotrauma: Gases trapped within the bodies (middle ear) Crew/passengers may suffer critical pain

1. The design of an airtight fuselage (air can’t pass through) .

2. A source of compressed air (from a gas turbine engine)3. Environmental Control System.

Valve controls at rear of fuselage: All exhaust air is dumped to atmosphere.Pilot can change cabin pressure through this valve.

How cabin is pressurized?

Part 2:Aircraft Flight Instruments

Definition

‘Flight Instruments’

The instruments that used for displaying/ controlling the attitude (orientation) of the

aircraft during flight. Examples: altitude, airspeed, magnetic

direction/heading

Definition

Since the instrumentation and equipment of aircraft mostly use the electronic circuit/part, they are called Avionics

The shorthand for Aeronautical or Aviation Electronics

For safety and reliable operation

The first aircraft instruments is fuel & oil pressure instruments To warn of engine trouble so that the aircraft could be

landed before engine failed).

As aircraft could fly over considerable distances weather became a problem.

Instrument systems were developed to fly through bad weather conditions.

Speed, distance, altitude, attitude, direction, temperature and pressure are measured and the measurements are displayed on display panel in the cockpit

The needs of flight instruments

Aircraft Instrument Panel of Cessna

Aircraft Instrument Panel of Boeing 737-400

Six Basic InstrumentsAirspeed Indicator Attitude Indicator

Altitude Indicator

Turn IndicatorHeading

Indicator

Vertical Speed Indicator

1.Airspeed Indicator

To shows the aircraft's speed relative to the surrounding air.

The indicated airspeed must be corrected for air density (which varies with altitude, temperature and humidity) in order to obtain the true airspeed, and for wind conditions in order to obtain the speed over the ground.

2. Attitude Indicator

To show the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are leve or notl and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon. This is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility.

3. Altimeter

To indicate the vertical distance (height) of the airplane above ground level.

Drum and single pointer Altimeter Indicator

Digital Altimeter Indicator

3. Altimeter

There are two kinds of the altimeter used on an aircraft: the barometric altimeter the radar/ radio altimeter.

Barometric Altimeter Uses the atmosphere characteristic “air pressure

decreases with the increasing altitude“.

Radar/Radio Altimeter Uses the sound/electro magnetic wave to measure

the vertical distance of the airplane

4. Heading IndicatorTo displays aircraft heading with respect to geographical north.

5. Turn IndicatorTo display direction of turn and rate of turn : ex. direction of roll while the aircraft is rolling.

6.Vertical Speed IndicatorTo display the vertical speed of the aircraft (rate of climb or descent in feet per minute, meters per second or knots)

This instrument senses changing air pressure.

Magnetic Compass

The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. For purposes of navigation it may be necessary to correct the direction indicated (which points to a magnetic pole) in order to obtain direction of true north or south (which points to the earth's axis of rotation).

B 777 Flight Deck A 320 – Flight Deck

Flight Deck of Modern Aircraft

Glass Cockpit History

1970: NASA conducted research on flight instruments displays 1982: The success of the NASA-led glass cockpit work is reflected in the total acceptance of electronic flight displays in Boeing 767.By the end of the 1990s, LCD display panels were increasingly favored among aircraft manufacturers because of their efficiency, reliability and legibility. Nowadays, Modern aircraft such as the Boeing 777, Boeing 787, and Boeing 747-400, Boeing 767-400ER, Airbus A320 family (enhanced version), Airbus A330, Airbus A340 , Airbus A380 and Airbus A350 are fitted with glass cockpits consisting of liquid crystal display (LCD) units

Glass Cockpit in Airbus A380

Glass Cockpit Components

Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS): Displays all information regarding the aircraft’s situation,

position and progress. Comprising left- and right-side primary flight display

(PFD) and navigation display screens EFIS primarily covers horizontal and vertical position, but

also indicates time and speed.

EICAS (Engine Indications and Crew Alerting System) or ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor)

Comprising over-and-under center display screens, shows the aircraft’s systems conditions and engines performance.

Part 3

Aviation Growth

Uses of aircraftUses of aircraft

Military aircraftMilitary aircraft Fighters and bombers (shooting, combat)Fighters and bombers (shooting, combat) Search and rescue, reconnaissance (spying), observation Search and rescue, reconnaissance (spying), observation

transport, and tanker aircraft among others.transport, and tanker aircraft among others.

Commercial aircraftCommercial aircraft Scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying both passengers Scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying both passengers

and cargo. and cargo. The larger passenger-carrying types are often referred to as The larger passenger-carrying types are often referred to as

airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft. airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft. Some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation, and Some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation, and

some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft.some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft.

Uses of aircraftUses of aircraft

General aviationGeneral aviation Business jets , trainers, aerobatic types, racers, gliders, warbirds, Business jets , trainers, aerobatic types, racers, gliders, warbirds,

firefighters, medical transports, and cargo transports.firefighters, medical transports, and cargo transports.

Private aviation Private aviation Light passenger, business, or recreational types, and are usually owned or Light passenger, business, or recreational types, and are usually owned or

rented by the pilot. rented by the pilot. The same types may also be used for a wide range of commercial tasks, The same types may also be used for a wide range of commercial tasks,

such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight transport, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical evacuations. policing, crop dusting, and medical evacuations.

Experimental aircraftExperimental aircraft Experimental aircraft are one-off specials, built to explore some aspect of Experimental aircraft are one-off specials, built to explore some aspect of

aircraft design and with no other useful purpose. The Bell X-1 rocket plane, aircraft design and with no other useful purpose. The Bell X-1 rocket plane, which first broke the sound barrier in level flight, is a famous example.which first broke the sound barrier in level flight, is a famous example.

World War One (WW1) AircraftsWorld War One (WW1) Aircrafts (1919-1938) (1919-1938)

Before WW1, the 1Before WW1, the 1stst country to use planes for military purposes was Bulgaria, country to use planes for military purposes was Bulgaria, whose planes attacked the Ottoman positions during the First Balkan War whose planes attacked the Ottoman positions during the First Balkan War 1912-1913.1912-1913.

During WW 1 (1919-1938): Several pilots became famous for their air to air During WW 1 (1919-1938): Several pilots became famous for their air to air combats, the most well-known is Red Baron, who shot down 80 planes in air to combats, the most well-known is Red Baron, who shot down 80 planes in air to air combat with several different planes.air combat with several different planes.

Fokker Dr.I replica at the ILA 2006, the "Red Baron" triplane

Years between WWI and WWIIYears between WWI and WWII

Large advancement in aircraft technology. Large advancement in aircraft technology.

Wood and canvas converts to aluminium. Wood and canvas converts to aluminium.

Engine development :Engine development : In-line water cooled gasoline engines convert to rotary air cooled engines In-line water cooled gasoline engines convert to rotary air cooled engines

(increase propulsive power).(increase propulsive power). In the 1930’s jet engine began.In the 1930’s jet engine began.

After WWI, experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their After WWI, experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their new skills. new skills.

Many American pilots flying into small towns across the country and Many American pilots flying into small towns across the country and showing off their flying abilities, as well as taking paying passengers showing off their flying abilities, as well as taking paying passengers for rides. for rides.

Air shows sprang up around the country, with air races and Air shows sprang up around the country, with air races and acrobatic stunts.acrobatic stunts.

World War Two (WW2) (1939-1945) World War Two (WW2) (1939-1945) AircraftsAircrafts

World War II: Drastic increase of aircraft World War II: Drastic increase of aircraft development and production. development and production.

All countries involved in the war stepped All countries involved in the war stepped up production and development of aircraft up production and development of aircraft based on weapon delivery systems based on weapon delivery systems (Bombers, Fighters, Reconnaissance, (Bombers, Fighters, Reconnaissance, Transports, Trainers, Communication)Transports, Trainers, Communication)

World War Two (WW2) Aircrafts World War Two (WW2) Aircrafts (1939-1945) (1939-1945)

Focke-Wulf Fw 190

A Supermarine Spitfire was a typical World War II fighter.

The Cold War (1945 – 1991)The Cold War (1945 – 1991)

Most ex-military aircraft were used in the business of transporting Most ex-military aircraft were used in the business of transporting people and goods. people and goods.

Many companies existed, with routes that criss-crossed North Many companies existed, with routes that criss-crossed North America, Europe and other parts of the world. America, Europe and other parts of the world.

Heavy and super-heavy bomber airframes (e.g., B-29, Lancaster, Heavy and super-heavy bomber airframes (e.g., B-29, Lancaster, DC-3) easily converted into commercial aircraftDC-3) easily converted into commercial aircraft

By 1952, the British state airline introduced into service the first jet By 1952, the British state airline introduced into service the first jet airliner, the De Havilland Comet (the plane suffered a series of airliner, the De Havilland Comet (the plane suffered a series of highly public failures)highly public failures)

Other jet airliner designs Boeing 707 -comfortable, higher safety and Other jet airliner designs Boeing 707 -comfortable, higher safety and meet passenger expectations.meet passenger expectations.

In October of 1947, Chuck Yeager took the rocket powered Bell X-1 In October of 1947, Chuck Yeager took the rocket powered Bell X-1 past the speed of sound (1past the speed of sound (1stst controlled, level flight to cross the controlled, level flight to cross the sound barrier).sound barrier).

The Cold War (1945 – 1991)The Cold War (1945 – 1991)Further barriers of distance were eliminated in 1948 and 1952 as Further barriers of distance were eliminated in 1948 and 1952 as the first jet crossing of the Atlantic occurred and the first nonstop the first jet crossing of the Atlantic occurred and the first nonstop flight to Australia occurred. flight to Australia occurred.

In 1967, the X-15 set the air speed record for an airplane at 4,534 In 1967, the X-15 set the air speed record for an airplane at 4,534 mph or Mach 6.1 (7,297 km/h). mph or Mach 6.1 (7,297 km/h).

1969, Boeing came out with its vision for the future of air travel 1969, Boeing came out with its vision for the future of air travel

(Boeing 747). This plane is still one of the largest aircraft ever to fly, (Boeing 747). This plane is still one of the largest aircraft ever to fly, and it carries millions of passengers each year. and it carries millions of passengers each year.

Commercial aviation progressed even further in 1976 as British Commercial aviation progressed even further in 1976 as British Airways provide supersonic service across the Atlantic (Concorde). Airways provide supersonic service across the Atlantic (Concorde).

A few years earlier the SR-71 Blackbird had set the record for A few years earlier the SR-71 Blackbird had set the record for crossing the Atlantic in under 2 hours.crossing the Atlantic in under 2 hours.

Lockheed SR71 Blackbird

Fastest in 1989 Now retired

Part 4

Assignment Tips

ASSIGNMENT QUESTION ASSIGNMENT QUESTION FOR AVIATION HISTORYFOR AVIATION HISTORY

Aviation has progressed so fast since the Wright Brothers first flew in Aviation has progressed so fast since the Wright Brothers first flew in 1902. Airline aircrafts have become faster and more economical to 1902. Airline aircrafts have become faster and more economical to

operate; and from single aisle to wide cabin and from canvas to operate; and from single aisle to wide cabin and from canvas to composite and from subsonic to supersonic and single to double composite and from subsonic to supersonic and single to double

deck and from mechanical instruments to glass cockpit etc. Explain deck and from mechanical instruments to glass cockpit etc. Explain what are the future challenges that the civil aviation would face. what are the future challenges that the civil aviation would face.

All assignments must have All assignments must have font 12,font 12, not be more than not be more than 15 pages15 pages at at 1.5 line spacing1.5 line spacing. . Provide Provide table of contenttable of content and and bibliography bibliography at the end of the end of the assignments at the end of the end of the assignments together with the declaration format. No plagiarism, therefore those with duplicated together with the declaration format. No plagiarism, therefore those with duplicated

assignments will be penalised. assignments will be penalised. Deadline: 15 October 2009 (Thursday) at 5.30pmDeadline: 15 October 2009 (Thursday) at 5.30pm. . Delay Delay penalty: one mark each daypenalty: one mark each day..

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Challenges to Civil Challenges to Civil AviationAviation

World Civil AviationWorld Civil Aviation

Growing at a fast rate.Growing at a fast rate.Countries like India, China and Middle East Countries like India, China and Middle East are expanding their civil aviationare expanding their civil aviationGlobalization has made the world smaller Globalization has made the world smaller due the increase presence of aviation.due the increase presence of aviation.People are moving across boarders a very People are moving across boarders a very fast mode. fast mode. Many nations will liberalize the aviation Many nations will liberalize the aviation industry meaning any airlines can enter their industry meaning any airlines can enter their countriescountries

Future ChallengesFuture Challenges

1.1. Competition Competition

2.2. Environmental: PollutionEnvironmental: Pollution

3.3. Economical: Fuel price problem Economical: Fuel price problem

4.4. SafetySafety

5.5. Trained staffTrained staff

6.6. Airways congestionAirways congestion

Challenges – Very Intense Challenges – Very Intense CompetitionCompetition

Within a nationWithin a nation

Like Air Asia and MASLike Air Asia and MAS

Within a regionWithin a region

Like MAS, SIA and Cathay Pacific Like MAS, SIA and Cathay Pacific

Price war reducing the industry value and Price war reducing the industry value and companies profitscompanies profits

Airlines may go bankrupt and close downAirlines may go bankrupt and close down

Challenges – Fuel PriceChallenges – Fuel Price

World wide oil is getting depleted by the daysWorld wide oil is getting depleted by the daysDemand of oil increases by high rate due to Demand of oil increases by high rate due to increase in other industries and civil aviation.increase in other industries and civil aviation.Costs of searching of oils have gone up especially Costs of searching of oils have gone up especially in deep seas.in deep seas.Due geopolitical situation (like wars) oil price may Due geopolitical situation (like wars) oil price may fluctuate as high a $140 per barrel (2008)fluctuate as high a $140 per barrel (2008)Aircraft only uses oil to generate energy. It has to Aircraft only uses oil to generate energy. It has to alternative sources.alternative sources.When this happens most airlines suffer losses to When this happens most airlines suffer losses to increase in fuel costs. increase in fuel costs.

Challenges - PollutionChallenges - Pollution

More and more nations are getting pollution More and more nations are getting pollution consciousconsciousThe people insist on noise and warm ozone The people insist on noise and warm ozone free area.free area.Aircraft manufacturers have problems in Aircraft manufacturers have problems in meeting these requirements especially with meeting these requirements especially with noise free.noise free.When people opinion gets stronger than the When people opinion gets stronger than the political masters there will be a curtailment political masters there will be a curtailment (reduce in quantity) of civil aviation (reduce in quantity) of civil aviation movements. movements.

Challenges – Safety Challenges – Safety

11 Sept in USA incident has changed the world 11 Sept in USA incident has changed the world aviation safety requirementsaviation safety requirementsMore and more safety requirements are More and more safety requirements are implemented preventing people from boarding implemented preventing people from boarding aircraft freely.aircraft freely.More states are imposing more stringent rules that More states are imposing more stringent rules that disallow passengers movement – like USA disallow passengers movement – like USA restricted on Middle East passengers to USA.restricted on Middle East passengers to USA.More machines and tools need to be developed More machines and tools need to be developed and purchased to protect aircrafts. and purchased to protect aircrafts. All these incur costsAll these incur costs

Challenges – Trained StaffChallenges – Trained Staff

As airline goes sophisticated so do the staff As airline goes sophisticated so do the staff requirementsrequirements

More skilled pilots and engineers are More skilled pilots and engineers are neededneeded

These people since operating on the same These people since operating on the same types of aircraft are easily attracted to move types of aircraft are easily attracted to move away with a better salaries.away with a better salaries.

Better incentives need to be given and Better incentives need to be given and hence more costshence more costs

Challenges – Airways Challenges – Airways CongestionCongestion

More and more aircraft are flying each day More and more aircraft are flying each day but the airways remain the same.but the airways remain the same.

Busy airways requires highly careful ATC Busy airways requires highly careful ATC and equipment: less accidents will happenand equipment: less accidents will happen

More ATC controls need to be imposed on More ATC controls need to be imposed on airlines at approach and departure that will airlines at approach and departure that will render delays.render delays.

Delays will increase costs Delays will increase costs