© 2008 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. chapter 6: learning

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Chapter 6: Learning

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Learning

• A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience– Distinguishes between changes due to

maturation and changes brought about by experience

– Distinguishes between short-term changes in performance and actual learning

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Classical Conditioning

• Type of learning discovered by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Classical Conditioning

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Classical Conditioning

• Habituation

• Applying conditioning principles to human behavior– Phobias– PTSD

• Panic attacks – Can be relieved by classical conditioning

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Classical Conditioning

• Extinction– Occurs when a

previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears

• Spontaneous recovery– The re-emergence of

an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Classical Conditioning

• Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Classical Conditioning

• Stimulus generalization– Occurs when a

conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

• Stimulus discrimination– Ability to differentiate

between stimuli

Conditioned Stimulus

New Stimulus

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Classical Conditioning

• Learned taste aversion– When humans learn they are allergic to

certain foods they learn to avoid that food

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Operant Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning – Learning in which a voluntary response is

strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences

– B.F. Skinner

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Operant Conditioning

• Thorndike’s Law of Effect– Responses that lead to

satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, and responses followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement – The process by which

a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated

• Reinforcer– Any stimulus that

increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Operant Conditioning

• Primary reinforcer– Satisfies some biological need and

works naturally, regardless of a person’s prior experience

• Secondary reinforcer– A stimulus that becomes reinforcing

because of its association with a primary reinforcement

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

• Positive reinforcement– A stimulus added to the environment that

brings about an increase in a preceding response

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

• Negative reinforcement– Unpleasant stimulus which when removedremoved

from the environment leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will occur again in the future

• Escape conditioning• Avoidance conditioning

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

• Punishment– Stimulus that decreasesdecreases the probability that a

prior behavior will occur again• Positive punishment weakens a response through

the application of an unpleasant stimulus• Negative punishment consists of the removal of

something pleasant

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement– Behavior that is reinforced every time is

occurs

• Partial reinforcement– Behavior that is some but not all of the

time

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed-ratio schedule– Reinforcement is given only after a

certain number of responses

• Variable-ratio schedule– Reinforcement occurs after a varying

number of responses rather than after a fixed number

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Schedules of Reinforcement• Fixed-interval

– Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, overall rates of response are relatively low

• Variable-interval– Time between reinforcements varies

around some average rather than being fixed

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Schedules of Reinforcement

“Scalloping Effect”

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Operant Conditioning

• Stimulus control training– Behavior is reinforced in the presence of a

specific stimulus, but not in its absence

• Discriminative stimulus– Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will

follow the response

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Operant Conditioning

• Superstitious behavior

• Shaping – Process of teaching a complex behavior by

rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Operant Conditioning

• Biological constraints– Built-in limitations in the ability of animals to

learn particular behaviors– Application of conditioning in rats to discover

land mines

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Cognitive Approaches to Learning

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Cognitive Approaches to Learning

• Latent learning– A new behavior is learned but not

demonstrated until reinforcement is provided for displaying it

• Observational learning– Learning through observing the

behavior of another person called a model

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Cognitive Approaches to Learning

• Violence in television and video games– Most experts agree that watching high levels

of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively, and research supports this claim

– “Media copycat” killings

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Cognitive Approaches to Learning

• Learning styles– Relational style

• Master material best through exposure to a full unit or phenomenon

– Analytical style• Master material best when they can carry out an

initial analysis of the principles and components underlying a phenomenon or situation

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Learning Styles