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DISCREET TRIALS

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WHAT IS DISCRETE TRIAL TEACHING?(SMITH, 2001)

• The term discrete trial describes the following procedure:• The term discrete trial describes the following procedure:

SD – Response – Consequence – Intertrial Interval

• As opposed to free-operant procedure: – Organism is “free” to respond at various frequencies– There’s not intertrial interval

• Discrete Trial Teaching/Training (DTT) or Discrete Trial Instruction (DTI) is one of dozens of behavior analytic teaching strategiesone of dozens of behavior analytic teaching strategies

• It’s a method for individualizing and simplifying instruction to enhance learning • Skills are taught in small, structured steps• Instruction is typically conducted one-to-one in a distraction-free setting• DTT is “one of the most important instructional methods for children with

autism” (p. 86)

FIVE PARTS TO A TRIAL IN DTT(SMITH, 2001)

• Teacher presents brief, distinctive • Teacher presents brief, distinctive instruction or question – e.g., “do this”, “what is it?”

• If needed, a prompt is provided after or along with the instruction

• Child responds correctly or incorrectly• Teacher provides a consequence • Teacher provides a consequence

(reinforcer, ignore, or correction)• Intertrial Interval

– Teacher pauses 1-5 s before presenting the next trial– Data may be recorded at this time

SOME HISTORY…

• First well-known model of early behavioral intervention for • First well-known model of early behavioral intervention for children with autism was developed by (Ole) Ivar Lovaas in the ’60s and ’70s

• Trained in behavior analysis while doing a postdoc with Sidney Bijou in 1958– Lovaas (1993) credits Bijou with helping him bridge “the gap

between behavioral psychology and clinical application” (p. 618)• Psychology professor at the University of California at Los

Angeles (UCLA)Angeles (UCLA)• Applied the science of behavior analysis to the treatment of

people with autism in a new way, which he now calls the Lovaas Model of ABA (www.lovaas.com)

• Video

UCLA YOUNG AUTISM PROJECT (YAP; LOVAAS & SMITH,

2003)• Stage 1 (2-4 weeks) - DTT– Establish “instructional control”

• Extinguish escape-maintained behavior• Extinguish escape-maintained behavior• Establish history of reinforcement for following directions

• Stage 2 (1-4 months) - DTT– Direction following– Imitation– Matching, Receptive Object ID– Dressing– Toy play

• Stage 3 (6+ Months) - DTT, IT– Verbal Im– Expressive labels– Expressive labels– Receptive Picture/Action ID– Expand SH and play– Augmentative system if vocal language is not acquired

UCLA YOUNG AUTISM PROJECT (YAP; LOVAAS & SMITH,

2003)• Stage 4 (12 months) - DTT, IT, dyads with typical peers

– Expressive labels - colors, shapes– Expressive labels - colors, shapes– Beginning “language concepts”– Recognizing emotions– Beginning sentences (“I want____”; “I see ____”)– Pretend play and peer interaction– Toilet training

• Stage 5 (12 months) - DTT, IT, small group, typ PK– Using “language concepts”– Conversation– Comprehending stories– Perspective-taking– Perspective-taking– Learning from models– Working independently– Helping with chores

THE “ LOVAAS MODEL OF ABA”• Was widely disseminated as a treatment for children with

autism in the 80s– Manuals– Program evaluations

• 1981 • 2003• 1981 • 2003

SD � R � C

Discrete Trial Instruction Model

SD � R � C

Instruction � Response � Consequence

Antecedent � Behavior � Consequence

DISCRETE TRIAL QUICK VOCABULARY

• Target—the identified correct response• Distracter—any items/information, other • Distracter—any items/information, other than the target, presented during the

task

• Field of—refers to the total number of supplies presented at one time, target supplies presented at one time, target

and all distracters. (Fo3, Fo2)

DISCRETE TRIAL TRAINING

DTT involves:

1. Breaking a skill into smaller 1. Breaking a skill into smaller parts (sub-skills)

2. Teaching one sub-skill at a time until mastery

3. Allowing repeated practice in a concentrated period of timeconcentrated period of time

4. Providing prompting and prompt fading as necessary

5. Using reinforcement procedures

•The components of a trial:–Discriminative stimulus (SD): verbal direction, instruction, or cue

Discrete Trial Training Components

direction, instruction, or cue

–Response (R)–Consequence (C)•Stimulus Reinforcer (SR+): If response is correct, the child is reinforced

–Inter-trial Interval: pause between trialstrials

SD � R � C

DISCRETE TRIAL TRAINING •Initially:

–allow mini breaks where the student is given a reinforcer (great time to collect given a reinforcer (great time to collect data and prepare materials for next series in addition to monitoring the child’s behavior and reinforce appropriate play); length of mini break should be proportionate to length of work completedshould be proportionate to length of work completed

–trials can be conducted in series of one to several, depending on the attention span, need for reinforcement, and difficulty of the material

DISCRETE TRIAL TRAINING•Schedule as many sessions in a day as is productive for the child

•Allow breaks between sessions•Allow breaks between sessions

•Space sessions out through the day (rather than scheduled back-to-back)

•Intersperse instructions from a variety of domains (visual, motor, language, math, motor, visual)math, motor, visual)

•Evenly distribute sessions throughout the week

DISCRETE TRIAL TRAINING

•As the student progresses, make

the setting as natural as possiblethe setting as natural as possible

–deliberately allow distractions to occur

–move to different places for a portion or

all of the therapy session / teaching

opportunity

–gradually provide more complex

instructions

–vary materials

• Intertrial interval: The time between trials. An intertrial interval begins with the An intertrial interval begins with the delivery of a consequence (reinforcer or removal of stimulus arrangement) and ends when a stimulus arrangement is presented

• Discrete trial session: A discrete trial • Discrete trial session: A discrete trial session involves repeated trials, differential reinforcement and the collection of data on each trial

INTER-TRIAL

INTERVAL

�Is the time between Sr and the next

SDSD

�Allows a break between teaching

interactions

�Must not be too long or child may

stop attending to therapiststop attending to therapist

�Should be between 5-7 seconds

COMPONENTS OF DISCRETE

TRIAL TEACHING• Establish appropriate attending (child should sit appropriately

and quietly, make eye contact, and refrain from engaging in stereotypic behavior)stereotypic behavior)

• Present discriminative stimulus (direction or instruction)

• Wait a few seconds for the child to respond

• Provide either reinforcement contingent upon correct responding, or provide corrective feedback contingent upon incorrect responding or no responding.

• Provide intertrial interval (3-5 seconds) during which the child may consume or engage with the reinforcer and data may be may consume or engage with the reinforcer and data may be collected.

• The above sequence is typically repeated ten times

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR

DISCRETE TRIAL TEACHING• Arrange teaching environment to be free is distraction

• Have all necessary materials readily available, and keep waiting • Have all necessary materials readily available, and keep waiting

time to a minimum

• Establish appropriate attending behavior prior to providing

instruction

• Use brief and specific discriminative stimuli, and present them in

a clear and directive voice

• Present stimuli only once

• Use minimal prompts and fade prompts systematically and • Use minimal prompts and fade prompts systematically and

quickly

• Present reinforcement immediately following a correct response

in an enthusiastic, upbeat voice

• Use behavior specific phrase, e.g. “Good stand up!”

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR

DISCRETE TRIAL TEACHING• Provide frequent opportunities for the child to sample reinforcerssample reinforcers

• Use a variety of reinforcers

• Maximize the number of trials per session to provide ample opportunities for learning

• Make sure your teaching pace is appropriate, rather than too slow or too fast

• Establish a data collection procedure to measure progress objectively

• Establish a data collection procedure to measure progress objectively

• Take inter-observer agreement frequently to ensure that your data collection procedures are reliable

GRADUATED GUIDANCE

• General goal: fade prompts across 10 trialstrials

• Begin with least intrusive prompt necessary

• Begin to fade when student responds to 3 consecutive trials accurately

• If 2 consecutive errors, immediately • If 2 consecutive errors, immediately return to more intrusive prompt level

ERRORS INTERFERE WITH

LEARNING

• Teaching programs are designed to minimize errors and define back-up minimize errors and define back-up

procedures if an error should occur

• In all instances- errors should be interrupted before they are completedinterrupted before they are completed

PROMPT

• Any additional guidance, presented with • Any additional guidance, presented with the instruction, which guides the

student to make the correct response.

FADING

• Gradual removal of prompts until the • Gradual removal of prompts until the response occurs in the presence of the

original instruction.

FADING PHYSICAL PROMPTS

• Example:• Example:– FMG: immediate full manual guidance– PMG: immediate partial manual– 2 s delay PMG: 2 second delay partial manual guidancemanual guidance

– I: Independent (no prompt)

FADING VERBAL PROMPTS

• Example• Example– FVM: Immediate full verbal model: “dog”– PVM: Immediate partial verbal model: “d”

– 2 s delay PVM: 2 second delay partial verbal modelmodel

– I: Independent (no prompt)

DATA COLLECTION

• Data are collected on a trial-by-trial • Data are collected on a trial-by-trial basis

– +: correct and independent– +p: correct prompted– -: incorrect without prompts– -: incorrect without prompts– -p: incorrect with prompt– NR: no response

THE DISCRIMINATIVE

STIMULUS

�Must be issued when the child is ready to learn i.e. attending to therapist and therefore has the best chance of being successfulsuccessful

� Issued in clear language in a clear tone of voice

� Issued without interruption

� Issued only once before a response –follow through with the discrete trial before re-issuing.issuing.

�Must be consistent across tutors

THE RESPONSE

�Must be defined prior to trial

�Should occur within 3-5 seconds

�Must be clear – no extraneous

behavioursbehaviours

THE RESPONSE

• Why is it important to have established • Why is it important to have established criteria to determine the expected

behaviour?

A PRE-DEFINED

RESPONSE

�Ensures consistency across tutors�Ensures consistency across tutors

�Ensures child is not confused – they

know exactly what is expected of

them and exactly what is being

reinforced

�Ensures consistent data collection�Ensures consistent data collection

THE RESPONSE

• Can you name some different types of response?

MOTIVATIONAL

OPERATIONS

1.Alter the effectiveness of reinforcers or 1.Alter the effectiveness of reinforcers or punishers = value-altering effecta) Establishing – EOs – increase

effectivenessb) Abolishing – AOs – decrease

effectiveness

2. Alter the frequency of operant response 2. Alter the frequency of operant response classes related to consequences = behaviour-altering effect.a) Evocative – increase respondingb) Abative – decrease responding

MOTIVATIONAL

OPERATIONS

Examples:Examples:

-Amount of Attention

-Performance demands

-Access to objects

-Amount of Stimulation

-Hunger

-Pain

-Fatigue/Boredom

MANIPULATION OF

MOs

�Satiation will result in reinforcers losing

their value and no longer functioning as their value and no longer functioning as

reinforcers.

�Deprivation will result in reinforcers

increasing in value.

�Conduct regular reinforcer assessments

�Limit the availability of reinforcers outside �Limit the availability of reinforcers outside

the teaching situation

MANIPULATION OF

MOs

Keeping the child engaged in activities

and providing plenty of social contact and providing plenty of social contact

and access to tangibles may decrease

self-stimulatory, self-injurious and

aggressive behaviours induced by

EOs such as boredom or deprivation

of attention.of attention.

MANIPULATION OF

MOs�Provide access to attention, tangibles and escape contingent upon appropriateescape contingent upon appropriatebehaviours to decrease the need for children to engage in inappropriate behaviours.

�Reducing failure for the child results in increased access to Sr which may reduce the aversiveness of the teaching situation the aversiveness of the teaching situation “to the point at which it may not function as a demand but rather as an opportunity”

RECAP�Sr gives child feedback about their response

�Must be clearly contingent on target

behaviour- delivered immediately after a behaviour- delivered immediately after a

correct R

�Avoid satiation and use a variety of

reinforcers – maintain motivation, prevent

obsessions, move towards more naturally

occurring reinforcers occurring reinforcers

�Reinforcers must be reinforcing!

�Be aware of MOs

ERROR CORRECTION

What do you do if the response is incorrect?

�Effective error correction is essential to �Effective error correction is essential to ensure learning and prevent prompt dependency.

�The discrete trial must be completed before the SD is re-issued i.e., the child must receive feedback about their R before re-trial.trial.

�The child does not receive access to reinforcers for an incorrect response

ERROR CORRECTION

Corrective Feedback for an incorrect

response may include:response may include:

�“No”

�“try again”

�“not quite”�“not quite”

�“uh-uh” with head shake

ERROR CORRECTION

�Feedback is issued in a neutral tone of voice - not reinforcing and distinct from feedback for correct R.from feedback for correct R.

�All signs of reinforcers should be removed (may include eye-contact).

�“no” is used less often as it can be aversive and de-motivating for the aversive and de-motivating for the child.

ERROR CORRECTION

The “No-Prompt-Unprompted” procedure

� 2-3 secs after giving corrective feedback, the trial is reissued with a full prompt to show the trial is reissued with a full prompt to show the correct R and give the child access to Sr (at lower level than for a correct R).

�Trial is then re-presented without extra help to give the child the opportunity to make the correct response independently and receive optimal Sr.optimal Sr.

�procedure is repeated if necessary.

ERROR CORRECTION

�The item may be randomly re-presented later in the session to test for learning.

�Procedure may be adjusted according to �Procedure may be adjusted according to child’s needs and point in the programme e.g., some children may be given two opportunities to make a correct R before a prompt is brought in (N-N-P-UP) etc

�A prolonged unstable performance, e.g. if �A prolonged unstable performance, e.g. if 3rd trial in a row contains an error, returning to an earlier step i.e., reinstating prompts may be necessary.

ERROR CORRECTION

• Demonstration• Demonstration

• Practice with each other.

FURTHER

FEEDBACKYou can strengthen learning further by drawing the child’s attention to their correct R and repeating it back to them: drawing the child’s attention to their correct R and repeating it back to them:

e.g., “yes! fire engine!” - emphasising the object label whilst showing the child the correct item

“yes! They’re the same!,” - emphasising the word “same” whilst showing the child the two itemstwo items

“yes! It’s yellow!” - emphasising the colour whilst showing the child the yellow item

BE ORGANIZED!!1. Keep everything you need at the

learning area.learning area.

2. Each student needs his own set of

supplies.

3. Have data sheets ready before you begin

instruction.

DIFFERENTIAL

REINFORCEMENT

• What Is Differential Reinforcement?• What Is Differential Reinforcement?

DIFFERENTIAL

REINFORCEMENT

�Providing a greater amount of reinforcement for specific types of reinforcement for specific types of response, while providing less or no reinforcement for other types of response.

�Different levels of reinforcement must be clear to the child

DIFFERENTIAL

REINFORCEMENT

We provide increased levels of reinforcement for:reinforcement for:

�More difficult responses

�Less prompted responses

�Independent responses

�Higher quality responses

�An item on acquisition/ target item

�Attention and co-operation

DIFFERENTIAL

REINFORCEMENT

We provide lower levels of reinforcement for:for:

�Easier responses/tasks

�More prompted responses

�Lower quality responses

�Mastered items�Mastered items

�Poor attention or co-operation

DIFFERENTIAL

REINFORCEMENT

• Demonstration• Demonstration

• Practice with each other

THE ACQUISITION

PROCESS

� Procedure through which a target item

progresses when being taught

� In most cases within a programme, only one

item should be on acquisition at any one time

� Target items are initially prompted regardless � Target items are initially prompted regardless

of point of entry into the acquisition process to

teach child correct response

PROMPTS AND

PROMPTING

1. Physical: physically guiding the 1. Physical: physically guiding the child, may be full or partial.

2. Verbal – use of speech to tell child the correct response

3. Gestural – using your body to indicate a correct response

4. Proximity/positional – placing target 4. Proximity/positional – placing target item closer to child to elicit the correct response

PROMPTS AND

PROMPTING

5. Model – therapist models correct 5. Model – therapist models correct response to child for them to imitate

6.Tone of voice/inflection – emphasising a word or sound in the SD to facilitate the correct responsethe correct response

7.Visual – presenting the child with visual stimuli to assist the child in providing the correct response

PROMPTS AND

PROMPTING

8. Recency – presenting the target item

in close succession to previously

learned item to elicit the

appropriate response.

9. Inadvertent! May include any of the 9. Inadvertent! May include any of the

above!

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SESSION

MANAGEMENTPreparation is vital

�Review daily records, communication �Review daily records, communication books, teaching plans etc prior to starting

�Plan a variety of reinforcers, conduct a reinforcer assessment

�Think about activities for between tasks

�Organise all teaching materials needed �Organise all teaching materials needed until the next break

�Know the SD, expected R and level of prompting to be used

SESSION

MANAGEMENT

Keep it fun!Keep it fun!

�Conduct reinforcer assessments

throughout the session

�Play activities should be varied frequently

to maintain interest and fun

�Aim for an energetic and fun but relaxed �Aim for an energetic and fun but relaxed

atmosphere– how you behave and feel will

effect how the child behaves and feels.

SESSION

MANAGEMENT

�Adhere to teaching plans – ensure consistency across the team

�Keep a careful note of responses, extra help given etc as move through the activity/programme

�Record data carefully immediately after �Record data carefully immediately after completion of the activity

�Leave the classroom as you would like to find it!

CO-OPERATION AND

COMPLIANCE

�Establishing co-operation is essential �Establishing co-operation is essential for successful learning

�Success increases the chance of future co-operation by maintaining motivation

�Issue clear instructions with prompts �Issue clear instructions with prompts if necessary

�Strongly reinforce compliance and calm behaviour immediately

BEHAVIOUR

MANAGEMENT

� Ignore inappropriate behaviours during activities as far as possible:activities as far as possible:

�Do not look at the child or attend to the behaviour as far as possible.

�Do not speak to the child to reprimand or comment on behaviour.

�Adopt neutral expression.�Adopt neutral expression.

�Remove all signs of reinforcers

�Remove teaching materials and re-set up trial once behaviour has stopped.

BEHAVIOUR

MANAGEMENT

�Child should be allowed to leave the �Child should be allowed to leave the teaching situation contingent on some appropriate behaviour.

� Increase task demand gradually and stick to teaching plans/ opportunity goals

�Be aware that children may “test” you if you are new or are carrying out new tasks you are new or are carrying out new tasks or in a new setting etc

� It is essential that you let the child know when they are behaving appropriately by reinforcing them during these times!

BEHAVIOUR

MANAGEMENT

Remember:Remember:

�Manage CB according to behaviour

management guidelines

�Follow communication protocols

�Do not put yourself or the child at

unnecessary risk of harmunnecessary risk of harm

�Operate within your limits and seek

support and guidance when you need it.

AIMS OF DTT

Short-term Goals:

To teach/increase the fundamental skills or “behavioural cusps” needed for a

To teach/increase the fundamental skills or “behavioural cusps” needed for a child to learn:

�Co-operation

�Ability to Attend

�Ability to imitate�Ability to imitate

�Early communication skills

AIMS OF DTT

Long-term goals:

To increase/teachTo increase/teach

�Communication skills

�Play skills

�Cognition

�Social skills

�Academics and Academic Readiness�Academics and Academic Readiness

�Self-help/independence

DISCRETE TRIAL

TEACHING

Some core curricular areas:Some core curricular areas:

�Non-Verbal Imitation (NVI)

�Matching

�Receptive Instructions (RI)

�Receptive Object Labels (ROL)

�Fine and Gross Motor Skills�Fine and Gross Motor Skills

�Interactive Play

�Manding and expressive language

CORE CURRICULUM

AREAS

�NVI – develops ability to attend to �NVI – develops ability to attend to and imitate others

�Matching – develops ability to visually discriminate between objects, increases attention to task and facilitates receptive languagefacilitates receptive language

�RI – develops ability to develop receptive language and ability to follow simple instructions

CORE CURRICULUM

AREAS

�ROL – develop receptive language skills, increase vocabulary and provide

�ROL – develop receptive language skills, increase vocabulary and provide opportunity to further facilitate expressive language skills

�Fine Motor – develops attention skills and encourages fine-motor development

� Interactive Play – develops play and social interaction skills. Goals include:interaction skills. Goals include:

– imitation - manding

– flexibility - duration

– giving

CORE CURRICULUM

AREAS

• Manding – increases ability to initiate requests by using functional requests by using functional

communication in natural environment

Verbal Behaviour

Tools for assessing skills in children with language and learning deficits and is most commonly used in the process of the development of a behavioral program for children in learning deficits and is most commonly used in the process of the development of a behavioral program for children in the autism spectrum. Develop curriculum guides.

•ABLLS-R: ABLLS-R stands for Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills - Revised.

(http://www.partingtonbehavioranalysts.com/page/ablls-r-25.html)

•VB-MAPP: VB-MAPP stands for The Verbal BehaviorMilestones Assessment and Ptlacement Program

(http://www.marksundberg.com/vb-mapp.htm)

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Verbal Behavior

• It’s an object of behavior analysis, because of its importance in humansits importance in humans

• VBs play a central role in such skills as social interaction, language and cognitive development, problem solving etc.

Features of languageSkinner,1957

• Formal properties: language structure, including the topography of VBincluding the topography of VB

• Functional properties: these include the cause of a VB

A full awareness of language presupposes both of these types of featuresof these types of features

Θεωρίες της Γλώσσας

• Cognitive approach: language is controlled by internal procedures of perceiving, classifying, internal procedures of perceiving, classifying, encoding and decoding, and storing verbal information (Piaget, 1952;Bloom,1970)

• Biological approach: language is hereditary and evident since birth. (Chomsky,1965)and evident since birth. (Chomsky,1965)

Verbal behavior

“Verbal behavioris whatever behavior is reinforced through the mediation of reinforced through the mediation of

another person”

• A learned behavior

• Maintained by the same environmental • Maintained by the same environmental variables that maintain other non-verbal behaviors

Differences of approaches

• Listener and speaker are clearly differentiated

• Skinner puts the emphasis on the speaker’s • Skinner puts the emphasis on the speaker’s behavior

• He doesn’t uses terms like expressive or receptive language

Analysis of verbal behavior is conducted through verbal operantsthrough verbal operants

• We analyse verbal operants taking into account MOs, SD, C, whereas classical linguistics deal with words, phrases, sentences etc.with words, phrases, sentences etc.

Classification of verbal behaviors

Teach all meanings of a word

chocolateMand

Tact

Echoic/mimic

Intraverbals

Receptive

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Receptive

RFFC

Textual

Verbal operants

Stimulus Verbal behavior Result of communication

(gain)(gain)

Desire or need Request (mand) Demand met

I’m thirsty “Juice” I’m given a juice

Visual stimulus You name it (tact) Social reinforcement

You’re given a picture and “a hen” “Well done”

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You’re given a picture and

you’re asked “what is it?”

“a hen” “Well done”

Verbal stimulus Verbal imitation (echoic) Reinforcement

Say “apple” “apple” “bingo!”

Verbal operants

Stimulus Verbal behavior Result of communication

(gain)

Verbal stimulus Verbal response (intraverbals) Social reinforcement

“What’s your name?” “My name’s Anna” “My name’s Maria, do you

want to play with me?”

Discriminative stimulus Verbal response different from

the SD itself (Textual)

Social reinforcement

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A text He reads the text “Well done”

Requests (manding)

• How is your student communicating when he’s

trying to make you understand what he trying to make you understand what he

wants?

1.Does he drag you by the hand? Is he pointing?

Is he standing in front of the reinforcer?

2.Is he using one-word utterances?2.Is he using one-word utterances?

3.Does he exchange pictures (PECS)? can he use

signs? Or both?

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Initial stage

• Physical imitation

Does he copy (imitate) your actions?Does he copy (imitate) your actions?

1.Clapping hands?

2.Shooting a ball?

3.Your model for jumping?

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Initial stage

• Receptive skills

Can he understand phrases? Can he follow Can he understand phrases? Can he follow commands?

1. Can he follow 5 single verbal commands pertaining to daily living actions?

2. Can he show 10 actions upon the educator’s request? (e.g. “show me ‘sleep’!”)request? (e.g. “show me ‘sleep’!”)

3. Can he identify 10 objects after their attributes (“show me round and red”)

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Initial stage

• Matching

Is your student able to match items, pictures, Is your student able to match items, pictures,

sample shapes, that you give him?

1.Can he match 10 objects with corresponding

pictures?

2.Can he match colors with sample drawings?2.Can he match colors with sample drawings?

3.Can he put items on shelves by matching them

with other items on the shelves?

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Initial stage

• Verbal imitation

Does your student repeat after you sounds, words, Does your student repeat after you sounds, words,

or phrases you model?

1. Does he imitated vocalizations after the

educator?

2. Does he imitate words after the educator?2. Does he imitate words after the educator?

3. Does he imitate phrases after the educator?

Traditional SLT starts from this point!..

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Articulation deficits

• When functional speech is too delayed, articulation cannot be a priority!

• When functional speech is too delayed, articulation cannot be a priority!

• You may even never set articulation work as a goal, as other language goals may be a priority

• Articulation work is ineffective if your student doesn’t look at you or never imitates

• Articulation in such cases cannot improve global • Articulation in such cases cannot improve global functioning or enhance development!

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Intermediate stage

• Labeling

Can your student name items or actions?Can your student name items or actions?

1.Labels 5-10 items when so instructed by the educator

2.Labels 30 actions when so instructed by the educator

3.Names surrounding people

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Advanced stage

• Conversational skills (intraverbal precursors)• Conversational skills (intraverbal precursors)

Does your student answer questions, or does he complete phrases with missing words?

1. Does he continues a song when the educator stops?

2. Does he complete phrases like «1,2,3....»2. Does he complete phrases like «1,2,3....»

3. Does he answer wh- questions?

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Advanced stage

• Academic skills

Is your student able to learn how to read, write, Is your student able to learn how to read, write,

count?

1.Does he recognize letters? Or words?

2.Can he do any calculations?

3.Can he identify words he doesn’t understand 3.Can he identify words he doesn’t understand

in a text of 50 words?

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