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Third Edition
Technical Language 4
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Estudiantes de la Facultad de Ingeniera
Conscientes del vertiginoso avance de la globalizacin nos damos cuenta
de la necesidad de mantener una comunicacin adecuada en el
comercio, industria y mercadotecnia dentro de nuestra sociedad y
considerando el desarrollo de competencias adecuado, se ha construido
un novedoso programa para contribuir a que la Gloriosa Tricentenaria
Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala se mantenga con ese alto nivel
que la ha distinguido durante aos.
Este proyecto naci a principios del ao 2008 con el afn de lograr que
todo estudiante egresado de la Facultad de Ingeniera tenga
conocimiento de Ingls Tcnico para poder aplicarlo tanto en sus
estudios como en su desempeo profesional.
Demostrando que hoy y siempre SOMOS LOS LIDERES de la ingeniera
y pioneros en el cumplimiento de las necesidades de formacin de
nuestros profesionales, dedicamos este trabajo a todos aquellos
estudiantes a quienes les interese mejorar competentemente la
aplicacin de los procedimientos de ingeniera y tengan el deseo de
aprender nuevas tcnicas desarrollando habilidades que
constantemente expanden la efectividad y campos de aplicacin de
Ingeniera. Esta primera edicin de este folleto fue creado para cumplir
y llenar los requisitos del programa cuyo objetivo es contribuir a la
preparacin integral para llenar de los perfiles de los profesionales de
hoy.
Logrando el cambio propuesto.
ING. MURPHY OLIMPO PAIZ RECINOS
DECANO
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Students of Engineering School
Conscious of the vertiginous advance of the globalization we realize the
necessity to maintain an adapted communication in commerce, industry
and marketing research within our society and considering the
development of appropriated competences, we have developed a novel
program to contribute that the Glorious Tricentennial University of San
Carlos of Guatemala stays with that high level that has distinguished it
during years.
This project started the first semester 2008 with the eagerness to obtain
that all withdrawn students of the Faculty of Engineering have
knowledge of Technical English, becoming it a necessity that the
students apply this knowledge in their studies as in their professional
performance.
Demonstrating that today and always WE ARE LEADERS of engineering,
pioneers in the fulfilment of the necessities of formation of our
professionals, we present to all students who, by their competent
application of engineering procedures and their readiness to learn new
techniques and to develop skills that constantly expand the effectiveness
and fields of application of engineering. The First Edition of this booklet
was created to carry out and to fill the requirements of the program
which objective is to contribute to the integral preparation of the
students in order to fill the profiles of nowadays professionals.
Reaching goals through change
ENGR. MURPHY OLIMPO PAIZ RECINOS
DEAN
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Awareness / Acknowledgment
Information contained in this work has been obtained by
gathering information from sources believed to be reliable.
However, neither the sites or the authors guarantees the
accuracy or completeness of any information published
herein and neither the Technical Language Area not its
assistants shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or
damages arising out of use of this information. This work
is gathered with the understanding that the topics are
supplying information but are not attempting to render
engineering or other professional services. If such services
are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional
should be sought.
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Content
Preface ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Oral Presentations ............................................................................................................. 17
Preparation ................................................................................................................................ 17
Organizing the Content ........................................................................................................ 17
Delivering Your Presentation .............................................................................................. 18
Using Visual Aids..................................................................................................................... 20
Dealing with Nervousness ................................................................................................... 21
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 22
Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 23
What is a project? .................................................................................................................. 23
Checking out the context .................................................................................................... 23
Researching the project ....................................................................................................... 23
Preparation And Working Out Of The Project Document ........................... 24
Composition of the Project Document ............................................................................ 25
Sections ...................................................................................................................................... 25
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 29
Vocabulary of the Unit ...................................................................................................... 29
Business Administration .................................................................................................... 33
Administrative Functions ..................................................................................................... 33
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 34
Leadership ................................................................................................................................. 35
Types of Leadership Styles ................................................................................................. 35
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 37
Communication ........................................................................................................................ 37
Nonverbal Communication .................................................................................................. 39
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................. 40
Managerial Actions that Cause Workplace Conflicts ................................................. 40
Ways People Deal With Conflict ........................................................................................ 41
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 41
Vocabulary ................................................................................................................................ 41
Classic Tools ........................................................................................................................... 45
Pie Charts .................................................................................................................................. 45
Bar Charts ................................................................................................................................. 45
Run Charts ................................................................................................................................ 46
Radar Charts............................................................................................................................. 46
Scatter Plots ............................................................................................................................. 47
Histograms ................................................................................................................................ 48
Pareto Charts ........................................................................................................................... 48
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Cause and Effect ..................................................................................................................... 49
Flowcharts ................................................................................................................................. 50
Control Charts .......................................................................................................................... 52
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 53
Non-Classical Tools ............................................................................................................ 54
Benchmarking .......................................................................................................................... 54
Outsourcing .............................................................................................................................. 56
Strategic Alliances ................................................................................................................... 57
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 58
Vocabulary ................................................................................................................................ 59
Strategic Planning .............................................................................................................. 63
Basic Approach to Strategic Planning ............................................................................. 63
The Vision .................................................................................................................................. 64
The Mission ............................................................................................................................... 65
The Values ................................................................................................................................. 66
The Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 67
The Strategies .......................................................................................................................... 67
SWOTs - Keys to Business Strategies .................................................................................. 67
The Goals ................................................................................................................................... 68
The Programs ........................................................................................................................... 69
Benefits of Strategic Planning ........................................................................................... 69
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 69
Marketing Plan ....................................................................................................................... 70
Marketing Audit ....................................................................................................................... 72
Content of the Marketing Plan ........................................................................................... 73
Small business ...................................................................................................................... 73
Medium-sized and large organizations .......................................................................... 73
Activity ........................................................................................................................................ 76
Vocabulary ................................................................................................................................ 76
Safety and Health Programs ......................................................................................... 79
OSHA Standards ..................................................................................................................... 79
Hazard Control Measures .................................................................................................... 84
Common Hazards and Descriptions................................................................................. 86
International Standardization .................................................................................... 87
Understand the Basics .......................................................................................................... 88
Plan Do Check Act ...................................................................................................... 88
The ISO Standardization System ................................................................................... 89
Benefits of International Standards ................................................................................ 91
ISO 9000 Quality Management ......................................................................................... 92
ISO 9000 Principles ................................................................................................................. 92
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ISO 14000 Environmental Management Systems .................................................... 94
Other Popular Standards ..................................................................................................... 96
ISO 26000 Social Responsibility ............................................................................................ 96
ISO 50001 Energy Management ........................................................................................... 97
ISO 31000 Risk Management ................................................................................................ 98
ISO/IEC 27001 - Information Security Management ........................................................ 98
International Commerce Terminology ..................................................................... 99
Customs & Shipping Forms .............................................................................................. 102
Vocabulary .............................................................................................................................. 103
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Preface
The second edition of the Technical English Booklet was collected as a
guide to fulfill the objectives proposed in the restructuring of the
curriculum of the course. The new curriculum was developed during the
years of 2007 and 2008, with the guidance of the Coordinator of the Area
and the help of the assistants. Each of the assistants has a different
specialization in the field of engineering, so it helped to work in a
multidisciplinary environment.
After the first edition was finished, it was reviewed and authorized by the
Board of Directors of the Engineering School, now according to the needs
and skills required in this globalized world the topics have changed a little
bit but the essence of the program continues.
Again, it is advisable to make a revision in two years, and thanks to the
flexibility of the program, it will allow to make different changes in the
themes studied.
It has been interesting to look at the real applications this new curriculum
can lead. It wakes up the creativity, reasoning, and awareness of
development in different areas of engineering. It is done through problem
solving proposed in classes and developed in their field of work, enhancing
engineering techniques.
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Oral Presentations
Oral presentations are a richer medium than written documents. They
allow you to establish stronger contact with the audience and better convince
them of your viewpoint through verbal and nonverbal delivery, as well as the
ensuing interaction. Oral presentations have a price, however, in terms of the
audience's time. If you give a poor 15-minute presentation to an audience of 200
people, you have wasted the equivalent of 50 hours of work more than a week
of someone's work time. Preparing effective oral presentations, like writing
effective scientific papers, takes time, but it is time well invested.
Still, many oral presentations are ripe for improvement. Think of the last
large conference you attended. With typically three to four talks an hour, eight
hours a day over several days, such conferences can expose you to dozens of
presentations. What fraction of these delivered a message that was useful to you
(that is, how many of them did more than simply provide a great deal of
complicated information)? What fraction of the presentations did you find
fascinating (that is, how many got your undivided attention from the speaker's
first word to his or her last)? An effective oral presentation gets you to pay
attention, to understand, and to think or do things differently as a result of it.
This unit will help you prepare and deliver more effective oral presentations
in English. It will help you select and organize a presentation's content, create
slides (if appropriate), deliver the presentation, and answer audience questions.
Preparation
First of all,
Think about what you want to achieve; Inform? Inspire? Convince your
audience?
Think about your audience: do they know the topic? Do they have a
particular interest in the topic?
Research your topic and organize the content and material.
Prepare your visual aids
Rehearse your presentation taking care of the time.
Organizing the Content
Introduction (may be written last)
Capture your listeners attention: Begin with a question, a funny story, a
startling comment, or anything that will make them think.
State your purpose; for example:
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Im going to talk about...
This morning I want to explain
Present an outline of your talk; for example:
I will concentrate on the following points: First of allThen
This will lead to And finally
Body
Present your main points one by one in logical order.
Pause at the end of each point (give people time to take notes, or time to
think about what you are saying).
Make it absolutely clear when you move to another point. For example:
The next point is that ...
OK, now I am going to talk about ...
Right. Now I'd like to explain ...
Of course, we must not forget that ...
However, it's important to realize that...
Use clear examples to illustrate your points.
Use visual aids to make your presentation more interesting.
Conclusion
It is very important to leave your audience with a clear summary of
everything you have covered. It is also important not to let the talk just fizzle out.
Make it obvious that you have reached the end of the presentation.
Summarize the main points again, using phrases like:
To sum up...
So, in conclusion...
OK, to recap the main points
Restate the purpose of your talk, and say that you have achieved your aim:
I think you can now see that...
My intention was ..., and it should now be clear that ...
Thank the audience, and invite
questions:
Thank you. Are there any
questions?
Delivering Your Presentation
a) Be aware of how your audience is
reacting. Are they interested or
bored? If they look confused, ask
them why.
b) Stop if necessary and explain a
point again.
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c) Be open to questions. If someone raises a hand, or asks a question in the
middle of your talk, answer it. If you can't answer it, turn the question
back out to the audience and let someone else answer it!
d) Questions are good. They show that the audience is listening with interest.
They should not be regarded as an attack on you, but as a collaborative
search for deeper understanding.
e) Be ready to get the discussion going after your presentation. Just in case
nobody has anything to say, have some provocative questions or points for
discussion ready to ask the group.
f) Check if the audience is still with you. Does that make sense? Is that
clear?
g) Check the pronunciation of difficult, unusual, or foreign words beforehand.
h) Don't turn your back on the audience!
i) Emphasize the key pointsand make sure people realize which the key
points are.
j) Hold your head up. Look around and make eye-contact with people in the
audience. Do not just address the lecturer! Do not stare at a point on the
carpet or the wall. If you don't include the audience, they won't listen to
you.
k) Keep your language simple. The aim is to communicate, not to show off
your vocabulary.
l) Key words are important. Speak them out slowly and loudly.
m) Slow down for key points.
n) So use notes, cue cards or overheads as prompts, and speak to the
audience. Include everyone by looking at them and maintaining eye-
contact (but don't stare or glare at people).
o) Speak loudly enough for everyone in the room to hear you. This may feel
uncomfortably loud at first, but if people can't hear you, they won't listen.
p) Speak slowly and clearly. Dont rush! Speaking fast doesnt make you
seem smarter, it will only make it harder for other people to understand
you.
q) Stand straight and comfortably. Do not slouch or shuffle about.
r) Talk to your audience, don't read to them! A presentation is not the same
as an essay. If you read out your presentation as if it were an essay, your
audience will probably understand very little and will lose concentration
quickly.
s) Use pausesdon't be afraid of short periods of silence. (They give you a
chance to gather your thoughts, and your audience a chance to think.)
t) Vary your voice quality. If you always use the same volume and pitch (for
example, all loud, or all soft, or in a monotone) your audience will switch
off.
u) When you are talking to your friends, you naturally use your hands, your
facial expression, and your body to add to your communication. Do it in
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your presentation as well. It will make things far more interesting for the
audience.
v) When you begin a new point, use a higher pitch and volume.
Using Visual Aids
It is very helpful to use visual aids in your presentation, as it helps people
to understand. People learn visually as well as orally. Particularly if your accent is
different from your audience's accent, it can be very helpful to let them see your
keywords.
Overheads
Overheads are the easiest and most reliable form of visual aids. You can
use them as a prompt for your talk, so that you may not need cards. [But don't
read word-for-word from your overheads!]
Use bold typeface, and a minimum of size 16
font [Check that your overheads are readable by
placing them beside you on the floor and looking down
at them. Can you read them?]
Use no more than seven or eight main points on
an overhead [Overheads that have too many words on
them are no use at all]
Give your audience time to take notes from your
overhead
Make sure your audience can see the overhead screen [Where are you
standing? Is it directly in front of the screen?]
Using color, pictures and graphs can make your overheads more
interesting [But don't overcrowd your overheads with too much detail]
Presentations
You can use software to produce very
professional overheads, or to make a computer-
based presentation. Remember that presentations
may look great, but if the technology goes wrong you
may be very embarrassed. It's a good idea to print
out a handout, or have some overheads as a backup
just in case.
Sometimes students are tempted to spend more time on producing
graphics than on the actual talk. Rememberif your talk is poor, no amount of
fancy graphics will save it!
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Handouts
Handouts are a great idea. Think about whether you
want to distribute them before or after your presentation. It
is a good idea to include your references on a handout, so
that people can follow up on them later. You could also
include some follow-up questions for discussion.
Using the board
If possible, put your information on the
board before the talk begins, otherwise you will
have to turn your back on the audience and break
your eye contact with them, which is never a good
idea. Writing on a board is also time-consuming.
Use alternative visual aids wherever possible.
If you really must use a whiteboard, come
prepared with the right pens (use pens clearly marked 'Whiteboard Marker'
don't use anything else) and write in large neat writing, so that people can read it.
Checking out the facilities
Whenever possible, check the facilities of the room where you are going to deliver
your talk. Does the overhead processor work? How does it turn on and off? Where
is the plug for the computer? Is there a whiteboard, or is it a blackboard? If a
blackboard, is chalk provided?
Dealing with Nervousness
The first few times you make a presentation, you will be nervous. That's
quite a good thinga bit of adrenalin often helps you to perform well. However,
to make sure that your nervousness does not become a problem, here are some
things to consider:
Smile! Your audience will react warmly to
you if you smile and at least look relaxed.
Treat your audience like friends.
Confess that you are nervous! Your
audience will be very sympatheticthey
know how you are feeling.
Breathe deeply. It will calm you down
and help to control the slight shaking
that you might get in your hands and
your voice.
Be well-prepared. Practice giving your
talk
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Be organized. If you are well organized, your task will be easier. If your
overheads are out of order, or your notes are disorganized, you may get
flustered.
Slow down! When people are nervous, they tend to get confused easily. So
your mind may start to race, and you may feel panicky. Make use of
pauses: force yourself to stop at the end of a sentence, take a breath, and
think before you continue.
Giving an oral presentation is a performanceyou have to be like an actor.
If you act the part of someone enjoying themselves and feeling confident,
you will not only communicate these positive feelings to the audience, you
will feel much better, too.
Accomplished public speakers feel nervous before and even during a talk.
The skill comes in not communicating your nervousness, and in not letting it take
over from the presentation. Over time, you will feel less nervous, and well able to
control your nervousness.
Activity
A. Identify which points of Delivering your presentation belong to
Language skills: _________________________________________________________
Voice: ___________________________________________________________________
Body language: __________________________________________________________
Audience interaction: ____________________________________________________
B. Introduce yourself with a partner; indicate your name, engineering field,
interests, and other important issues about yourself.
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Projects
WHAT IS A PROJECT?
A project is a proposal prepared for yourself, for someone else, for a whole
community or even for a country. It involves making plans for the future and
describing them to others or to the community as a whole. At the start there is
nothing certain about a project except perhaps the desire or determination to
undertake it. Thus it is the attempt to define this which has led us to make the
various suggestions in this publication.
Identifying a project involves
recognizing a need in a certain place and
for a given group of people. A proper
understanding of the target group is very
important.
CHECKING OUT THE CONTEXT
Proper research is the prime
necessity for any project. If this is not
taken sufficiently seriously, the project
proposed is often ill-adapted to the
situation it is designed to. The result of this can be failure even though a large
amount of money may have been invested. Thus the study of the context of a
project is like laying the foundations of a house : the firmer they are, the more
solid and durable the house.
RESEARCHING THE PROJECT
The aim of this research is better to understand the field of operation of the
project and the people for whom the project is designed. The detailed planning of
the project then needs to be done in an intelligent way, which means not
disrupting local traditions, customs and structures. In instances where the need
has been clearly identified by the local population. It is nevertheless necessary to
try out the basic idea as a pilot scheme involving only a sample of the population.
This will test the relevance of the ideas which need to be developed in the process
of putting the project together.
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The length of time spent on research depends on the amount of time
needed getting to know the context of the project plus the time taken to do the
necessary detailed planning. Bearing in mind the fact that the context and the
needs are constantly changing, time must be allowed to ensure that the proposals
are free of misunderstandings and hasty judgments and that the project still
corresponds to the real needs of the people and has not been drawn up in a way
that causes the people for whom it was conceived not to be interested in it.
The work done during this first phase should give precise information
about local needs, customs and traditions, and on the political, social, cultural
and economic context. This information is essential and needs to be
systematically studied throughout the period of identification and planning.
NOTE : The initiators of the project should not forget that it may need also to
interest a funding organization. It is advisable therefore to try to relate as far as
possible the interests of the people with the criteria of the organizations from
which funding is sought.
Preparation And Working Out Of
The Project Document
Main criteria used by United Nations agencies.
In the previous part, we have seen that to identify a project is not enough
simply to have a good idea. It is vital that the idea corresponds realistically to the
needs of the local population. Once this
is clear, it must be certain that the
project fits into the social, economic,
cultural and political context and has a
good chance of being carried through (in
terms of finance, organization,
manpower and availability of equipment
and materials). When this task has been
completed, the project organizer will
than try to link the information obtained
with the original idea of the project. This may mean reformulating his or her ideas
before defining the project strategy. After this comes the process of preparing and
working out the project document.
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The conception and preparation of a project document that will be
submitted to a national or international funding organization should follow
certain guidelines without which it would have no hope of being considered. The
initiator of the project should realize that this document is his first real
introduction to the potential founders and forms the basis on which future
agreements will be made.
Care must be taken with the presentation and content of the document it
must respond to whatever questions the funding organization might ask before
deciding whether to accept the project or not. It is also particularly important that
the document is drawn up in a precise fashion, presenting clearly and concisely
in a logical order the details of the project and its proposed development.
COMPOSITION OF THE PROJECT DOCUMENT
A project document can be drawn up in the following sections:
General Introduction
Context and justification
Population targeted
Institutional framework
Methods and strategies
Development objective / overall aim
Immediate objective/s
Proposed strategy
Products
Activities planned
Work plan
Available resources; Aid requested; Budget
Available resources
Aid requested
Budget
Follow up, Report; Evaluation
Follow up
Report
Evaluation
SECTIONS Composition of the Title Page
The following should be featured clearly on this page :
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Title of the project
Project number (if you have submitted more than one project)
Field of activity
Location (city, region, country)
Tentative starting date and duration
Name(s) of organization(s)/group(s)/people carrying out the project
Name(s) of the funding organization(s) (if applicable)
Name(s) of the organizations associated with the project (if applicable)
An estimate of the total budget
Total amount of funding sought (indicate the currency)
Name of the organization submitting the project (or the name and title of
the person authorized to do so)
Date of submission.
Context of the project
This sub-section should explain in a few lines the project's context and the
environment in which it will be carried out. The information given should explain
The origin of the project (considering the social, economic, cultural,
political, historical and geographical conditions)
The problem which the project seeks to solve, or the main objective of the
project
The position of the organization proposing the project and of the local
authorities regarding this problem or situation
What previous steps have been taken and what has been their effect.
EXAMPLE 1:
A context presented by a CCIVS member organization for a project in
Bangladesh.
With a population of about one
billion, south Asian Countries are
mostly economically underdeveloped.
About 50% of these people live below
the poverty line and the same
percentage of them are illiterate.
There is a wide gap between overall
development needs and available
resources. There are many social
workers and volunteers in these
countries who are interested in local,
national and international
development. However, appropriate
training is not available since there
are no adequate training facilities in
the region. Due to these
circumstances, BWCA believes that
such a huge population of illiterate
and economically disadvantaged
people should be provided with a
training centre to promote their
education, cultural and socio-
economic development.
BWCA proposes to begin training
program's in the area to fill these
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needs. With funding from UNESCO,
trainers can be provided, volunteers
will have the means to participate,
and training courses can be
developed
EXAMPLE 2:
Introduction used on Starting a Pilot Agricultural Centre for youth in Zaire
Project
The goal of this project is to help
disadvantaged youth to participate in
social and economic activities, to
fight against the drift from rural
areas which strips the land of its vital
forces.
In the region of Bas-Zaire where the
land is fertile and which could
become the granary of Kinshasa, the
present output is scarcely enough to
feed its inhabitants.
To change this situation, young
people need to be encouraged to stay
in the rural areas. The Regional
Council for Social Protection and
Family Planning wants to establish at
Nkondo Malembe an experimental
agricultural centre for youth.
The activities of this centre would
include orientation of young people
as well as agricultural production.
EXAMPLE 3:
The context of the previous project.
Nkondo Malembe is a village which is
a part of the Luima community in the
Songololo zone, the former training
and production centre of JMPR (the
youth movement of the ruling party).
It is a relatively hot region with clay
soil. Rainfall varies from 1200 to
1700 ml per year. It has two seasons:
dry and rainy.
Target community
Most projects are for the benefit of a certain defined population. A project
planner should therefore try concisely to determine who would benefit from the
project. This means taking into account certain criteria such as the composition
of the target community and its origin; the geographical area targeted; their main
activity (e.g. farming), age distribution and educational level.
This sub-section should also indicate to what extent the targeted
population supports the idea of the project; to what extent they are mobilized;
and which sections of the population are seen as a priority.
In the example in Zaire given above, it is evident that the population
targeted is the peasants from the southern part of the country and the criteria
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used to determine this were the geographical region and the main activity of the
population.
The potential waste of human resources through early childbirth, drug
abuse cases resulting in psychiatric cases and other social vices among the youth
makes it imperative that actions are taken by NGO's and communities to curb
these unfortunate phenomena. These conditions tend negatively to affect the
physical and intellectual development of the adolescents into adulthood; thus a
vicious cycle of deprivation is created if this precarious situation is not addressed.
EXAMPLE 4:
A target population in a CCIVS project in Bolivia.
Another major benefit of this project
is women. In each community the
vast majority of teachers are women.
With the supply of the double-school
desks their job in educating young
children will be much easier. Easier
by enabling the students more
incentive to learn in comfortable but
will boost the morale of the students,
teachers and communities alike.
Previously teachers employed in rural
Bolivia were reluctant to finish their
term. They cited poor equipment as
major factor. With VEA's cooperation,
most are willing to stay and finish
their terms. The desks built by VEA
can also be used by the local
mothers' club and their daughters.
The institutional framework
The sub-section should give a clear outline of how the project is expected
to evolve, without going into minor details. You should include where the project
is taking place, staffing (national or international personnel, volunteers,
consultants etc.), sources of the funds and materials for the project, funding
organizations, organizations carrying out the project; other associated
organizations, co-ordination ties between these organizations, body or person in
charge of the project.
EXAMPLE 5:
Framework presented for Zaire project.
The proposed seminar to train social
workers to work in the X region will
take place at X from April 1 May
30, 1993. It will be organized by the
training staff of the Association for
the Children of Region X with
technical help from a consultant
from UNICEF. UNICEF and UNESCO
will be providing the fares for the 120
social workers.
The Association for the Children of
Region X will pay for food, lodging
and logistical aspects of the training
programmed. The Ministry of Youth
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and Sports will be presiding over this
training seminar and has given a
grant to the national association.
ACTIVITY C. Answer the questions
What section could contain the following?: _______________________________
Nkondo Malembe is a village which is a part of the Luima community in the
Songololo zone, the former training and production centre of JMPR (the youth
movement of the ruling party). It is a relatively hot region with clay soil.
Rainfall varies from 1200 to 1700 ml per year. It has two seasons: dry and
rainy.
Where is the project proposed to be held?: ________________________________
D. Make groups of maximum 8 members and plan a project. The project
should be social outreach related to any of the branches of engineering. It
must be achievable and should not need outside help or funding sought.
Vocabulary of the Unit
Aim
Attempt
Budget
Disrupt
Environment
Evaluation
Feasibility
Fizzle out
Follow up
Foundations
Framework
Funding sought
Guidelines
Phase
Population
Population Targeted
Prime
Proposal
Report
Research
Scheme
Strategy
Submission
Submit
Survey
Undertake
References of the Unit
http://ccivs.org/New-SiteCCSVI/CcivsOther/Documents/Howtopresentaprojectfull.pdf
http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/learning/oral
http://www.nature.com/scitable/ebooks/english-communication-for-scientists-
14053993/giving-oral-presentations-14239332
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Business Administration
In business, administration consists of the performance or management of
business operations and thus the making or implementing of major decisions.
Administration can be defined as the universal process of organizing people and
resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives.
ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS
Administrators, broadly speaking,
engage in a common set of functions to
meet the organization's goals. These
"functions" of the administrator were
described by Henri Fayol.
Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it,
and who should do it. It maps the path from where the organization is to
where it wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and
arranging them in logical order. Administrators engage in both short-range
and long-range planning.
Organizing involves identifying responsibilities to be performed, grouping
responsibilities into departments or divisions, and specifying
organizational relationships. The purpose is to achieve coordinated effort
among all the elements in the organization. Organizing must take into
account delegation of authority and responsibility and span of control
within supervisory units.
Staffing means filling job positions with the right people at the right time.
It involves determining staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting
and screening people to fill the positions.
Directing is leading people in a manner that achieves the goals of the
organization. This involves proper allocation of resources and providing an
effective support system. Directing requires exceptional interpersonal skills
and the ability to motivate people. One of the crucial issues in directing is
to find the correct balance between emphasis on staff needs and emphasis
on economic production.
Controlling is the function that evaluates quality in all areas and detects
potential or actual deviations from the organization's plan. This ensures
high-quality performance and satisfactory results while maintaining an
orderly and problem-free environment. Controlling includes information
management, measurement of performance, and institution of corrective
actions.
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Budgeting, exempted from the list above, incorporates most of the
administrative functions, beginning with the implementation of a budget
plan through the application of budget controls.
Management in business and human organization activity, in simple terms
means the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals.
Management comprises planning, organizing, resourcing, leading or directing,
and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or
effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the
deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources,
technological resources, and natural resources.
To accomplish in a successful way the management function two kind of
skills must be fulfilled:
Human skills
Financial skills
In human skills can be mentioned: the ability to communicate, leadership,
conflict management, decision taking etc.
In Financial skills: the management tools, benchmarking, outsourcing, six
sigma and more.
ACTIVITY A. According to the managerial skills for a good administrator, write an ideal
manager profile.
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Leadership
The word leadership can refer to:
1. Those entities that perform one
or more acts of leading.
2. The ability to affect human
behavior so as to accomplish a
mission.
3. Influencing a group of people to
move towards its goal setting or goal
achievement.
TYPES OF LEADERSHIP STYLES
The bureaucratic leader (Weber, 1905) is very structured and follows the
procedures as they have been established. This type of leadership has no space to
explore new ways to solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure
adherence to the ladders stated by the company. Leaders ensure that all the
steps have been followed prior to sending it to the next level of authority.
Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this type of leader
in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decrease
corruption. Leaders that try to speed up the process will experience frustration
and anxiety.
The charismatic leader (Weber, 1905) leads by infusing energy and
eagerness into their team members. This type of leader has to be committed to
the organization for the long run. If the success of the division or project is
attributed to the leader and not the team, charismatic leaders may become a risk
for the company by deciding to resign for advanced opportunities. It takes the
company time and hard work to gain the employees' confidence back with other
type of leadership after they have committed themselves to the magnetism of a
charismatic leader.
The autocratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) is given the power to
make decisions alone, having total authority. This leadership style is good for
employees that need close supervision to perform certain tasks. Creative
employees and team players resent this type of leadership, since they are unable
to enhance processes or decision making, resulting in job dissatisfaction.
The democratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) listens to the team's
ideas and studies them, but will make the final decision. Team players contribute
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to the final decision thus increasing employee satisfaction and ownership, feeling
their input was considered when the final decision was taken. When changes
arises, this type of leadership helps the team assimilate the changes better and
more rapidly than other styles, knowing they were consulted and contributed to
the decision making process, minimizing resistance and intolerance. A
shortcoming of this leadership style is that it has difficulty when decisions are
needed in a short period of time or at the moment.
The laissez-faire ("let do") leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939) gives no
continuous feedback or supervision because the employees are highly
experienced and need little supervision to obtain the expected outcome. On the
other hand, this type of style is also associated with leaders that dont lead at all,
failing in supervising team members, resulting in lack of control and higher costs,
bad service or failure to meet deadlines.
The people-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) is the one that, in order to
comply with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his
personnel, increasing job satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job.
The task-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967) focus on the job, and concentrate on the
specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This
leadership style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership,
showing no involvement in the teams needs. It requires close supervision and
control to achieve expected results.
The servant leader (Greenleaf, 1977) facilitates goal accomplishment by
giving its team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is
an instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than an commanding voice
that moves to change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic
leadership, tends to achieve the results in a slower time frame than other styles,
although employee engagement is higher.
The transaction leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform certain
tasks and reward or punish for the teams performance. It gives the opportunity
to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to
accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given
to the leader to evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not
up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is
reached.
The transformation leader (Burns, 1978) motivates its team to be effective
and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group
in the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and
uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on
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the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details.
The leader is always looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the
companys vision.
The environment leader ( Carmazzi, 2005) is the one who nurtures group
or organizational environment to affect the emotional and psychological
perception of an individuals place in that group or organization. An
understanding and application of group psychology and dynamics is essential for
this style to be effective. The leader uses organizational culture to inspire
individuals and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership style relies on
creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental
psychology of group dynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses this
psychology, and complementary language, to influence direction through the
members of the inspired group to do what is required for the benefit of all.
"Leadership is the energetic process of getting people fully and willingly
committed to a new and sustainable course of action, to meet commonly
agreed objectives whilst having commonly held values"
ACTIVITY B. At home, access to the following link and complete the test for identifying
your leadership style, later print the snapshot provided by the page and
write an analysis of the result. If the link doesnt work try to search the
test Leadership Style on the queendom principal page.
http://www.queendom.com/tests/access_page/index.htm?idRegTest=2289
C. Write a paragraph about a person that you consider a leader in your
school, your community or even in the world. Describe his/her qualities
and identify which style of leadership he/she has.
Communication
Communication is the process of transferring information from a sender to
a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is
understood by both sender and receiver. It requires that all parties understand a
common language that is exchanged; there are auditory means, such as
speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means,
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such as body language, sign language,
paralanguage, touch, eye contact, or the use
of writing.
Communication is also defined as a
process by which we assign and convey
meaning in an attempt to create shared
understanding. This process requires a vast
repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and
interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing,
and evaluating. Use of these processes is developmental and transfers to all areas
of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It is through communication
that collaboration and cooperation occur. Communication is the articulation of
sending a message, through different media whether it be verbal or nonverbal, so
long as a being transmits a thought provoking idea, gesture, action, etc.
Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in
many different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if
not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when
speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects
of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range
widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well
as human beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beings
within the parameters of human symbolic interaction.
Nonetheless, communication is usually described along a few major
dimensions: Content (what type of things are communicated), source, emisor,
sender or encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which
medium), destination, receiver, target or decoder (to whom), and the purpose or
pragmatic aspect. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer
knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These
acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The
form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together,
communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a
destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity
(such as a corporation or group of beings).
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In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in natural
language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/
encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In a slightly more complex form a
sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. A particular instance of
communication is called a speech act. In the presence of "communication noise"
on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content
may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One
problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of
encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess
something that functions as a code book, and that these two code books are, at
the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is
implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates
many conceptual difficulties.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through
sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated
through gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact,
object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, or
symbols and infographics. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known
as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as
prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts
have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of
words, or the use of emoticons. A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or
emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to
convey emotional content in written or message form.
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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable
conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances
standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider
to be wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule,
lynching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law,
mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict
management will be used in any given situation can
be somewhat predicted and explained by the social
structure or social geometry of the case.
Conflict management is often considered to be
distinct from conflict resolution. The latter refers to
resolving the dispute to the approval of one or both
parties, whereas the former concerns an ongoing
process that may never have a resolution. Neither is it considered the same as
conflict transformation, which seeks to reframe the positions of the conflict
parties.
MANAGERIAL ACTIONS THAT CAUSE WORKPLACE CONFLICTS
1. Poor communications
a. Employees experience continuing surprises, they aren't informed of
new decisions, programs, etc.
b. Employees don't understand reasons for decisions, they aren't
involved in decision-making.
c. As a result, employees trust the "rumor mill" more than
management.
2. The alignment or the amount of resources is insufficient. There is:
a. Disagreement about "who does what".
b. Stress from working with inadequate resources.
3. "Personal chemistry", including conflicting values or actions among
managers and employees, for example:
a. Strong personal natures don't match.
b. We often don't like in others what we don't like in ourselves.
4. Leadership problems, including inconsistent, missing, too-strong or
uninformed leadership (at any level in the organization), evidenced by:
a. Avoiding conflict, "passing the buck" with little follow-through on
decisions.
b. Employees see the same continued issues in the workplace.
c. Supervisors don't understand the jobs of their subordinates
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WAYS PEOPLE DEAL WITH CONFLICT
There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on the current
situation. Here are the major ways that people use to deal with conflict.
1. Avoid it. Pretend it is not there or ignore it.
Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue. Usually this
approach tends to worsen the conflict over time.
2. Accommodate it. Give in to others, sometimes to the extent that you
compromise yourself.
Use this approach very sparingly and infrequently, for example, in
situations when you know that you will have another more useful
approach in the very near future. Usually this approach tends to worsen
the conflict over time, and causes conflicts within yourself.
3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing
the issue. Competitors love accommodators.
Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position.
4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take.
Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on.
5. Collaborating. Focus on working together.
Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using
mutual resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs.
Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.
ACTIVITY D. Role play the solution of a conflict. Analyze the result.
Vocabulary
Affiliates
Contract
Equity
Intermediary
Organization
Negotiation
Partnering
Protg
Small Business
References of the Unit
http://1stopconflict.blogspot.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(business)
http://www.academia.edu/474807/Types_of_Leadership_styles
http://www.knowthis.com/promotion-decisions/the-communication-process
http://www.mediaworks.pro/communication.html
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Classic Tools
There's an elusive balance between chasing after each new management
tool or method, and ignoring the fact that we have actually learned some things
about management over the past 100,000 years. The best tools are those which
stand the test of time, and which give you a lot of leverage over common
problems.
These tools are basic graphs and statistics. What to look for?
Mean The average of all the data points in the series
Maximum The maximum value in the series
Minimun The minimum value in the series
Sample Size The number of values in the series
Range The maximum value minus the minimum value
Standard Deviation Indicates how widely data is spread around the mean
PIE CHARTS
They are used to show classes or groups
of data in proportion to the whole data set. The
entire pie represents all the data, while each
slice represents a different class or group
within the whole.
BAR CHARTS
Bar Charts, like pie charts,
are useful for comparing classes or
groups of data. In bar charts, a
class or group can have a single
category of data, or they can be
broken down further into multiple
categories for greater depth of
analysis.
Watch out for inconsistent
scales. If you're comparing
two or more charts, be sure
they use the same scale. If
they don't have the same
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scale, be aware of the differences and how they might trick your eye.
Be sure that all your classes are equal. For example, don't mix weeks and
months, years and half-years, or newly-invented categories with ones that
have trails of data behind them.
Be sure that the interval between classes is consistent. For example, if you
want to compare current data that goes month by month to older data that
is only available for every six months, either use current data for every six
months or show the older data with blanks for the missing months.
RUN CHARTS
Run charts (often known as line graphs outside the quality management
field) display process performance over time. Upward and downward trends,
cycles, and large aberrations may be spotted and investigated further. In a run
chart, events, shown on the y axis, are graphed against a time period on
the x axis. For example, a run chart in a hospital might plot the number of
patient transfer delays against the time of day or day of the week. The results
might show that there are more delays at noon than at 3 p.m. Investigating this
phenomenon could unearth potential for improvement. Run charts can also be
used to track improvements that have been put into place, checking to determine
their success. Also, an average line
can be added to a run chart to
clarify movement of the data away
from the average.
Alternatives with run charts:
An average line, representing
the average of all the y
values recorded, can easily
be added to a run chart to
clarify movement of the data
away from the average. An average line runs parallel to the x axis.
Several variables may be tracked on a single chart, with each variable
having its own line. The chart is then called a multiple run chart.
RADAR CHARTS Radar charts are useful when you want to look at several different factors
all related to one item. Radar charts have multiple axes along which data can be
plotted.
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In a radar chart, a point close
to the center on any axis indicates a
low value. A point near the edge is a
high value. When you're interpreting a
radar chart, check each axis as well as
the overall shape to see how well it fits
your goals.
SCATTER PLOTS
Scatter Plots (also called scatter diagrams) are used to investigate the
possible relationship between two variables that both relate to the same "event." A
straight line of best fit (using the least squares method) is often included.
Things to look for:
If the points cluster in a band running from lower left to upper right, there
is a positive correlation (if x increases, y increases).
If the points cluster in a band
from upper left to lower right,
there is a negative correlation (if
x increases, y decreases).
Imagine drawing a straight line
or curve through the data so
that it "fits" as well as possible.
The more the points cluster
closely around the imaginary
line of best fit, the stronger the
relationship that exists between
the two variables.
If it is hard to see where you would draw a line, and if the points show no
significant clustering, there is probably no correlation.
There is a maxim in statistics that says, "Correlation does not imply
causality." In other words, your scatter plot may show that a relationship exists,
but it does not and cannot prove that one variable is causing the other. There
could be a third factor involved which is causing both, some other systemic
cause, or the apparent relationship could just be a fluke. Nevertheless, the
scatter plot can give you a clue that two things might be related, and if so, how
they move together.
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HISTOGRAMS
A histogram is a specialized type of bar chart. Individual data points are
grouped together in classes, so that you can get an idea of how frequently data in
each class occur in the data set. High bars indicate more points in a class, and
low bars indicate fewer points.
The strength of a histogram is that it provides an easy-to-read picture of
the location and variation in a data set. There are, however, two weaknesses of
histograms that you should bear in mind:
The first is that
histograms can be
manipulated to show
different pictures. If too
few or too many bars are
used, the histogram can
be misleading. This is an
area which requires some
judgment, and perhaps
some experimentation,
based on the analyst's
experience.
Histograms can also obscure the time differences among data sets. For
example, if you looked at data for #births/day in the United States in
1996, you would miss any seasonal variations, e.g. peaks around the times
of full moons. Likewise, in quality control, a histogram of a process run
tells only one part of a long story. There is a need to keep reviewing the
histograms and control charts for consecutive process runs over an
extended time to gain useful knowledge about a process.
PARETO CHARTS
Vilfredo Pareto, a turn-of-the-century Italian economist, studied the
distributions of wealth in different countries, concluding that a fairly consistent
minority about 20% of people controlled the large majority about 80% of a
society's wealth. This same distribution has been observed in other areas and has
been termed the Pareto effect.
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The Pareto effect even operates in quality improvement: 80% of problems
usually stem from 20% of the causes. Pareto charts are used to display the Pareto
principle in action, arranging data
so that the few vital factors that
are causing most of the problems
reveal themselves. Concentrating
improvement efforts on these few
will have a greater impact and be
more cost-effective than
undirected efforts.
Things to look for:
In most cases, two or three
categories will tower above the
others. These few categories which account for the bulk of the problem will
be the high-impact points on which to focus. If in doubt, follow these
guidelines:
Look for a break point in the cumulative percentage line. This point occurs
where the slope of the line begins to flatten out. The factors under the
steepest part of the curve are the most important.
If there is not a fairly clear change in the slope of the line, look for the
factors that make up at least 60% of the problem. You can always improve
these few, redo the Pareto analysis, and discover the factors that have
risen to the top now that the biggest ones have been improved.
If the bars are all similar sizes or more than half of the categories are
needed to make up the needed 60%, try a different breakdown of categories
that might be more appropriate.
CAUSE AND EFFECT
The cause & effect diagram is the brainchild of Kaoru Ishikawa, who
pioneered quality management processes in the Kawasaki shipyards, and in the
process became one of the founding fathers of modern management; that is the
reason for calling these diagrams Ishikawa Diagram.
The cause and effect diagram is used to explore all the potential or real
causes (or inputs) that result in a single effect (or output). Causes are arranged
according to their level of importance or detail, resulting in a depiction of
relationships and hierarchy of events. This can help you search for root causes,
identify areas where there may be problems, and compare the relative importance
of different causes.
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Causes in a cause & effect diagram are frequently arranged into four major
categories. While these categories can be anything, you will often see:
manpower, methods, materials, and machinery (recommended for
manufacturing)
equipment, policies, procedures, and people (recommended for
administration and service).
These guidelines can be helpful but should not be used if they limit the
diagram or are inappropriate. The categories you use should suit your needs.
The C&E diagram is also known as the fishbone diagram because it was
drawn to resemble the skeleton of a fish, with the main causal categories drawn
as "bones" attached to the spine of the fish, as shown below.
FLOWCHARTS
Flowcharts are maps or graphical representations of a process. Steps in a
process are shown with symbolic shapes, and the flow of the process is indicated
with arrows connecting the symbols. Computer programmers popularized
flowcharts in the 1960's, using them to map the logic of programs. In quality
improvement work, flowcharts are particularly useful for displaying how a
process currently functions or could ideally function. Flowcharts can help you see
whether the steps of a process are logical, uncover problems or
miscommunications, define the boundaries of a process, and develop a common
base of knowledge about a process. Flowcharting a process often brings to light
redundancies, delays, dead ends, and indirect paths that would otherwise remain
unnoticed or ignored. But flowcharts don't work if they aren't accurate, if team
members are afraid to describe what actually happens, or if the team is too far
removed from the actual workings of the process.
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There are many varieties of flowcharts and scores of symbols that you can
use. Experience has shown that there are three main types that work for almost
all situations:
High-level flowcharts map only the major steps in a process for a good overview.
Detailed flowcharts show a step-by-step mapping of all events and decisions in a
process.
Deployment flowcharts which organize the flowchart by columns, with each
column representing a person or department involved in a process.
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The trouble spots in a process usually begin to appear as a team
constructs a detailed flowchart.
Although there are many symbols that can be used in flowcharts to
represent different kinds of steps, accurate flowcharts can be created using very
few (e.g. oval, rectangle, diamond, delay, cloud).
To construct an effective flowchart:
Define the process boundaries with starting and ending points.
Complete the big picture before filling in the details.
Clearly define each step in the process. Be accurate and honest.
Identify time lags and non-value-adding steps.
Circulate the flowchart to other people involved in the process to get their
comments.
Flowcharts don't work if they're not accurate or if the team is too far
removed from the process itself. Team members should be true participants in
the process and feel free to describe what really happens. A thorough flowchart
should provide a clear view of how a process works. With a completed flowchart,
you can:
Identify time lags and non-value-adding steps.
Identify responsibility for each step.
Brainstorm for problems in the process.
Determine major and minor inputs into the process with a cause & effect
diagram.
Choose the most likely trouble spots with the consensus builder.
CONTROL CHARTS This are sometimes called
Shewhart charts because of its
inventor, Walter Shewhart, of Bell
Labs. There are many different
subspecies of control charts which
can be applied to the different types
of process data which are typically
available.
All control charts have three basic components:
A centerline, usually the mathematical average of all the samples plotted.
Upper and lower statistical control limits that define the constraints of
common cause variations.
Performance data plotted over time.
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ACTIVITY You are employed by a mid-sized human service agency which employs 75 people.
The agency has a central fax machine. For some time now, clinical staff have
complained that they have not received fax messages in a timely manner.
Because of the confidential nature of some of the fax messages, the agency has
developed a three step procedure for handling fax messages. The fax clerk is the
only person who can retrieve fax messages from the machine. The clerk seals the
message in an envelope and delivers it to the mail room. The mail room places all
fax messages in a "safe box" where they are picked up by the mail delivery person
who delivers them to the secretary for each unit. The secretary opens the
envelope and determines whether the fax contains confidential information. If
not, the secretary places the fax message in the staff person's in box. If the
message contains confidential information, the secretary forwards it directly to
the clinical staff person for whom the message was intended. The goal is to design
the system so that the correct person receives the fax message within one hour.
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Non-Classical Tools
There are any new tools for helping management, they have changed
during the years but the basis continues here Improve quality, get more profits
and compete in this globalized world.
Benchmarking, Balanced Scorecard, Outsourcing and Strategic Planning
have remain in the top ten of management tools. Besides these there are many
more in the list, but now well focus on them.
BENCHMARKING
Improving by learning from others i.e. - benchmarking is simple about
making comparisons with other organizations and then learning the lessons that
those comparisons throw up
Benchmarking is the continuous process of measuring products, services
and practices against the toughest competitors of those companies recognized as
industry leaders. Operational processes must be comparative or analogous if the
highest degree of knowledge transfer between benchmarking partners is to be
achieved.
The underlying reason for benchmarking is to learn how to improve your
business processes and thereby increases your competitiveness. Although
benchmarking is a measurement process and does generate comparative
performance measures, it also is an operational process involving continuous
learning and adaptation which enables you to improve your organizations
competitive position.
In practice benchmarking usually encompasses:
Regularly comparing aspects of performance (functions or processes) with
others
Identifying gaps in performance
Developing performance improvements to close the gaps thus identified
Implementing the improvements
Monitoring processes
Reviewing the benefits
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Types of Benchmarking
Strategic Benchmarking involves examining long-term strategies, for
example regarding core competencies, new product and service
development or improving capabilities for dealing with change. This type of
benchmarking is used by successful high performers in order to improve a
businesss overall performance.
Performance Benchmarking (or Competitive Benchmarking) looks at
performance characteristics in relation to key products and services in the
same sector. In order to protect confidentiality this type of analysis is often
undertaken through trade associations or third parties.
Process Benchmarking focuses on improving critical processes and
operations through comparison with best practice organizations
performing similar work. This often results in short term benefits.
Functional Benchmarking compares a business with partners drawn
from different sectors to find innovative ways of improving work processes.
This can lead to dramatic improvements.
Internal Benchmarking involves benchmarking businesses or operations
from within the same organization (e.g. business units in different
countries). Access to sensitive and/or standardized data is easier, usually
less time and resources are needed and ultimately practices may be
relatively easier to implement. However, real innovation may be lacking:
best in class performance is more likely to be found through external
benchmarking.
External Benchmarking analyses best in class outside organizations,
providing the opportunity to learn from those at the leading edge. This can
take up significant time and resource to ensure the credibility of the
findings.
International Benchmarking identifies and analyses best practitioners
elsewhere in the world, perhaps because there are too few benchmarking
partners within the same country to produce valid results. Globalisation
and advances in information technology are increasing opportunities for
international projects. However, these can take more time and resources to
set up and implement and the results may need careful analysis due to
national differences.
Key Issues:
Key issues for organizations beginning benchmarking efforts:
Top management commitment and participation are necessary
Sufficient time must be allowed for the project as it takes time
An able, well-trained team is critical (if not outside help, consultants)
It is heavy on resources, people, travel, research, consultants, and other
factors
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Process rigor is an absolute sine qua non for success you cannot graze
the surface
Quantitative data is often difficult and time consuming to obtain
OUTSOURCING
It is a transfer of control. Delegate one or more process to a specialize
supplier to reach a high efficiency. With the outsourcing, companies can look at
other necessities to fulfill their mission.
The principal reasons for outsourcing are listed below:
Cost savings. The lowering of the overall cost of the service to the
business. This will involve reducing the scope, defining quality levels, re-
pricing, re-negotiation, const re-structuring.
Cost restructuring. Operating leverage is a measure that compares fixed
costs to variable costs.
Improve quality. Achieve a step change in quality through contracting out
the service with a new Service Level Agreement.
Knowledge. Access to intellectual property and wider experienced and
knowledge.
Contract. Services will be provided to a legally binding contract with
financial penalties and legal redress.
Operational expertise. Access to operational best practice
Staffing issues. Access to a larger talent pool and a sustainable source of
skills.
Capacity management
Catalyst for change. The outsourcer becomes a Change agent in the
process.
Reduce time to market.
Risk management. Partner with an outsourcer who is better able to
provide the mitigation.
Time zone. A sequential task can be done during normal day shift in
different time zones- to make it available 24x7.
Customer pressure. When customers are not happy with the performance
of certain elements of the business.
Process of Outsourcing
Deciding to outsource: Identify what is to be outsource
Supplier proposals: Have a list with the suppliers and their proposals.
Supplier competition: Look for the best supplier
Negotiation: Is the agreement between the company and the supplier.
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Transition: Process for the staff transfer and the take- on of the service
Transformation: Is the implement of the new service.
Termination or renewal: Is the decision between terminate of renew the
contract.
Risks Of The Outsourcing
Negotiate with a wrong contract
Inadequate supplier
Increase the dependence in external entities
There is no control on the suppliers staff
STRATEGIC ALLIANCES
An alliance is defined as a relationship between two or more firms, or
individuals, involving the sharing of complimentary disciplines, technology,
products, services, organizational structures, marketing, and financial resources.
It is a formal relationship formed between two or more parties to pursue a set of
agreed upon goals or to meet a critical business need while remaining
independent organizations.
Partners may provide the strategic alliance with resources such as
products, distribution channels, manufacturing capability, project funding,
capital equipment, knowledge, expertise, or intellectual property.
The alliance is cooperation or collaboration which aims for a synergy where
each partner hopes that the benefits from the alliance will be greater than those
from individual efforts. It often involves technology transfer (access to knowledge
and expertise), economic specialization, shared expenses and share risk.
It is necessary to follow some steps for creating a strong alliance, these
steps are:
Strategy Development: It invol
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