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MachiningMachiningManufacturing ProcessesManufacturing Processes
© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Manufacturing Processes Manufacturing Processes
CuttingCutting (Machining) (Machining)절삭가공절삭가공
Su-Jin Kim
School of Mechanical EngineeringGyeongsang National University
MachiningMachiningManufacturing ProcessesManufacturing Processes
© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Cutting
1. Cutting mechanics2. Tool wear3. Tool material
4. Turning, Turning center5. Milling, Machining center
MachiningMachiningManufacturing ProcessesManufacturing Processes
© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Cutting mechanics ( 절삭역학 )
• Chip formation Shear break off• Cutting force = Specific energy x Area• Chatter (vibration)• Cutting temperature• Tool wear• Tool life equation
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Chip Formation ( 칩생성 )
• Chips are produced by the shearing taking place along a shear plane.
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Cutting Force ( 전단이론 )
• According to maximum-shear-stress criterion, yielding occurs when the max shear stress within an element is equal to or exceeds a critical value (shear yield stress).
Tool
(Assume no friction)Fcσ1
Stock
σσ1
τ
τ
Ф
Mohr’s circle
Shear angle
Shear plane
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© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Cutting Force (Shear force theory)
sin0wt
AF ss
• Shear Force = Shear Stress * Shear Area
• Shear Area = Width x Depth / sin (Shear Angle)
t0
φ
t0 /sin(φ)
Tool
w
sin0twAs
Fs
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Cutting Force (Theory)• Resultant force
= Shear force / cos (shear angle + friction angle – rake angle)
cossincos0wtF
R s
Tool
α
β-α
ф
Workpiece
Fs
Rβ
Chip
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© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Cutting Force (Theory)• Cutting force
= Resultant force x cos (friction angle – rake angle)
• Shear angle = pi/4 + rake angle/2 – friction angle/2
cosRFc
224
Tool
α
β-α
ф
Workpiece
Fc
RChip
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© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Cutting Force• Rake angle ↑ shear angle ↑, cutting force ↓ chip thickness ↓, cooler chip
↓• Rake angle ↑ tool section ↓ strength at cutting edge ↓, heat conductivity
↓
• Relief angle ↑ friction ↓ tool life ↑, surface quality ↑• Relief angle ↑ strength at cutting edge ↓
• Nose radius ↓ heat ↓, surface quality ↑• Force ↑< yield stress of stock ↑, cut depth ↑, cut width ↑
Rake angle,α
Relief angle, r
+
Shear angle, φNose radius
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Cutting Force Approximation ( 절삭력 )• Cutting force ≈ Specific cutting energy( 비절삭에너지 ) x
Cutting areaFc ≈ ut Ac
• Cutting power = force x velocityP = Fc V
Tool
Stock Ac
Fc
Material Specific cutting energy (GPa)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Aluminum alloys 0.4-1.1 480
Copper alloys 1.4-3.3 500
Cast irons 1.6-5.5 200
Steels 2.7-9.3 840
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© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Ex ) Cutting Force
Turning steel, depth of cut d = 0.1 mm, feedrate f = 0.01 mm/rev, Specific cutting energy of steel u = 2.7~9.3 GPa. Cutting force? Cutting speed v = 10 m/s. Cutting power?
F = u A = u d f = 2.7~9.3 (10^9 N/m^2) x 0.001 x 10^-6 m^2 = 2.7~9.3 N
P = F v = 2.7 ~ 9.3 N x 10 m/s = 27 ~ 93 W
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© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Chip morphology ( 칩생성 )• Type of chips produced
influences surface finish and machining operation.
1. Continuous chips
2. Built-up-edge chips3. Serrated chips4. Discontinuous chips
Steel: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4bOzJiYAZD4
Cast Iron: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RoooeTEEMxY&feature=related
Stainless: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DzAjpHFy4fw
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Chip breaker
• Chip breaker shorter chip
Groove Chip breaker
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Chatter (Self-excited vibration)
• Chatter vibrating with high frequency noise is caused by interaction of chip-removal process with flexibility of the tool.
• It could be avoided by increasing dynamic stiffness and damping, by decreasing depth of cut and proper selection of spindle speed .
Chatter
Safe
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uv3yUCl27wMSpindle (rmp)
De
pth
of
cut
(mm
)
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© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Temperature ( 절삭열 )
• Cutting power P=FV Heat Increase the temperature of chip, work piece, and tool
- Temperature increase = specific heat x mass : dT = c m - Specific heat (kJ/kgK): iron 0.45, aluminium 0.91, copper
0.39 • As temperature increases, it will affect the properties of
the cutting tool, dimensional accuracy.- Thermal extension: dL = a dT L- Thermal extension coefficient of iron 10 x 10^-6
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Ex) Temperature of chip
Material removal rate? m/t = ρ A v = (kg/s)If we assume 100% of cutting power used to heat chip, Temperature of chip? P = Q/t = c dT m/t
If workpiece temperature increased 10 ℃, thermal expansion of workpiece?
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Tool wear ( 공구마모 )
• Mechanical wear1. Abrasive wear - hardness2. Adhesive wear - junction3. Fatigue wear - crack (toughness)
• Thermo Chemical wear1. Diffusion wear ( 확산 )2. Solution wear ( 용해 )
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Tool wear
• The wear behaviour of cutting tools are flank wear(measure width of wear land), crater wear(at high speed, diffusion wear is the major reason, measure depth), nose wear, and chipping of the cutting edge.
crater wear
flank wear nose wear
broken edge
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Material (ISO P K M)
• Steel cutting All and upper face wear and deformation
• Stainless cutting Built-up-edge & notch wear
• Cast iron cutting All face wear and deformation
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Tool life (F.W. Taylor, 공구수명 )
• Tool-wear relationship for cutting various steels is
• Tool-life is also effected by depth and feed rate.
CVT n V : cutting speed / T : time (min) / C : constant.n : exponent depends on cutting conditionsHSS 0.14-0.16, Carbides 0.21-0.25, TiC insert 0.30,PCD 0.33, TiN insert 0.35, Ceramic coated insert 0.40
Cut
ting
spe
ed
V
Tool life T
Log
Log
C
-n
CfdVT yxn d : depth of cut, f : feed rate
Carbide
Ceramic
HSS
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© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Given that n=0.5 and VTn=C, if the V reduced 50%, calculate the increase of tool life.
SolutionVT0.5=C (1)0.5VT2
0.5=C (2)(2)/(1)0.5(T2/T)0.5=1T2=4TIncrease tool life 4 times.
ExIncreasing tool life by reducing the cutting speed
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Surface Finish ( 표면조도 )
Feed marks• In turning, peak-to-valley roughness is
R
fr rt 8
2
rr <Rfr : feed rate (mm/rev)R : tool nose radius (mm)
Tool
StockR
fr
rt
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© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU© 2012 Su-Jin Kim GNU
Cutting Tool Materials ( 공구 재질 )• HSS ( 하이스 )• Carbide ( 초경 )• Cermet• CBN• Diamond
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Cutting-Tool Materials
• A cutting tool has the following characteristics:1. Hardness ( 경도 ) at high temperature ~ Speed2. Toughness ( 인성 ) ~ Feed & depth3. Wear resistance ( 내마모성 )4. Chemical stability ( 화학적 안정성 )
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HSS ( 하이스 )
HSS (High-speed steels)• HSS cuts faster than carbon tool steel, hence the name
high speed steel, but slower than carbide tools.• It is often used in power saw blades and drill bits.
TiN-Coated HSS• PVD (physical vapor deposition), TiN coating reduces
tool wear.
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Carbides ( 초경 )
Carbides• Better wear resistance, stiffness, hot hardness• Tungsten carbide: WC + Co(for toughness) powder
metallurgy (sintered), suitable for non-ferrous, grey cast iron
• Titanium carbide: TiC + Co : TiC is suitable for steel and cast iron
Coated Carbide• Carbide + TiC, TiN, Al2O3 coated by CVD (chemical vapor deposition)• Chemically stable greatly reduce crater wear
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CermetsCeramicsAluminum oxide(Al2O3), Silicon-nitride(SiN), cold pressed and hot
sinteredHot hardness ↑, toughness ↓ (chipping), thermal shock
CermetsCeramic(Al2O3) + metal binder(TiC)Hot hardness ↑, toughness ↓, thermal expansion ↑
Insert: less thermal stress, eliminate grinding by user, less setting time
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Om9gzgNPf80
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Diamond, CBN
Diamond (Poly crystal diamond)• Hardest material, Not good for steel
CBN (polycrystalline cubic boron nitride)• 2nd hardest material, brittle, expensive
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vAvfrrlMZg4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mKxX50OMBd4&p=9B6D9EAE75875D9D
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Tool materials
Tool materials, feeds, and cutting speeds• Characteristics of cutting-tool materials gives a range of
cutting speeds and feeds for different applications.
Coated HSS / HSS
Feed (Toughness)
Spe
ed (
Har
dnes
s)
Coated carbideCarbide
CermetCeramic
PCDCBN
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Workpiece materials ( 소재 재질 )
• Workpiece materials and cutting speeds when Carbide tool or coated carbide tools is used for turning
Material Cutting speed (m/min)
Aluminum alloys 200-1000
Copper alloys 50-700
Cast iron, gray 60-900
Steels 50-500
Titanium alloys 10-100
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Cutting Tool Makers ( 공구 제작사 )• www.taegutec.co.kr• www.yg1.co.kr
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Cutting Fluids ( 절삭유 )
• Also called lubricants and coolants, cutting fluids.• Used extensively in machining operations to:1. Cool the cutting zone2. Reduce friction and wear3. Reduce forces and energy consumption4. Wash away chips5. Protect surfaces from any environmental attack
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Sawing and saws ( 톱 )
• A cutting operation where the tool consists of a series of small teeth that removes material.
Belt sawDisk saw
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Turning ( 선삭 )
• A piece of material is rotated and a single point cutting tool is traversed along 2 axes of motion to produce the cylinder, tubular components and various rotational geometries.
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Lathe ( 선반 )
• Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe, which frequently requires continuous supervision by the operator.
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1st Korean Lathe
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CNC Lathe, Turning center
• Turning can be done by using a computer numerical control, known as CNC.
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Turning center
• Turning center has additional milling axis is called TurmMill ( 복합기 )
http://ma.gnu.ac.kr/vod/machining/TurnMill.AVI
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tDc0l9Gm8D4
Turning process ( 선삭공정 )
• Straight turning• Taper turning• Profiling (Couture turning)• External grooving
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5AB_etoHesI&p=9B6D9EAE75875D9D
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Math for Turning
• Cutting speed(mm/min) = 3.14 x Diameter x Spindle V = π D S• MRR (Material Removal Rate) = Volume / Time = 3.14 x
Diameter x Depth x Feed per revolution x Spindle
• Cutting time = Distance / (Feed per revolution x Spindle)
SdfDMMR ravg
Sf
lt
r
V
S
S
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A 15.24-cm-long, 1.27-cm-diameter 304 stainless-steel rod is being reduced in diameter to 1.2192 cm by turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at N=4000 rpmand the tool is travelling at an axial speed of 20.32 cm/min. Calculate the cuttingspeed, material-removal rate, cutting time, power dissipated, and cutting force.
SolutionMaximum cutting speed is
Cutting speed at machined diameter is
Depth of cut and feed is
Ex) Turning
m/min 959.1540027.10 NDV
m/min 321.154002192.1 V
cm/rev 0508.0400
32.20 and cm 0255.0
2
219.127.1
fd
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SolutionMaterial-removal rate is
Actual time taken to cut is
Amount of power dissipated is
The torque and cutting force is
Ex) Turning
min/cm 02586.24000508.00255.02445.1 3 MMR
min 75.04000508.0
24.15t
W13502586.260
104 3
Power
kg 8153.522445.1
28643.32 and cm-kg 8643.32
2400
82597 cFT
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Milling
• Cutting tool is rotated and traversed along 3 axes of motion to produce from simple rectangular plane, slot, hole and complex contour.
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Milling
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Machining center (CNC Milling)
Horizontal M/C
Bridge TypeC Type
Vertical M/C
5AX M/C
http://www.youtube.com/user/GlacernMachineTools
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• Huge 3+2 axis milling has additional rotation BC axis on head.
• Used for automobile door panel and bumper mold.
http://ma.gnu.ac.kr/vod/machining/Huge_machine_tools.AVI
http://ma.gnu.ac.kr/vod/machining/Huge_5axis.AVI
3+2 axis machining (5 면가공기 )
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5-axis machining (5 축가공기 )
• Has 2 tinting A C or B C axis on table or head.
Rotary table: http://ma.gnu.ac.kr/vod/Machining/Rotaty_table.MP4
Impeller : http://ma.gnu.ac.kr/vod/Machining/5axis_machining_impeller.MP4
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Automatic Tool Changer (ATC)
Changer Arm
Tool
Spindle
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Automatic Pallet Changer (APC)
Pallet #1
Pallet #2
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Work holding Vise, Clamp ( 치구 )
• Work is fixed by vise or clamp on the table with T-slot
Flex clamp: http://ma.gnu.ac.kr/vod/Machining/Clamp.MP4
http://www.youtube.com/user/GlacernMachineTools#p/u/5/J1VtofzVG24
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Tool holder, Tools
Holder + Collet + Solid Endmill Insert Endmill
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IPWGV_EGAHw&feature=related
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Tool holder, Tools
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Milling operations
Face CutterBasic: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j0vRYe9uvnI
Face: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9OsNUi_o6C4
Endmill: http://www.youtube.com/user/GlacernMachineTools#p/u/1/HfIaISnqHOk
Flat endmill (Slotting)
• Face cutter
• Endmill : Flat, Ball, Rounded
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Math for milling
• Cutting speed(mm/min) = 3.14 x Diameter x Spindle
V = π D S
• Feed per tooth = Feed / (Spindle x Number of teeth)
• MMR = Depth x Width x Feed MRR = d w F
SnFft /ft
w
d
F (mm/min)
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Drilling
• Drills produces deep holes.
Insert drillDrill: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ul20R32HJ3E
Max drill
Drilling machine
Drill
Drill: http://ma.gnu.ac.kr/vod/Machining/Drill.MP4
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Tapping Tapping holder and tool
Tapping
• Tap produces thread inside the hold.• Tap Feed Rate = RPM x PitchEx) M6 x 1 at 2000 RPM = 2000 mm/min
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCHQLFZHHJc
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Reaming, Boring
• Reamer enlarges an hole to the diameter of the tool.• Boring produce precise circular internal profiles.
BoringReaming
Drilling, Tapping, Boring: http://vimeo.com/8642433http://www.youtube.com/user/GlacernMachineTools#p/u/0/om6GQKfoS1g
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Planer and Shaper
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Gear Hobbing
• A hob (cutter) is rotated one revolution to transfer each tooth profile onto a rotating gear blank.
• Used very often for medium to high sizes of production runs.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwFssm9trSc
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Broaching
Rotary broaching: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gUEcagEmmZo&p=9B6D9EAE75875D9D
• Linear broaching: the broach is run linearly against a surface of the workpiece to effect the cut.
• Rotary broaching: the broach is rotated and pressed into the workpiece to cut an axis symmetric shape.
Broaching gear: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2K45B6tDqsg&p=9B6D9EAE75875D9D
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Design for milling
• Minimize machining, use casting and forging.• Minimize the length to diameter ratio of the tools.• Design features to be machined from one side.
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Design for milling
• The inside edges must have the radius of the end mill.• For outside corners, chamfers are preferable over fillet.• For flatness, bosses should be used.
Ⓒ http://www.efunda.com/processes/machining/mill_design.cfm
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tool
unloading & loading up, setting
machining
cost total
t
s
m
p
tsmp
C
C
C
C
where
CCCC
Economics of Machining
Total cost per piece consists of four items:
Cutting speed
Cos
t
Tool
Setting up
Machining Total
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References: Machine Tool Makers
• www.doosaninfracore.co.kr• www.wia.co.kr• www.hwacheon.co.kr
• www.mazak.jp (Japan)• www.haascnc.com (USA)• www.deckelmaho.com (EU)
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