part b. linear algebra, vector calculus chap. 6: linear algebra; … · 2013-12-19 · ch. 6:...
Post on 12-Mar-2020
68 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Part B. Linear Algebra, Vector CalculusChap. 6: Linear Algebra; Matrices, Vectors, Determinants,
Linear Systems of Equations
- Theory and application of linear systems of equations, linear transformations, and eigenvalue problems.
- Vectors, matrices, determinants, …
6.1. Basic concepts- Basic concepts and rules of matrix and vector algebra- Matrix: rectangular array of numbers (or functions)
Reference: “Matrix Computations” by G.H. Golub, C.F. Van Loan (1996) elements or entries
row
column
−403125
Ex. 1) 5x – 2y + z = 03x + 4z = 0
Coefficient matrix:
− 0325
84.02
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
0)x,...,x,x(f
0)x,...,x,x(f0)x,...,x,x(f
n21n
n212
n211
=
==
nnnn22n11n
2nn2222121
1nn1212111
bxaxaxa
bxaxaxabxaxaxa
=+++
=+++=+++
bxA =
=
n
2
1
n
2
1
nn2n1n
n22221
n11211
b
bb
x
xx
aaa
aaaaaa
General Notations and Concepts
[ ]
==
mn2m1m
n22221
n11211
jk
aaa
aaaaaa
aA
b,a:Vector
B,A:Matrix
- rectangular matrix that is notsquare
m x n matrixm = n: square matrix
aii: principal or main diagonal of the matrix.(important for simultaneouslinear equations)
ijaorARow (Eqn.)
Column (Variable)
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
VectorsRow vector:
Transposition
[ ]m1 b,...,bb =
=
m
1
c
cc
Column vector:
=
m
1T
b
bb Transpose
)mn(A)nm(A T ××
[ ]
==
mnn2n1
2m2212
1m2111
kjT
aaa
aaaaaa
aA
Symmetric matrices: Skew-symmetric matrices:
Square matrices
)aa(AA ijT
ijT ==
)aa(AA ijT
ijT −=−=
Properties of transpose:
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) TTTTTT
TTTTTTTT
ABCCBA,AkAk
,ABBA,BABA,AA
==
=+=+=
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Equalities of Matrices: same size
Matrix Addition: same size
Scalar Multiplication:
6.2. Matrix Multiplication- Multiplication of matrices by matrices
(number of columns of 1st factor A = number of rows of 2nd factor B)
( ) ( )
( ) 0AA
A0A
WVUWVU
ABBA
=−+
=+
++=++
+=+
( )ijij baBA ==
( )ijijij bacBAC +=+=
AkA)k( −=−
( )( )( ) ( )AckAkc
AkAcAkc
BcAcBAc
=
+=+
+=+
lnlmmnCBA
×××=
=
=m
1kkjikij baC
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Difference from Multiplication of Numbers- Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general: - does not necessarily imply - does not necessarily imply (even when A=0)
Special Matrices
ABBA ≠0BA = 0ABor0Bor0A ===DACA = DC =
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( ) CBCACBA
CBACBA
BkABAkBAk
+=+
=
==
mn
n
n
a
aaaaa
00
0 222
11211
Upper triangular matrix
mnmm aaa
aaa
21
2221
11
000
Lower triangular matrix
mna
aaaa
00
00
2221
1211
Banded matrix Results of finite difference solutionsfor PDE or ODE.
(especially, tridiagonal)
Matrix can be decomposed into Lower & Upper triangular matrices LU decomposition
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Special Matrices:
jiij aa = Symmetric matrix,
)ji(0a,0a ijii ≠=≠ Diagonal matrix
)ji,0I(1IorI ijii ≠== Identity (or unit) matrix
Inner Product of Vectors
Product in Terms of Row and Column Vectors: (jth first row of A).(kth first column of B)
[ ] =
=
=⋅n
1kkk
n
2
1
n21 ba
b
bb
aaaba
kjjk bac ⋅=pmpnnm
CBA×××
=
⋅⋅⋅
⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅
=
pm2m1m
p22212
p12111
bababa
babababababa
BA
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Linear Transformations
6.3. Linear Systems of Equations: Gauss Elimination- The most important practical use of matrices: the solution of linear systems of equations
Linear System, Coefficient Matrix, Augmented Matrix
wCwBAy
wBx,xAy
==
==
mnmn22m11m
2nn2222121
1nn1212111
bxaxaxa
bxaxaxabxaxaxa
=+++
=+++=+++
bxA =
=
m
2
1
n
2
1
mn2m1m
n22221
n11211
b
bb
x
xx
aaa
aaaaaa
b = 0: homogeneous system (this has at least one solution, i.e., x = 0)b ≠ 0: nonhomogeneous system
m
2
1
mn2m1m
n22221
n11211
b
bb
aaa
aaaaaa
Augmented matrix
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Singular
Same slopeDifferent interceptNo solution
Infinite solutions Very close to singular ill-conditioned - difficult to identify the solution- extremely sensitive to round-off error
x1
x2Precisely one solution
Ex. 1) Geometric interpretation: Existence of solutions
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Gauss Elimination- Standard method for solving linear systems- The elimination of unknowns can be extended to large sets of equations.
(Forward elimination of unknowns & solution through back substitution)
=
−−−−−−
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4441
24232221
141312 ''''1
bbbb
xxxx
aa
aaaaaaa
=
−−−−−−
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4441
242322
141312
''
'''0'''1
bbbb
xxxx
aa
aaaaaa
During this operations the first row: pivot row (a11: pivot element)And then second row becomes pivot row: a’22 pivot element
=
−−−
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
34
2423
141312
''''
10'10''10'''1
bbbb
xxxx
aaaaaa
Upper triangular form
+=
−=
−=→=+=N
ijjijii xabx
xabxbxaxbx
1
434333434344
''
'''','
Repeat back substitution, moving upward
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Elementary Row Operation: Row-Equivalent Systems- Interchange of two rows- Addition of a constant multiple of one row to another row- Multiplication of a row by a nonzero constant c
Overdetermined: equations > unknownsDetermined: equations = unknownsUnderdetermined: equations < unknowns
Consistent: system has at least one solution.Inconsistent: system has no solutions at all.
Homogeneous solution: xh
Nonhomogeneous solution: xp
xp+xh is also a solutions of the nonhomogeneous systems
Homogeneous systems: always consistent (why? trivial solution exists, x=0)Theorem: A homogeneous system possess nontrivial solutions if the number of m of
equations is less than the number of n of unknowns (m < n)
0xA =bxA =
( ) bb0xAxAxxA phph =+=+=+
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Echelon Form: Information Resulting from It
−−
−
1200023/13/10
3123and
0003/13/10
123
m
1r
rnrnrrr
*2nn2222
1nn1212111
b~0
b~0
b~xcxc
bxcxc
bxaxaxa
=
=
=++
=++
=+++
+
(a) No solution: if r < m and one of the numbers
is not zero.
(b) Precisely one solution: if r=n and
, if present, are zero.
(c) Infinitely many solutions: if r < n and
, if present, are zero.
m1r b~,...,b~ +
m1r b~,...,b~ +
m1r b~,...,b~ +
Existence and uniqueness of the solutions Next issue
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Gauss-Jordan elimination: particularly well suited to digital computation
=
−−−
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
34
2423
141312
''''
10'10''10'''1
bbbb
xxxx
aaaaaa
Multiplying the second row by a’12 and subtracting the second row from the first
=
−−−
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
34
2423
1413
'''''
10'10''10''''01
bbbb
xxxx
aaaaa
=
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
''''''''
1000010000100001
bbbb
xxxx
44
33
22
11
''''''''
bxbxbxbx
====
- The most efficient approach is to eliminate all elements both above and below the pivotelement in order to clear to zero the entire column containing the pivot element, except ofcourse for the 1 in the pivot position on the main diagonal.
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Gauss elimination:- Forward elimination + back-substitution
(computation effort ↑)- Inefficient when solving equations with the same coefficient A, but with different rhs constants B
LU Decomposition: - Well suited for those situations where many rhs B must be evaluated for a single value of A Elimination step can be formulated so that it involves only operations on the matrix of coefficient A.
- Provides an efficient means to compute the matrix inverse.
(1) LU Decomposition- LU decomposition separates the time-consuming elimination of A from the manipulations of rhs B. once A has been “decomposed”, multiple rhs vectors can be evaluated effectively.
• Overview of LU Decomposition
-Upper triangular form:
- Assume lower diagonal matrix with 1’s on the diagonal:
=
3
2
1
3
2
1
33
2322
131211
ddd
xxx
u00uu0uuu
0DxU =−
=
1ll01l001
L
3231
21
BxA =
0BxA =−
LU-Decomposition
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
So that
- Two-step strategy for obtaining solutions:LU decomposition step: A L and USubstitution step: D from LD=B
x from Ux=D
• LU Decomposition Version of Gauss Eliminationa. Gauss Elimination:
Use f21 = a21/a11 to eliminate a21 upper triangular matrix form !f31 = a31/a11 to eliminate a31f32 = a’32/a’22 to eliminate a32
Store f’s
BDL,AULBxA)DxU(L ==∴−=−
=
3
2
1
3
2
1
333231
232221
131211
bbb
xxx
aaaaaaaaa
333231
232221
131211
''aff'a'af
aaaULA →
=
33
2322
131211
''a00'a'a0
aaaU
=
1ff01f001
L
3231
21
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
b. Forward-substitution step:
Back-substitution step: (identical to the back-substitution phase of conventional Gauss elimination)
−
=
=−=
=1i
1jjijii n,...,3,2iforbadd
BDL
1,...,2n,1nifora
xadx&a/dx
ii
n
1ijjiji
innnn −−=−
==
+=
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
6.4. Rank of a Matrix: Linear Dependence. Vector Space- Key concepts for existence and uniqueness of solutionsLinear Independence and Dependence of VectorsGiven set of m vectors: a1, …, am (same size)Linear combination: (cj: any scalars)
- Conditions satisfying above relation:(1) (Only) all zero cj’s: a1, …, am are linearly independent.(2) Above relation holds with scalars not all zero linearly dependent.
Ex. 1) Linear independence and dependence
- Vectors can be expressed into linearly independent subset.
mm2211 acacac +++
0acacac mm2211 =+++
)c/ckwhere(akaka)ex 1jjmm221 −=++=
[ ][ ][ ]1502121a
5424426a2203a
3
2
1
−−=−=
=0aa5.0a6 321 =−−
Two vectors are linearly independent.
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Rank of a Matrix- Maximum number of linearly independent row vectors of a matrix A=[ajk]: rank A
Ex. 3) Rank
rank = 2
- rank A=0 iff A=0
Theorem 1: (rank in terms of column vectors)The rank of a matrix A equals the maximum number of linearly independent column vectors of A. A and AT same rank.
- Maximum number of linearly independent row vectors of A(r) cannot exceed the maximum number of linearly independent column vectors of A.
Ex. 4)
−−−=
150212154244262203
A
−+
−=
−
−+
−=
21420
2129
216
3
32
15542
,21
420
32
216
3
32
0242
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Vector Space, Dimension, Basis- Vector space: a set V of vectors such that with any two vectors a and b in V all their
linear combination αa+βb are elements of V.
Let V be a set of elements on which two operations called vector addition and scalar multiplication are defined. Then V is said to be a vector space if the following ten properties are satisfied.
Axioms for vector addition(i) If x and y are in V, then x+y is in V.(ii) For all x, y in V, x+y = y+x(iii) For all x, y, z in V, x+(y+z) = (x+y) +z(iv) There is a unique vector 0 in V such that 0 + x = x + 0 = x(v) For each x in V, there exists a vector –x such that x+(-x) = (-x)+x=0
Axioms for scalar multiplications(vi) If k is any scalar and x is in V, then kx is in V(vii) k(x+y) = kx + ky(viii) (k1+k2)x = k1x + k2x(ix) k1(k2x) = (k1k2)x(x) 1x = x
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Vector Space, Dimension, Basis- Subspace: If a subset W of a vector space V is itself a vector space under the
operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication defined on V, thenW is called a subspace of V. (i) If x and y are in W, then x+y is in W.(ii) If x is in W and k is any scalar, then kx is W.
- Dimension: (dim V) the maximum number of linearly independent vectors in V.- Basis for V: a linearly independent set in V consisting of a maximum possible
number of vectors in V.(number of vectors of a basis for V = dim V)
- Span: the set of linear combinations of given vectors a1, …, ap with the same numberof components (Span is a vector space)
Ex. 5) Consider a matrix A in Ex.1.: vector space of dim 2, basis a1, a2 or a1, a3
- Row space of A: span of the row vectors of a matrix AColumn space of A: span of the column vectors of a matrix A
Theorem 2: The row space and the column space of a matrix A have the same dimension, equal to rank A.
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Invariance of Rank under Elementary Row OperationsTheorem 3: Row-equivalent matrices
Row-equivalent matrices have the same rank.(Echelon form of A: no change of rank property)
Ex. 6)
Practical application of rank in connection with the linearly independence and dependence of the vectors
Theorem 4: p vectors x1, …, xp, (with n components) are linearly independent if the matrix with row vectors x1, …, xp has rank p: they are linearly dependent ifthat rank is less than p.
Theorem 5: p vectors with n < p components are always linearly dependent.
Theorem 6: The vector space Rn consisting of all vectors with n components hasdimension n.
−−−=
000058284202203
150212154244262203
A rank A=2
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
6.5. Solutions of Linear Systems: Existence, Uniqueness, General FormTheorem 1: Fundamental theorem for linear systems(a) Existence: m equations in n unknowns
has solutions iff the coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix have the samerank.
(b) Uniqueness: above system has precisely one solution iff this common rank r of Aand equals n.
(c) Infinitely many solutions: If rank of A = r < n, system has infinitely many solutions.
(d) Gauss elimination: If solutions exist, they can all be obtained by the Gauss elimination.
mnmn22m11m
2nn2222121
1nn1212111
bxaxaxa
bxaxaxabxaxaxa
=+++
=+++=+++
A~
A~
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
The Homogeneous Linear SystemTheorem 2: Homogeneous system- A homogeneous linear system always has the trivial solution, x1=0,…, xn=0
- Nontrivial solutions exist iff rank A<n. - If rank A=r<n, these solutions, together with x=0, form a vector space of dimension
n-r, called the solution space of above system.- If x1 and x2 are solution vectors, then x=c1x1+c2x2 is also solution vector.
Theorem 3: A homogeneous linear system with fewer equations than unknowns always has nontrivial solutions.
The Nonhomogeneous Linear SystemTheorem 4: If a nonhomogeneous linear system of equations of the form Ax=b has
solutions, then all these solutions are of the form
0xaxaxa
0xaxaxa0xaxaxa
nmn22m11m
nn2222121
nn1212111
=+++
=+++=+++
h0 xxx += (x0 is any fixed solution of Ax=b, xh: solution of homogeneous system)
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
6.6. Determinants. Cramer’s Rule- Impractical in computations, but important in engineering applications (eigenvalues,
DEs, vector algebra, etc.) - associated with an nxn square matrixSecond-order Determinants
Ex. 2) Cramer’s rule:
Third-order Determinants
Ex. 3) Cramer’s rule
211222112221
1211 aaaaaaaa
AdetD −===
Dbaba
Dbaba
x,D
baabD
abab
xbxaxabxaxa 121211221
111
2212221222
121
12222121
1212111 −==−===+=+
2322
131231
3332
131221
3332
232211
333231
232221
131211
aaaa
aaaaa
aaaaa
aaaaaaaaaa
D +−==
Daabaabaab
D,...DDx
bxaxaxabxaxaxabxaxaxa
33323
23222
13121
11
1
3333232131
2323222121
1313212111
===++=++=++
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Determinant of Any Order n
nn2n1n
n22221
n11211
aaa
aaaaaa
AdetD
==
)n,,2,1k(CaCaCaD
)n,,2,1j(CaCaCaD
nknkk2k2k1k1
jnjn2j2j1j1j
=+++=
=+++=
jkkj
jk M)1(C +−=
Minor of ajk in DCofactor of ajk in D
)n,,2,1k(Ma)1(D
)n,,2,1j(Ma)1(D
n
1jjkjk
kj
n
1kjkjk
kj
=−=
=−=
=
+
=
+
Ex. 4) Third-order determinant
21213332
131221 MC,
aaaa
M −==
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
General Properties of DeterminantsTheorem 1: (a) Interchange of two rows multiplies the value of the determinant by –1.(b) Addition of a multiple of a row to another row does not alter the value of the determinant.(c) Multiplication of a row by c multiplies the value of the determinant by c.
Ex. 7) Determinant by reduction to triangular form
Theorem 2: (d) Transposition leaves the value of a determinant unaltered.(e) A zero row or column renders the value of a determinant zero.(f) Proportional rows or columns render the value of a determinant zero. In particular, a determinant with two identical rows or columns has the value zero.
25.470008.34.200
129506402
19831620
01546402
D−
−
−−
−
=
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Theorem 1: (a) Interchange of two rows multiplies the value of the determinant by –1.(b) Addition of a multiple of a row to another row does not alter the value of the
determinant.(c) Multiplication of a row by c multiplies the value of the determinant by c.
Ex. 7) Determinant by reduction to triangular form
Theorem 2: (d) Transposition leaves the value of a determinant unaltered.(e) A zero row or column renders the value of a determinant zero.(f) Proportional rows or columns render the value of a determinant zero.
In particular, a determinant with two identical rows or columns has the value zero.
General Properties of Determinants
25.470008.34.200
129506402
19831620
01546402
D−
−
−−
−
=
Adetk)Akdet( n=
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Rank in Terms of Determinants- Rank ~~~ determinants
Theorem 3: An m x n matrix A=[ajk] has rank r ≥1 iff A has an r x r submatrix withnonzero determinant, whereas the determinant of every square submatrixwith r+1 or more rows that A has is zero.
- If A is square, n x n, it has rank n iff det A≠0.
Cramer’s Rule- Not practical in computations, but theoretically interesting in DEs and others
Theorem 4: (a) Linear system of n equations in the same number of unknowns, x
If this system has a nonzero coefficient determinant D=det A, it hasprecisely one solution.
nnnn22n11n
2nn2222121
1nn1212111
bxaxaxa
bxaxaxabxaxaxa
=+++
=+++=+++
DDx,,
DDx,
DDx n
21
21
1 ===
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
(b) If the system is homogeneous and D≠0, it has only the trivial solution x=0. If D=0,the homogeneous system also has nontrivial solutions.
6.7. Inverse of a Matrix: Gauss-Jordan Elimination
- If A has an inverse, then A is a nonsingular matrix (unique inverse !)~~ no inverse, ~~ a singular matrix.
Theorem 1: Existence of the inverseThe inverse A-1 of an n x n matrix A exists iff rank A=n, hence iff det A≠0. Hence A is nonsingular if rank A = n, and is singular if rank A < n.
Determination of the Inverse- n x n matrix A n x n identity matrix I, I matrix A-1
IAAAA 11 == −−
=
1000
00100001
aaa
aaaaaa
)IA(
nn2n1n
n22221
n11211
)AI()IA( 1−
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Matrix Inverse
a. Calculating the inverse- The inverse can be computed in a column-by-column fashion by generating solutions with unit vectors as the rhs constants.
resulting solution will be the first column of the matrix inverse.
… the second column of the matrix inverse
Best way: use the LU decomposition algorithm (evaluate multiple rhs vectors)
b. Matrix inversion by Gauss-Jordan eliminationThe square matrix A-1 assumes the role of the column vector of unknown x, while square matrix I assumes the role of the rhs column vector B.
=
001
b
=
010
b
IAAAA == −− 11
−−−−−−
→
−−
→
→
434141414341414143
100010001
102100210021
232102123021211
1000100021
21112121211
100010001
211121112
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Some Useful Formulas for InverseTheorem 2: The inverse of a nonsingular n x n matrix A=[ajk] is given by
where Ajk is the cofactor of ajk in det A.
Ex. 3) For 3 x 3 matrix
- Diagonal matrices A have an inverse iff all ajj≠0. Then A-1 is diagonal with entries 1/a11, …, 1/ann.
Ex. 4) Inverse of a diagonal matrix
-
[ ]
==−
nnn2n1
2n2212
1n2111
Tjk
1
AAA
AAAAAA
Adet1A
Adet1A
−
−=
= −
1121
12221
2221
1211
aaaa
Adet1A
aaaa
A
111 AC)CA( −−− =
화공수학Ch. 6: Linear Algebra
Vanishing of Matrix Products. Cancellation Law - Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general: - does not necessarily imply - does not necessarily imply (even when A=0)
Theorem 3: Cancellation lawLet A, B, C be n x n matrices. Then
(a) If rank A=n and AB=AC, then B=C(b) If rank A=n, then AB=0 implies B=0. Hence if AB=0, but A≠0 as well as B≠0,
then rank A < n and rank B < n.(c) If A is singular, so are BA and AB.
Determinants of Matrix ProductsTheorem 4: For any n x n matrices A and B
ABBA ≠0BA = 0ABor0Bor0A ===
DACA = DC =
( ) ( ) BdetAdetABdetBAdet ==
top related