powerpoint presentationocw.nthu.edu.tw/ocw/upload/17/335/【l02 課程大綱】ch27-28.pdf ·...

Fig. 27-18e

Thiomargarita namibiensiscontaining sulfur wastes (LM)

0.5

µm

Fig. 27-18f

Fruiting bodies ofChondromyces crocatus, amyxobacterium (SEM)

10 µ

m

Fig. 27-18g

Bdellovibrio bacteriophorusattacking a larger bacterium(colorized TEM)

5 µ

m

B. bacteriophorus

Fig. 27-18h

Helicobacter pylori (colorized TEM)

2 µ

m

Fig. 27-18l

50

µm

Two species of Oscillatoria,filamentous cyanobacteria (LM)

Fig. 27-18m

Streptomyces, the source of many

antibiotics (colorized SEM)

5 µ

m

Fig. 27-18n

1 µ

m

Hundreds of mycoplasmascovering a human fibroblastcell (colorized SEM)

Fig. 27-19

No

bacteriaStrain 1 Strain 2 Strain 3

Soil treatment

Up

take o

f K

by p

lan

ts (

mg

)

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Fig. 27-15

1 µ

m

Fig. 27-20

Fig. 27-22

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 28-01

1 µm

Fig. 28-02-2

Cyanobacterium

Heterotrophiceukaryote

Over the courseof evolution,this membranewas lost.

Red alga

Green alga

Primaryendosymbiosis

Secondaryendosymbiosis

Secondaryendosymbiosis

Secondaryendosymbiosis

Plastid

Dinoflagellates

Apicomplexans

Stramenopiles

Plastid

Euglenids

Chlorarachniophytes

Fig. 28-03g

5 µm

Five Supergroups of Eukaryotes

• It is no longer thought that

amitochondriates (lacking mitochondria)

are the oldest lineage of eukaryotes

• Our understanding of the relationships

among protist groups continues to

change rapidly

• One hypothesis divides all eukaryotes

(including protists) into five supergroups

Fig. 28-03a

Alv

eo

late

sS

tram

en

op

iles

Diplomonads

Parabasalids

Euglenozoans

Dinoflagellates

Apicomplexans

Ciliates

Diatoms

Golden algae

Brown algae

OomycetesE

xcavata

Ch

rom

alv

eo

lata

Rh

izaria

Chlorarachniophytes

Forams

Radiolarians

Arc

ha

ep

lastid

a

Red algae

Chlorophytes

Charophyceans

Land plants

Un

iko

nta

Slime molds

Gymnamoebas

Entamoebas

Nucleariids

Fungi

Choanoflagellates

Animals

Fig. 28-UN1

Kinetoplastids

Euglenids

Diplomonads

Parabasalids

Euglenozoans

Excavata

Chromalveolata

Rhizaria

Archaeplastida

Unikonta

Diplomonads and Parabasalids

• These 2 groups live in anaerobic environments, lack plastids, and have modified mitochondria

• Diplomonads– Have modified mitochondria called mitosomes

– Derive energy anaerobically, for example, by glycolysis

– Have two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella

– Are often parasites, for example, Giardia intestinalis

Fig. 28-03g

5 µm

• Parabasalids

– Have reduced mitochondria called

hydrogenosomes that generate some energy

anaerobically

– Include Trichomonas vaginalis, the pathogen

that causes yeast infections in human females

Fig. 28-04

5 µm

Flagella

Undulating membrane

Fig. 28-26

Euglenozoans

• Euglenozoa is a diverse clade that

includes predatory heterotrophs,

photosynthetic autotrophs, and

pathogenic parasites

• The main feature distinguishing them as

a clade is a spiral or crystalline rod of

unknown function inside their flagella

• This clade includes the kinetoplastids and

euglenids

Fig. 28-05

Flagella

Crystalline rod

Ring of microtubules

0.2 µm

Kinetoplastids

• Kinetoplastids have a single mitochondrion with an organized mass of DNA called a kinetoplast

• They include free-living consumers of prokaryotes in freshwater, marine, and moist terrestrial ecosystems

• This group includes Trypanosoma, which causes sleeping sickness in humans

• Another pathogenic trypanosome causes Chagas’ disease

Fig. 28-06

9 µm

Fig. 28-07

Long flagellum

Eyespot

Short flagellum

Contractile vacuole

Nucleus

Chloroplast

Plasma membrane

Light detector

PellicleEuglena (LM) 5 µm

Fig. 28-UN2

Dinoflagellates

Apicomplexans

Ciliates

Diatoms

Golden algae

Brown algae

Oomycetes

Rhizaria

Archaeplastida

Unikonta

Ch

rom

alv

eo

lata

Excavata

Alveolates

Stramenopiles

Fig. 28-08

Flagellum Alveoli

Alveolate

0.2

µm

Dinoflagellates

• Dinoflagellates are a diverse group of

aquatic mixotrophs and heterotrophs

• They are abundant components of both

marine and freshwater phytoplankton

• Each has a characteristic shape that in

many species is reinforced by internal

plates of cellulose

Video: Dinoflagellate

• Two flagella make them spin as they

move through the water

• Dinoflagellate blooms are the cause of

toxic “red tides”

Fig. 28-09

Flagella

3 µ

m

Apicomplexans

• Apicomplexans are parasites of animals,

and some cause serious human diseases

• One end, the apex, contains a complex of

organelles specialized for penetrating a

host

• They have a nonphotosynthetic plastid,

the apicoplast

• Most have sexual and asexual stages

that require two or more different host

species for completion

• The apicomplexan Plasmodium is the

parasite that causes malaria

• Plasmodium requires both mosquitoes

and humans to complete its life cycle

• Approximately 2 million people die each

year from malaria

• Efforts are ongoing to develop vaccines

that target this pathogen

Fig. 28-10-3

Inside human

Liver

Liver cell

Merozoite(n)

Red bloodcells

Gametocytes(n)

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Key

Merozoite

Apex

Red bloodcell

Zygote

(2n)

FERTILIZATION

Gametes

Inside mosquito

MEIOSIS

Oocyst

Sporozoites

(n)

Ciliates

• Ciliates, a large varied group of protists,

are named for their use of cilia to move

and feed

• They have large macronuclei and small

micronuclei

• The micronuclei function during

conjugation, a sexual process that

produces genetic variation

• Conjugation is separate from

reproduction, which generally occurs by

binary fission

Fig. 28-11a

Contractilevacuole

Cilia

Micronucleus

Macronucleus

Oral groove

Cell mouth

Food vacuoles

(a) Feeding, waste removal, and water balance

50 µm

Fig. 28-11b-2

Compatiblemates

Diploid

micronucleus

MEIOSIS

Haploidmicronucleus

Key

Conjugation

Reproduction(b) Conjugation and reproduction

Diploid

micronucleus

MICRONUCLEAR

FUSION

The originalmacronucleus disintegrates.

Stramenopiles

• The clade Stramenopila includes

several groups of heterotrophs as well

as certain groups of algae

• Most have a “hairy” flagellum paired

with a “smooth” flagellum

Fig. 28-12

Smoothflagellum

Hairyflagellum

5 µm

Diatoms

• Diatoms are unicellular algae with a

unique two-part, glass-like wall of

hydrated silica

• Diatoms usually reproduce asexually, and

occasionally sexually

• Diatoms are a major component of

phytoplankton and are highly diverse

• Fossilized diatom walls compose much of

the sediments known as diatomaceous

earth

Video: Various Diatoms

Video: Diatoms Moving

Fig. 28-03h

50 µm

Fig. 28-13

3 µ

m

Golden Algae

• Golden algae are named for their color,

which results from their yellow and brown

carotenoids

• The cells of golden algae are typically

biflagellated, with both flagella near one

end

• All golden algae are photosynthetic, and

some are also heterotrophic

• Most are unicellular, but some are

colonial

Fig. 28-14

Outer container

Flagellum

Living cell

Brown Algae

• Brown algae are the largest and most

complex algae

• All are multicellular, and most are marine

• Brown algae include many species

commonly called “seaweeds”

• Brown algae have the most complex

multicellular anatomy of all algae

• Giant seaweeds called kelps live in deep

parts of the ocean

• The algal body is plantlike but lacks true

roots, stems, and leaves and is called a

thallus

• The rootlike holdfast anchors the

stemlike stipe, which in turn supports the

leaflike blades

Fig. 28-15

Blade

Stipe

Holdfast

Alternation of Generations

• A variety of life cycles have evolved

among the multicellular algae

• The most complex life cycles include an

alternation of generations, the

alternation of multicellular haploid and

diploid forms

• Heteromorphic generations are

structurally different, while isomorphic

generations look similar

Fig. 28-16-2

10 cm

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Key

Sporangia

Sporophyte(2n)

Zoospore

MEIOSIS

Female

Gametophytes(n)

EggMale

Sperm

FERTILIZATION

Zygote(2n)

Developingsporophyte

Mature femalegemetophyte(n)

Oomycetes (Water Molds and

Their Relatives)

• Oomycetes include water molds, white

rusts, and downy mildews

• They were once considered fungi based

on morphological studies

• Most oomycetes are decomposers or

parasites

• They have filaments (hyphae) that

facilitate nutrient uptake

• Their ecological impact can be great, as

in Phytophthora infestans causing potato

blight

Fig. 28-17-3

Germ tube

Cyst

Hyphae

ASEXUALREPRODUCTION

Zoospore(2n)

Zoosporangium(2n)

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Key

Oogonium

Egg nucleus

(n)

Antheridial hypha with sperm nuclei (n)

MEIOSIS

Zygotegermination

SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

Zygotes(oospores)(2n)

FERTILIZATION

Fig. 28-UN3

Chlorarachniophytes

Foraminiferans

Radiolarians

Excavata

Chromalveolata

Archaeplastida

Unikonta

Rh

izaria

Fig. 28-03l

100 µm

Forams

• Foraminiferans, or forams, are named

for porous, generally multichambered

shells, called tests

• Pseudopodia extend through the pores in

the test

• Foram tests in marine sediments form an

extensive fossil record

Fig. 28-03i

20 µm

Radiolarians

• Marine protists called radiolarians have

tests fused into one delicate piece,

usually made of silica

• Radiolarians use their pseudopodia to

engulf microorganisms through

phagocytosis

• The pseudopodia of radiolarians radiate

from the central body

Fig. 28-18

Pseudopodia

200 µm

Fig. 28-UN4

Chlorophytes

Charophyceans

Red algae

Green algae

Land plants

Excavata

Chromalveolata

RhizariaA

rch

aep

lastid

a

Unikonta

Red Algae

• Red algae are reddish in color due to an

accessory pigment call phycoerythrin,

which masks the green of chlorophyll

• The color varies from greenish-red in

shallow water to dark red or almost black

in deep water

• Red algae are usually multicellular; the

largest are seaweeds

• Red algae are the most abundant large

algae in coastal waters of the tropics

Fig. 28-19Bonnemaisoniahamifera

20 cm

8 mm

Dulse (Palmaria palmata)

Nori. The red alga Porphyra is thesource of a traditional Japanese food. The seaweed is

grown on nets inshallow coastalwaters.

The harvestedseaweed is spreadon bamboo screensto dry.

Paper-thin, glossy sheets of norimake a mineral-rich wrap for rice,seafood, and vegetables in sushi.

Fig. 28-19a

Bonnemaisonia

hamifera

8 mm

Fig. 28-19b

Dulse (Palmaria palmata)

20 cm

Green Algae

• Green algae are named for their grass-

green chloroplasts

• Plants are descended from the green

algae

• The two main groups are chlorophytes

and charophyceans

• Most chlorophytes live in fresh water,

although many are marine

• Other chlorophytes live in damp soil, as

symbionts in lichens, or in snow

Fig. 28-20

Fig. 28-03j

20 µm

50 µm

Fig. 28-21a

(a) Ulva, or sea lettuce

2 cm

Fig. 28-21b

(b) Caulerpa, anintertidal chloro-phyte

Plasmodial Slime Molds

• Many species of plasmodial slime

molds are brightly pigmented, usually

yellow or orange

Video: Plasmodial Slime Mold Streaming

Video: Plasmodial Slime Mold

Fig. 28-24-3

Feedingplasmodium

Matureplasmodium(preparing to fruit)

Youngsporangium

Maturesporangium

Stalk

4 cm

1 mm

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

MEIOSIS

Spores(n)

Germinatingspore

Amoeboid cells(n)

Flagellatedcells(n)

Zygote (2n)

FERTILIZATION

Cellular Slime Molds

• Cellular slime molds form multicellular

aggregates in which cells are separated

by their membranes

• Cells feed individually, but can aggregate

to form a fruiting body

• Dictyostelium discoideum is an

experimental model for studying the

evolution of multicellularity

Fig. 28-25-2

Spores(n)

Emergingamoeba(n)

Solitary amoebas(feeding stage)(n)

Aggregatedamoebas

Migratingaggregate

Fruitingbodies(n)

ASEXUALREPRODUCTION

600 µm

200 µm

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Amoebas(n)

Zygote(2n)SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION

MEIOSIS

FERTILIZATION