structure in all but the most ephemeral groups, members are distributed into different roles, and...

Structure

In all but the most ephemeral groups, members are distributed into different roles, and their behavior when in these roles is regulated by norms that dictate what is and what is not proper conduct. The group structure also includes the relationships that join members to one another in an integrated network that regulates interdependencies and increases the group’s unity and durability.

What is group structure?

What are norms, how do they develop, and how do they work to regulate behavior?

What kinds of roles are common in groups and how do they influence members?

How do social networks shape status, attraction, and communication processes in groups?

Norms

The Nature Of Social Norms

The Importance of Norms

Roles

The Nature of Social Roles

Role Theories

Group Socialization

Role Stress

Relations

Social Network Analysis

Network Dynamics

Application: SYMLOG

Norms are consensual and often implicit standards that describe what behaviors should and should not be performed in a given context.

■

The nature of social norms

Norms are group standards.

Provide direction and motivation

Organize social interactions

Make others’ responses predictable

Folkways are ubiquitous social standards

Mores are more strictly enforced moral rules

The nature of social norms

Sherif's (1936) autokinetic effect studies

Participants just judged the distance a dot of light moved in a darkened room

Development of Norms

But, unbeknown to the participants, a stationary dot of light will seem to move

It moved about3.5 inches

Autokinetic Effect

What if people make their judgments with others, and state estimates aloud?

Looks like 1 inch

I’d say 2 inches

7.5 inches

Initially, they differ; but over trials, they converge

Person A

Person B

Person C

Alone GroupSession 1

GroupSession 3

GroupSession 2

Ave

rage

dis

tanc

e e

stim

ates

The creation of a norm

Convergence

When Sherif put in a confederate in some groups who made exaggerated distance judgments others (B, C) conformed

Confederate

Person B

Person C

Alone GroupSession 1

GroupSession 3

GroupSession 2

Ave

rage

dis

tanc

e e

stim

ates

New Member, Person D

Even when the confederate was replaced, the norm remained

Person B

Person D

Person C

Group Session 4

GroupSession 1

GroupSession 3

GroupSession 2

Ave

rage

dis

tanc

e e

stim

atesNew

member

Group Judgment

3

Ave

rage

dis

tanc

e es

tim

ates

44 5 6 7 8 93

The exaggerated norm lasted for many “generations” of replacements

Generations

Internalization of norms

• Individuals experience discomfort when the realize they are acting contrary to a norm—especially, an injunctive one. (Milgram’s norm-violation demonstration).

Health and normative influence

• Norms support positive, health promoting actions, but also negative ones, including eating disorders and excessive alcohol consumption.

Pluralistic ignorance

• Members may privately disagree with the norm, but they assume they are the only ones who do, and so the norm remains in place.

The Importance of Norms

Examples

• Laptops in classrooms

• Alcohol use on campuses

• Recycling and waste

• Thin-body norms

• Pop music• Common

courtesy• Online

“behavior”

The Importance of Norms

Facebook Norms

• I should not say anything disrespectful about this person on Facebook.

• I should consider how a post might negatively impact this person’s relationships.

• If I post something that this person deletes, I should not repost it.

• I should NOT post information on Facebook that this person could later use against me.

Norms Roles

The nature of social roles

Role theories

Group socialization

Role stress

Relations

Roles: The types of behaviors expected of individuals who occupy particular positions within the group (e.g., roles in a play)

Independent of individualsFlexible, to an extentStructure interaction, create patterns of action, define responsibilities

Role differentiation: An increase in the number of roles in a group, accompanied by a decrease in the scope of those roles as each one becomes more narrowly defined and specialized

The Nature of Social Roles

Two types of roles emerge with great regularity in groups: Task roles (performance and initiating structure and Relationship roles (strength of bonds among members).

Relationship Role

Task Role

Role Theories

They identified

three types of roles:

task, relational,

and individualisti

c

by observing the interactions of groups at the National Training Laboratories (NTL), an organization devoted to the improvement of groups.

Benne and Sheats (1948) developed their well-known functional theory of roles

Functional Role Theory

Functional Role Theory

Functional Role Theory

Interactionist Role Theory

•Role sending•Role taking•Role enactment

Rooted in a self-presentational

perspective

common in most group settings, but they work out the details of their roles and their demands as they interact with one another

Group members share a basic sense of the requirements of the roles that are

Example: Bechky’s analysis of production teams

Example: Bechky’s analysis of production teams

Deep Role Theory

A Psychodynamic Perspective on Roles

Example: Moxnes “Deep Roles” Theory

Group Socialization

Moreland and Levine's group socialization theory

Group Socialization

Role

so

cia

liza

tion As

newcomers learn their roles they

become more

committed to the group

Role

tra

nsi

tion

s Over time members transition from new member

to full member

Reso

cia

liza

tion The process

is mutual: members

and the group adapt

to each other

(assimilation/ accomodation)

Pro

cess

es

Sta

ges

Typ

es

Tra

nsi

tion

s

Group Socialization: Moreland & Levine

Member B

Member C

Member A

Different individuals take different paths through this process: Three examples are

shown

Role Stress

Roles create stable group relations, but they can also be the

source of group conflict and personal

stress

Roles stress may vary from one

country and culture to another

Norms

The Nature Of Social Norms

The Importance of Norms

RelationsRoles

The Nature of Social Roles

Role Theories

Group Socialization

Role Stress

Social Network Analysis

Network Dynamics

Application: SYMLOG

Creating spatial maps of groups based on structure

Social Network Analysis

Who is connected to whom?

A relatively “flat” group

What if these ties are removed?

Clique 1

Clique 2

Social Network Analysis

A group with 2 subgroups

11

3

5

7

4

6

10

1

2

8 9

Subgroup A

Subgroup B

Centralized and decentralized subgroups

Social Network Analysis

Key Terms

NodesTies (directed)

Density (29/156) = .19

Degree centrality

• Outdegree• IndegreeBetweennessClosenessHoles

F. Strauch

E. StrauchFernandez

Mangino

Zerbino

PaezAlgorta

ParradoMethol

Vizintin

Turcatti

Canessa

Delgado

N = 13, possible ties = n(n-1) = 156

http://content.nejm.org/content/vol357/issue4/images/data/370/DC2/NEJM_Christakis_370v1.swf

Network Dynamics

The Strauchs & Fernandez

Expeditionaries

Parrado

Canessa

Vizintin

Turcatti

Zerbino, Paez, Algorta

Younger Members

Francois

Jabella

Mangino

Disabled and injured

Methol

Inciarte

Nogueira

Echauarren

Malingerers

Harley

Delgado

Status networks: Stable pattern of variations in authority and

power

The informal (actual) status structure does not always match the group’s mandated (formal)

structure

7

1

2

3

456

Status

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

Attraction

Attraction network (sociometric structure): Stable patterns of liking-disliking

+B

A

C

++

B

A

C

+

+

-

B

A

C

-

-

+

Heider's balance theory: likes and dislikes are balanced

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

Attraction

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

Communication

Communication network: formal and informal paths that define who speaks to

whom most frequently

Communication networks differ in degree of centralization

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

De-centralized

7

12

3

4

5

6

Centralized

Communication networks differ in degree of centralization

Network Structure and PerformanceDifferent types of network

structures are more effective than others, depending on the type of task being attempted

• Information saturation: centralized networks are most efficient unless information overload

• Influence and satisfaction: members who occupy more central positions are more influential and satisfied

• Hierarchical networks and information flow: More information flows downward and unrealistically positive information flows upward

Observation and coding system developed by

Robert Freed Bales

Application: SYMLOG

Trait (Direction)

General Behaviors Individual and Organizational Values

Sociable (UP) Outgoing, sociable, extroverted

Popularity and social success, being liked and admired

Persuasive (UPF)

Persuasive, convincing, shows task leadership

Active teamwork toward common goals, organizational unity

Warm (UPB) Protects others, sympathetic, nurturant

Protecting less able members, providing help when needed

Equalitarian (P) Friendly, democratic, group-oriented

Equality, democratic participation in decision making

Cooperative (PF)

Cooperative, reasonable, constructive

Responsible idealism, collaborative work

Task-oriented(F) Serious, logical, objective

Conservative, established, “correct” ways of doing things

Responsible (DPF)

Modest, respectful, dedicated

Dedication, faithfulness, loyalty to the organization

Contented (DPB)

Quietly contented, satisfied, unconcerned

Quiet contentment, taking it easy

Silent (D) Silent, passive, uninvolved

Giving up personal needs and desires, passivity

Example Items from SYMLOG Used with Permission. Copyright © 1983, 1985, 1998 SYMLOG Consulting Group.

Example SYMLOGApplication: SYMLOG

Norms

The Nature Of Social Norms

The Importance of Norms

Roles

The Nature of Social Roles

Role Theories

Group Socialization

Role Stress

Relations

Social Network Analysis

Network Dynamics

Application: SYMLOG