N D V XU H TRONG MT S THNH NG TING ANH V

TING VIT T GC NGN NG HC TRI NHN

Tran Xuan Diep, Assoc. Prof, Dr.

English Linguistics Division

M U

Mt trong nhng k vng ca vic hc ngoi ng, m c th l hc ting Anh, l

t c mt kh nng ngn ng m nn tng ca n l mt li t duy nh ngi

bn ng ting Anh. Ni cch khc, l lm th no t ti mt nng lc ngn

ng m n c th phn nh c th gii quan ca ngi bn ng. S d c k

vng nh vy l v hai ngn ng, Anh v Vit, khng ch khc nhau v hnh thc

nh h thng m thanh, ng php, t vng vv, m cn v nhng qu trnh nhn

thc th gii ca ngi to sn ra cc pht ngn bng hai ngn ng . S khc

nhau xut pht t nn tng vn ha x hi. Ngn ng va l sn phm va l

phng tin ca nhn thc ny. Mt trng phi ngn ng hc c bit quan tm

n phng thc con ngi nhn thc th gii l Ngn ng hc tri nhn (cognitive

linguistics). Tnh cm l mt trong nhng vn thuc th gii khch quan m

con ngi c bit quan tm. Xu h l mt trong nhng tnh cm ca con ngi

mi nn vn ha. Bi vit di y bn n cch thc xem xt ca ngn ng hc

tri nhn i vi vn n d v xu h trong ting Anh v ting Vit.

PHT TRIN

1. N D NHN T GC TRI NHN 1.1. Nhng vn chung v ngn ng hc tri nhn Tri nhn (Cognition) l thut ng bt ngun t ting Latin cognoscere, ngha l

hiu bit (know), nim ha (conceptualize) hoc nhn bit (recognize). Tuy c

tc gi dch thnh nhn thc xong chng ti cho rng tri nhn trong ting Vit

mang ni hm tng ng hn v m bo tnh nht qun chng ti s dng

thut ng tri nhn trong sut cng trnh ny (xem thm Dip Quang Ban, 2008).

Tri nhn l qu trnh tinh thn bao gm ch , ghi nh, to sn (production) v/

hoc tip thu (reception) ngn ng, gii quyt vn v a ra quyt nh. Theo

L Ton Thng (2005), Ni n tri nhn l ni n thu nhn, tng tr v x l

thng tin, ch bin thnh cc tri thc.

Khoa hc tri nhn (Cognitive Science) ra i vo na cui th k XX, nghin cu

tr tu con ngi di tt c cc hnh thc t tri gic n hnh ng, ngn ng

v lp lun; l mt lnh vc nghin cu lin ngnh, gm tm l hc, tr thng minh

nhn to, trit hc, khoa hc thn kinh, ngn ng hc, nhn chng hc, gio dc

hc.

Ngn ng hc tri nhn (Cognitive Linguistics) bt u pht trin t nhng nm

1980 nh mt trng phi ngn ng vn dng kin thc lin ngnh, nghin cu

ngn ng trn c s vn kinh nghim v s cm th ca con ngi v th gii

khch quan cng nh phng thc m con ngi tri gic v nim ha cc s vt

ca th gii khch quan . Trong ting Anh Ngn ng hc tri nhn gn lin vi

nhng tc gi nh: Charles Fillmore (1982, 1985), George Lakoff (1980, 1987,

1989, 1992), Leonard Talmy (2000, 2001) v Ronald Langacker (1987, 1991,

1999, 2008). Vit Nam, nhng tc gi i u trong ng hng ny i vi

Vit ng hc l L Ton Thng (2005, 2009) v Trn Vn C (2007, 2010).

Mc d cng xut pht t mt s quan im v t tng chung, song ngn ng

hc tri nhn c ba ng hng nghin cu chnh:

1/ Hng tip cn th nht quan tm n vn gia tri nhn v ng php, cng

nh nh hng ca cc phm tr nim vo ng php.

2/ Hng nghin cu th hai thin v ng ngha hc, cn gi l Ch ngha kinh

nghim (Experientialism). Hng ny tm hiu nhng g din ra trong u c con

ngi khi to sn (production) v tip thu (reception) ngn ng, cch thc miu t

cc thuc tnh ca s vt, s lin tng v n tng v s vt hin tng .

3/ Hng nghin cu th ba thin v ng dng: nghin cu Khng gian tinh thn

(Mental Spaces) v Tch hp nim (Conceptual Blending/ Integration).

Cng trnh ny c tin hnh theo ng hng ng ngha hc tri nhn.

1. 2. n d mt trong nhng vn c bn ca ng ngha hc tri nhn

(Cognitive Semantics)

nim v h thng nim (Concept & Conceptual System): Mt trong nhng

vn then cht ca ngn ng hc tri nhn l nim ha th gii din ra trong

thc con ngi. Qu trnh ny dn n vic phn xut ra nhng n v ni dung

ti thiu thuc cp tinh thn vn l kt qu ca tri nghim thc tin trong qu

trnh con ngi nhn thc th gii xung quanh. Vy nn, n v c s ca ngn

ng hc tri nhn l nim.

M hnh tri nhn v m hnh vn ha (Cognitive Model and Cultural Model):

Lakoff v Turner (1989) cho rng lc nim t chc tri thc ca chng ta.

Chng cu thnh m hnh tri nhn ca mt bnh din no trong th gii hin

thc. Chng ta s dng nhng m hnh ny hiu nhng kinh nghim ta bt gp

v suy lun v n. M hnh tri nhn khng phi l m hnh mang tnh thc m

chng c vn dng mt cch v thc v t ng. Khng th nhn thy m hnh

trc tip m suy ra t h qu ca n. Con ngi tch ly m hnh tri nhn bng

hai con ng c bn: bng tri nghim trc tip v thng qua tri thc vn ha.

M hnh tri nhn nhn mnh bn cht tinh thn trong tri nghim tri gic, cn m

hnh vn ha nhn mnh bn cht vn ha, nhng m hnh thng dng m mt

cng ng no u c.

Phm tr ha (Categorization) v in dng (prototype) trong ngn ng: Quan

im truyn thng v phm tr ha cho rng s vt c xp loi vi nhau da

trn nhng c tnh m cc thnh vin u c. V d, a c c im chung l

bng gm, trn, rt nng, ming rng, dng ng thc n. Do vy, c xp

vo nhm a th mt c th no phi p ng c cc iu kin trn. Nu

nh vy, v mt thuc tnh, th cc thnh vin ca mt phm tr ngang bng nhau

v khng c thnh vin no l i din, in hnh hn cc thnh vin khc. Nh

vy ngn ng l mt h thng my mc, khng cn thuc a ht x hi na v

nghin cu ngn ng cng chng khc g nghin cu trong cc ngnh khoa hc t

nhin khc nh ton, chng hn.

Rosch (1977) chng minh rng con ngi phn loi s vt khi tng tc vi th

gii v t tn cho cc phm tr da trn s tng t ch khng phi iu kin

cn v my mc nh quan im truyn thng ni trn. Trong cc phm tr, ni

chung, lun c nhng thnh vin mang c tnh trung tm hn nhng thnh vin

khc trong nhm. Nhng thnh vin trung tm gi l in dng. Ni cch khc,

in dng l nhng thnh vin in hnh ca mt phm tr, lm chun cho nhng

thnh vin xung quanh n, ngoi bin hn hay km in hnh hn

ng tnh vi quan im ny, Lakoff (1987) cho rng ngn ng vn dng ton b

h thng tri nhn tng th ca con ngi. Nh vy, c hai h qu quan trng: Th

nht, cc phm tr ngn ng cng tng t nh cc phm tr khc trong h thng

nim ca chng ta, v chu tc ng ca hiu ng in dng. Th hai, bng

chng v bn cht ca cc phm tr ngn ng cng gp phn hiu r v cc phm

tr tri nhn mt cch tng qut. Theo , trong trng hp a ni trn, in

dng ch l nhng vt th m con ngi tri gic c sao cho c c im: trn,

rt nng v c ming rng l . Nn mi c a n, a xe p, a ht,

a bay .

n d (Metaphor): n d l i tng thu ht s ch c bit trong vn hc v

ngn ng hc. Theo truyn thng, c ba quan im chnh v n d: quan im so

snh, quan im thay th, v quan im tng tc. C ba cch tip cn ny u c

chung mt im: n d l hin tng ca ngn ng, ch l mt php tu t v c

chc nng thm m; do vy, chng ta hon ton c th chuyn ti ngha mt

cch bnh thng m khng cn n n d.

V tr ca n d trong ngn ng hc tri nhn:

2 cam kt (commitment) mang tnh then cht ca ngn ng hc tri nhn lm cho

trng phi ny khc hn cc trng phi ngn ng hc khc l khi qut ha

(Generalization) v tri nhn (Cognitive). Cam kt khi qut ha l cam kt m t

c im ca nhng nguyn l chung lm c s cho tt c cc bnh din ca ngn

ng. Theo truyn thng, vic nghin cu ngn ng c tch bch ra thnh nhng

bnh din khc nhau nh m v hc, ng ngha hc, ng dng hc. c xem

nh nhng kiu loi nguyn tc khc nhau kin to nn ngn ng. Ngn ng hc

tri nhn ph nhn s phn loi ny. Cc nh ngn ng hc tri nhn cho rng 3 khu

vc lm cho nhng thnh t ngn ng khc nhau u c chung nhng c im t

chc c bn l phm tr ha (categorization), a ngha (polysemy) v n d

(metaphor) (Evans, 2007). Nh vy, n d c mt v tr then cht trong cam kt

khi qut ha ca ngn ng hc tri nhn.

Khc vi ngn ng hc truyn thng, ngn ng hc tri nhn cho rng n d khng

n thun l vn ca ngn ng m cn l vn ca t duy v hnh ng. n

d l ph bin trong cuc sng hng ngy ca chng ta v l mt c ch tri nhn

khng th thiu ca con ngi. Chng c s dng khng ch bi nhng ngi

c nng lc sng tc phi thng (trong vn hc) m cn bi nhng ngi bnh

thng nht. n d c 3 chc nng giao tip c bn: th nht tnh bt kh din t

(inexpressibility), ngha l n d cho php ngi ta din t mt nim rt kh m

khng th miu t bng ngn ng thng thng; th hai l tnh sc tch

(compactness) ngn gn nhng c kh nng biu t ln; th ba l tnh sinh

ng (vividness) gn lin vi giao tip hng ngy, gi t v d hiu. V thuc

qu trnh t duy nn n d khng nhng th hin qua ngn ng m cn rt nhiu

hnh thc giao tip phi ngn nh c ch/ ng tc, phim nh, hi ha, kin trc,

qung co, biu tng, v.v.

Ngn ng hc truyn thng thng phn bit n d v so snh (simile). Theo ,

dng A l B c xem l n d, cn A nh B l so snh. Lakoff v Turner (1989)

cho rng cch xc nh n d thng qua cu trc c php nh vy l hon ton

hiu sai bn cht nim ca n d. Theo ng hng tri nhn, n d l hiu mt

nim thng qua mt nim khc. Hai cu Thng trng l chin trng v

Thng trng nh chin trng v bn cht l nh nhau v chng u lin quan

n hai min nim khc bit, ch khc nhau mt im nh l: do c nh m hiu

lc cu th hai yu hn. Hay ni cch khc, so snh l mt dng yu ca n d.

n d c th phn loi theo chc nng tri nhn ca n. Trn c s ny th

c th phn loi n d thnh: n d cu trc (structural metaphor), n d bn th

(ontological metaphor), n d nh hng (orientational metaphor) v n d hnh

nh (image metaphor).

2. KHI QUT V CC QUAN NIM THNH NG TRONG TING ANH

V TING VIT

phc v cho mc ch ca cng trnh, chng ti im li cc quan nim v

cc thnh ng trong ting Anh nh ca cc tc gi Katz & Postal (1963),

Weinreich (1969), Makkai (1972), Wood (1981), Fernando (1996), Grant &

Bauer (2004) v ca cc tc gi Vit ng nh Hong Vn Hnh (2004), Nguyn

Nh (1992), Nguyn Thin Gip (2008), Hu Chu (1981), Nguyn Cng

c ( 1995). C th c nhn xt chung v cc cc quan nim ny nh sau:

Cc cch xc nh thnh ng trong ting Anh l thiu nht qun v phc tp. Tuy

nhin, c ba tiu ch quan trng xc nh thnh ng c a s cc hc gi

chp nhn, l:

1) Thnh ng thng mang ngha bng hoc bn ngha en, kh suy on t ngha

thnh phn;

2) Chng thng c nh v mt cu trc; v

3) Thnh ng l cm t bao gm t nht hai t.

Nu i chiu vi quan im v thnh ng trong ting Vit, th nhng tiu ch ny

v c bn l tng t. Tuy vy, yu t vn iu khng h c nhc n trong cc

quan nim v thnh ng ting Anh. iu ny cng d hiu ting Anh l ngn

ng bin hnh v c trng m, trong khi ting Vit li l ngn ng n lp c

thanh iu.

Phn l lun ni trn l c s xem xt mt trng hp n d c th di y:

3. N D V XU H TRONG THNH NG TING ANH V TING VIT

Theo Ekman (2003), cc phm tr tnh cm c bn ca con ngi va c tnh bn

nng va c tnh x hi, trong , xu h mang m bn cht x hi hn c, v

cm gic xu h xut hin mun nht trong qu trnh tin ha. C nhiu nguyn

nhn gy ra cm gic xu h: c th l li lm c nhn, s thua km, l nhng

phn nhy cm trn c th, v.v. V ngi ta thng tm cch du s th hin tnh

cm ny ra bn ngoi nn nhng hiu ng sinh l quan st c cng rt t. y c

th l nguyn nhn c rt t thnh ng ch s xu h c trong ting Anh v ting

Vit. Sau y l nhng kt qu nghin cu ban u ca chng ti:

1. Xu h l hng xung

Hai n d nh hng ln (up) v xung (down) miu t trng thi tnh cm tch

cc v tiu cc. Kiu n d ny xut hin hng ngy, c trong giao tip hu ngn

(trong c cc th loi vn hc) v phi ngn (trong c cc loi hnh ngh thut).

Hng ngy, hnh nh nhn ln bao gi cng i km vi hm tch cc nh t tin,

hnh din, c thng, mnh m, anh hng vv. v hnh nh nhn xung bao gi

cng n ngc li tiu cc, nh khim tn, thiu t tin, t ty, thua cuc, yu

t, c li, nht nht, nhc nh vv. n d XU H L HNG XUNG da

trn kinh nghim sinh l ph qut v tri nghim trc tip. Khi xu h, ngi ta

thng ci u xung. y l hnh nh thng quan st c v nhng ngi lm

li, vi phm o c, ni quy, quy ch, lut php khi b pht hin. Mc d xu

h l trng thi tnh cm khng tn ti cc loi ng thc vt nhng trong ting

Vit vn c tn cy xu h ch mt loi cy khi c tip xc vi tay ngi thi

l t cp xung. R rng y khng cn n thun l vn ca ngn ng m cn

l vn ca t duy, l cch ngi Vit tri nhn th gii.

Kt qu kho st ban u cho thy: trong ting Anh c ba thnh ng s dng n d

ny.

1. Burn somebody down: t ai xung/ Lm cho ngi ta xu h

2. Live something down: , nn xung/ Qun i s xu h

3. Shame weighs somebody down: S xu h ai xung/Lm cho xu h

Mc d cng nim ha s xu h l hng xung nhng ting Vit khng m

ha trong thnh ng m ch s dng dng cm t hnh tng ha nim ny

nh xu h ci gm mt xung.

2. Xu h l khng mc qun o

T xa xa con ngi bit tm mi cch va bo v va che du b phn

nhy cm trn c th. Vy nn, mt trong nhng nguyn nhn khin ngi ta xu

h l l nhng b phn nhy cm ny. Khi x hi pht trin, xu h khng ch

gii hn v th xc m cn v tinh thn. Tuy nhin, miu t phm tr tru

tng bng nhng cm t tru tng th rt kh hiu nn ngi ta dng hnh nh

c th, nguyn thy nht. Nhng thnh ng nh vy thng mang ngha bng,

ngha n d, khng cn ngha en thng thng.

1. Hack somebody off: Lt qun o/ Lm cho xu h.

2. To be caught with ones pants down: B bt khi qun tt/ Cm thy b mt

mt, ri vo tnh hung ng xu h.

Its the first time that the CIA has been caught with its pants down (Alaiwa,

28/2/2011)

( l ln u tin Cc tnh bo trung ng M b mt mt nh vy).

Ngoi thnh ng s dng trc tip hnh nh l b phn nhy cm, ting Anh

cn c hai thnh ng suy lun t n d ny i vi ng t save (gi cho khng

b l ra ngoi).

1. Save somebodys skin: Cu ai khi l da tht/ Ly li th din

2. Save somebodys ass/butt: Cu mng ngi ta khi b l ra/ Gip ngi ta

gi th din

But Mr. Bush saved his skin in New Hampshire, in a campaign that stole the ''one

of us'' slogan his rival had used so powerfully in Iowa.

(New York Times, 28/2/1998)

(Nhng ng Bush ly li c th din New Hamshire trong cuc vn

ng bt chc khu hiu mt trong s chng ta m i th ca ng s

dng rt thnh cng Iowa).

Xt cp t vng, ting Vit c 2 t miu t phm tr ny l xu h, ngng,

nhng khng xut hin trong thnh ng n d la th. Thnh ng trn nh

nhng miu t ngi khng c mnh vi che thn, c th ni v s xu h hoc

ch n thun l ngi khng mc qun o trong mt tnh hung no .

3. Xu h l mun ln trn

Theo Darwin (dn theo Wierzbicka [1992]), nim xu h thng gn lin vi

mong mun khng b ngi khc nhn thy. Theo nghin cu ca Izard [1982], khi

ch th c hi h cm thy nh th no khi tri nghim s xu h th a s cu

tr li l h mun bin mt khng b nhn thy. Trong b phim khoa hc v tnh

cm cn bn ca con ngi c kch thch bng thi min cho thy phn ng ca

con ngi trong trng thi xu h l ci u thp, thu chn v tay st vo ngi.

Khi hi ngi tham gia th nghim v hnh nh trn th ngi ta tr li trong trng

thi xu h h c gng thu mnh cng nh cng tt ngi ta khng nhn

thy. Tnh cm ny c phn ng sinh l ph qut v y l c s hnh thnh n d

XU H L MUN LN TRN. iu th v n d ny l n c tnh logic vi

cc tnh cm tiu cc. Khi xu h, ngi ta mun bin mt khi tm nhn ca

ngi khc, nhng khng bin mt bng cch hng ln m l hng xung. C

ch tri nhn ny c xem l ph qut mi ngn ng.

1. Want to bury ones head in the sand: Mun vi u trong ct/Mun chui

xung t

2. Wish the ground would swallow up somebody: Mun t nut chng/Mun

n th v xu h

Everyone in the room was staring at me and I stood there wishing the ground

would swallow me up (The Free Dictionary by Farlex).

(Mi ngi trong phng c nhn chm chp vo ti v ti ng nh tri trng, c

g mnh c th n th).

Mc d ting Vit khng c thnh ng ny nhng ngi Vit vn cm nhn s xu

h tng t nh ngi Anh. Khi xu h h cng khng mun ngi khc nhn

thy nn cng mun n th.

Trn khun mt ca ch khng ch c s lo lng m cn l s xu h. Khun mt

trng tro sau t pht li lng ln, hai tai cng lun trong tnh trng nng

bng. Cng nhiu ngi nhn, ch cng ci gp ngi xung nh th mun n

th (Dn tr, 6/12/2010).

KT LUN

Tm li, trn con ng n mc ch l tng l gip ngi hc dng c ting

Anh nh ngi bn ng, bi vit trn y tm hiu khi nim n d theo ng

hng ngn ng hc tri nhn v p dng c s l lun y vo vic bc u tm

hiu n d xu h trong ting Anh trong s so snh vi ting Vit. Xu h

c tri nhn v nim ha thnh 3 li n d nh trnh by trn.

i theo ng hng ng ngha hc tri nhn gip gii quyt nhiu vn trong

o to ngoi ng. Ni mt cch n gin, ng hng ny gip gii quyt vn

nh nu trn t c vic dng ting Anh nh ngi bn ng. Trong dch

thut, c th thy c ngay mt ng dng ca n l: chuyn dch ngn ng lun

i km vi chuyn dch vn ha. Ni cch khc, dch lun phi quan tm n m

hnh tri nhn v m hnh vn ha. Vic dch xe m sang ting Anh, l mt v d,

phi nhn thc c: trong vn ha Anh-M khng h c nim ny m ch c

nim taxi. in dng ca taxi l dch v ch khch l. Nhng thnh phn

khng in dng, ngoi vi ca taxi c th l dng t, c th dng xe my. Kt

qu cho thy xe m = motorbike taxi (taxi bng xe my). Chng ti th

nghim v kt qu ng nh mong i ngi bn ng hiu ngay! C th tm

thy hng lot nhng v d tng t.

Tuy nhin, trong khun kh ca cng trnh nh ny, bi vit mi ch dng li

vic im li khi qut nhng nt c bn ca ngn ng hc tri nhn, trng hp

kho st c th trn mi ch l mt th nghim nh v mt sc thi tnh cm trong

mt vi thnh ng ting Anh, theo ng hng ng ngha hc tri nhn. C hi

nghin cu su hn, rng hn hin vn ang b ng: tm hiu ht nhng cam kt

ca ngn ng hc tri nhn, 2 hng tip cn khc (nu trn), n d cu trc, bn

th, nh hng, v vi nhng nim tnh cm khc, hoc nhng phm tr khc,

ang i ch nhng cng trnh sp ti.

Tc gi xin trn trng mi kin ng gp, tho lun!

_______________

TI LIU THAM KHO

Ting Vit

1. Dip Quang Ban (2008), Cognition: Tri nhn v nhn thc; Concept:

nim hay khi nim? Ngn ng, s 2, 1-11.

2. Hu Chu (1981), T vng ng ngha ting Vit, Nh xut bn Gio

dc, H Ni.

3. Trn Vn C (2007), Ngn ng hc tri nhn, Nh xut bn Khoa hc X

hi.

4. Trn Vn C (2010), Vit ng hc tri nhn: Phc tho mt hng nghin

cu ting Vit, Ngn ng, s 11, 33-45.

5. Nguyn Cng c (1995), Bnh din cu trc hnh thi-ng ngha ca

thnh ng ting Vit, Lun n ph tin s khoa hc, Vin Ngn ng hc.

6. Nguyn Thin Gip (2008), T vng hc ting Vit, Nh xut bn Gio

dc.

7. Hong Vn Hnh (2004), Thnh ng hc ting Vit, Nh xut bn Khoa

hc X hi.

8. L Ton Thng (2005), Ngn ng hc tri nhn: T l thuyt i cng n

thc tin ting Vit, Nh xut bn khoa hc X hi.

9. L Ton Thng (2009), Ngn ng hc tri nhn: T l thuyt i cng n

thc tin ting Vit, Nh xut bn Phng ng.

10. Nguyn Nh (1992), Bnh din vn ha ngn ng ca nghin cu

thnh ng ting Vit, Vn ha Dn gian, (3).

11. Nguyn Nh (2002), Thnh ng ting Vit ph thng, Nh xut bn i

hc Quc gia H Ni.

Ting Anh

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linguistics, 21, 553-571.

13. Boers, F., Demecheleer, M., & Eyckmans, J. (2004), Cross-cultural

variation as a variable in comprehending and remembering figurative idioms,

European Journal of English Studies, 8, 375-366.

14. Ekman, P. (2003), Emotions revealed, Henry Holt and Company, New

York.

15. Evans, V. (2007), A glossary of cognitive linguistics, Edinburgh University

Press.

16. Fernando, C. (1996), Idioms and idiomaticity, Oxford University Press,

Oxford.

17. Grant, L. E. & Bauer, L. (2004), Criteria for re-defining idioms: Are we

barking up the wrong tree? Applied Linguistics, 25, 38-61.

18. Izard, C. E. (1982), The psychology of emotion comes of age on the

coattails of Darwin, Contemporary psychology, 27, 426-429.

19. Katz, J. J. & Postal, P. (1963), The semantic interpretation of idioms and

sentences containing them, MIT research laboratory of Electronic quarterly

progress report, 70, 275-282.

20. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980), Metaphors we live by, The University of

Chicago Press, Chicago.

21. Lakoff, G. (1987), Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories

reveal about the mind, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

22. Lakoff, G. & Turner, M. (1989). More than cool reason: A field guide to

poetic metaphor, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

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Netherlands.

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25. Rosch, E. (1977), Human categorization, in Warren, Neil, ed., Advances in

Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1, 1-72. Academic Press.

26. Talmy, L. (2001), Toward a cognitive semantics, volume 1: Concept

structuring systems, the MIT Press, Cambridge.

27. Weinreich, U. (1969), Problems in the analysis of idioms, in J. Pulvel (Ed.),

Substance and structure of language, Berkeley, CA: University of California

Press..

28. Wierzbicka, A. (1992), Semantics, Culture, and cognition, Oxford

University Press, Oxford.

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University Linguistics Club.