an effective way of teaching the expression of …...this introduces the key idea of expressive...

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研究論文

英語に未来に関する多数・多様な表現方法がある。日本における従来通りの英文法教授法が形態論を基本とするので、これらがまったく別々の項目として教えられる結果としてか、日本の多くの英語学習者は、自らが意図する意味内容に適した未来表現を選ぶのを困難とするようである。本稿では、相互関係によって結ばれていながら両立しない有限の選択肢から成り立つ、閉鎖された制度・体系として、その表現方法を学習者に改めて把握させる１つの新しいアプローチ、およびこの制度を概念構成体として学習者に発見・習得させる目的で筆者が用いる、相互作用による数々の学習課題を紹介する。学習者は、この制度を応用する習慣を漸く身につけると、自国語による、決して頼りにならない「定訳」に依存することなく、英語という言語が提供する様々な表現方法そのものをもって、伝達しようと思う内容を直接に分析することによって、最も適切な表現を確実に選ぶのが可能になるようである。

Defining the problem

Most students enter tertiary education in Japan having learned their English from grammar

reference books the fundamental approach of which is formal. That is to say, the simple past tense will

be, for instance, presented with other past tenses, while the present perfect tense will be presented with

‘other present’ tenses. There is a certain and unfaultable logic to this approach; but that logic is not

necessarily learner-friendly. For it takes a very perceptive learner indeed to realize for herself that the

present perfect tense is one alternative to the simple past tense, that might be useful to her in expressing

something that has happened in the past. Thus, most learners will think only of using the simple past

tense, in cases in which more competent users of English would instead choose the present perfect.

As a result of this approach, learners tend to have in their heads a great number of discrete As a result of this approach, learners tend to have in their heads a great number of discrete As a result of this approach, learners tend to have in their heads a great number of

An Effective Way of Teaching the Expression of Future Matters in English;

Part One: Objective Uses of Simple Future Tenses

英語における未来表現の効果的な教授法の試み

第１部：単純未来表現の客観的応用

A. Stephen Gibbsアントニー・スティーヴン・ギブズ

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外国語教育研究　第 6号（2003年 10月）

items of grammatical knowledge, of each of which they will be found to have at least passive knowledge.

The reason why they are so often unable actively to deploy this knowledge in order to meet their

communicative needs seems to be that so many of these items have never been presented to them as

mutually interrelated – as constituting limited closed systems comprising mutually exclusive choices –

which is surely how competent users of English (consciously or unconsciously) apprehend them.

Unsurprisingly, the resulting sense of a chaos of bits of knowledge seems to produce an

attitude to grammar that is both very common and unfortunately negative: grammar is so often

subjectively perceived by learners as merely a bothersome, thorny hedge, to be either somehow

surmounted or else blithely disregarded, rather than being apprehended positively, as what is often a very

convenient tool for both accurate and economical communication. For, after all, how useful it is, to

have a way of saying not simply that you did something (‘I put your dictionary on you desk’), but also

that, as far as you know, the situation resulting from your doing that should still be in existence (‘I

have put your dictionary on your desk [and so you should be able to find it there]’)!

With regard to what we shall consider here – the expression of future matters – while /will ~With regard to what we shall consider here – the expression of future matters – while /will ~With regard to what we shall consider here – the expression of future matters – while / /

and /be going to ~/ are indeed usually presented and explained together, the expression of ‘a more-or-

less flexible future schedule’ by means of /be ~ing/ (as in ‘My parents are taking me to Paris this

summer’) is usually grouped with other uses of the present continuous tense, the expression of ‘a future

schedule hard/impossible-to-change’ by means of /be to ~/ (as in ‘You are not to speak to your father

in that way!’) with other, semantically irrelevant uses of the infinitive form, and the expression of ‘an

inflexible future schedule’ by means of the present tense (as in ‘On Monday, the Foreign Minister flies

to Paris’) with other, again semantically irrelevant uses of the present tense. Nor is it usual for /be

going to ~/ as used in ‘This building is going to collapse at any moment!’ to be related not to /be

going to ~/ as used in ‘I’m going to go shopping this afternoon,’ to which it is semantically only

indirectly related, but instead to ‘Winter will come, and the ground will be covered in snow’, to

which it has a far closer semantic relation, differing only in the proximity of the event[s] expressed to the

time of utterance.

Yet another result of this approach is an inevitable reliance upon ‘equivalents’ in the mother-

tongue; and yet these ‘equivalents’ are faux amis, for they are at best only imperfectly reliable. One

conspicuous example is the relation between /be going to ~/ and / ～するつもりである / [suru

tsumori de aru]. In all of the Japanese-published secondary-level grammar reference books I have

examined, these two are universally paired. And yet how close are they, one to the other? The native

speakers of Japanese that I have consulted have all agreed with my own intuition, that /～するつもり

である / is seman tically a rather weak, or hesitant, expression of future intent: and that it would be

semantically appropriate to produce, say, the following utterance: /今年の夏、バリ島へ行くつもりだ

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An Effective Way of Teaching the Expression of Future Matters in English; Part One: Objective Uses of Simple Future Tenses（Gibbs）

が4

、実際4 4

、どうなるか分らない4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

/ [kotoshi no natsu, Bali-tōkotoshi no natsu, Bali-tōkotoshi no natsu, Bali-t e iku tsumori da ga, jissai, dō e iku tsumori da ga, jissai, dō ō e iku tsumori da ga, jissai, dō e iku tsumori da ga, jissai, d

naru ka wakaranai] [‘I (at least) intend to go to Bali this summer, but who knows how things

may not in fact turn out?]. That, however, is not at all the case with /I?]. That, however, is not at all the case with /I?]. That, however, is not at all the case with / ’m going to go to Bali

this summer/; this is a very firm declaration of intent, and conveys no trace of hesitancy, or of

readiness to accept that this intent may for some reason be thwarted. And therefore, though it is not ill-

formed, and is possible, /Iformed, and is possible, /Iformed, and is possible, / ’m going to go to Bali this summer, though who knows how things

may not in fact turn out?/ is semantically slightly odd, because the content of the second clause

clashes with that of the first – one more appropriate choice being /Iclashes with that of the first – one more appropriate choice being /Iclashes with that of the first – one more appropriate choice being / ’I’I m sort of thinking of going to

Bali this summer, though who knows how things may not in fact turn out?/.

Obviously, at beginner-level, teaching through translation is inevitable. Yet, as Japanese and

English are of course completely different systems of expression, at some point translation has to be by-

passed, and mere formal apprehension has to be thoroughly reorganized in such a way as to be made

efficiently usable for the learner. And in so many cases this can only be brought about by abandoning

the formal/translation-equivalent approach, for instead a cognitive-semantic approach that presents

certain items of grammatical (or semantic, as is done by the Longman Activator) knowledge as a closed

system of choices, in the light of which a user of English needs to become able to analyze what she

wants to communicate.

And this is the approach to teaching the expression of future matters in English that I wish to

offer in this paper. It requires of learners some intellectual alertness; but, when presented sufficiently

slowly, thoroughly, and above all interactively, I have found that it remarkably improves the degree of

appropriateness of the choices that learners come to make in expressing future matters.１）

Preparation for learners’ understanding and accepting the solution

First of all, it seems more effective to present this content not as ‘grammar’, but as a matter of

better use of vocabulary. This is partly because the approach is indeed more semantic than formal;

but a second advantage for most learners is that, while they have come to dislike grammar, their sense of

need for greater accuracy of expression is a problem far more immediate to them.

Secondly, as a general basis for approach to choice of whatever tense, I myself find it essential

first to (re-)introduce the difference between state-verbs and change-verbs (the latter being, in Japan,

generally mis-called dōdōd sa dō sa dō ōsa dōsa d shiō shiō , puzzlingly meaning, ‘action verbs’; nevertheless, that is the

appellation that most tertiary learners will most readily recognize). This is best done, I believe, by using

the following three concepts: continuance, start, and finish, and in the following combinations.

A change-verb always contains within its meaning a start and a finish. But there are two

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kinds of change-verb: ‘I wrote a novel’ differs from ‘I broke your Ming vase’ in the respect that writing

takes some time, while breaking takes virtually no time at all. Thus it seems reasonable to suggest that

there are two kinds of change-verbs: those, like break, that comprise in their meaning only a start and

an almost simultaneous finish, and those, like write, in which the start and the finish are separated by a

distinct period of continuance. The former kind of verb can be presented as an instant-change-verb,

while the latter can be presented as a process-verb.

So how does one present a state-verb?

A state-verb expresses only continuance. That is to say, /I . That is to say, /I . That is to say, / have four cats/ does not make

us think about when the Addresser began to live with her four cats; nor does it make us think about the

eventual demise or disappearance of any of those cats.

This can be shown, on the board, or through printed material, in the following two ways.

①

��

��

��

②

��

��

��

��

This introduces the key idea of expressive alternatives; and is also essential to gently

instructing learners in the appropriate use of such tenses as the simple present, and the present (or past,

or future) continuative.

The learning-task that I have found it useful to use in activating this knowledge is as follows

(Learning Task ① , below.) But I have also found it essential to precede this with some instruction as to

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how to make accurate judgments, as follows:

There is one useful test for deciding whether a verb is a state-verb, a process-verb

or an instant-verb: if the verb is ‘~’, and it is possible to ask the question ‘How long did OR does

OR will it take to ~?’ then the verb is a change-verb; if such a question makes no sense,

however, the verb is a state-verb:

○ How long did it take you to write your novel? [= change]

○ How long did it take you to break my Ming vase? [= to break my Ming vase? [= to break change]

× How long does it take you to have a cat? [= state]

And process-verbs can be distinguished from instant verbs by thinking about the

answer to this kind of question:

○ How long did it take you to write your novel?

It took me about [n units of time]. [= process]

○ .How long did it take you to break my Ming vase? [= change]

It took no time at allIt took no time at allIt took . [= instant]

× How long does it take you to have a cat? [= state]

I do not understand your question.

Learning-task ①

It would be a good idea for you now to think about distinguishing between state-verbs and

change-verbs. So here is a list of examples of use of verbs, all expressing various forms of

simple future tenses. Please write, in the following boxes, whether they are state-verbs [= S],

process-verbs [= P], or instant-verbs [= I]. The first example has been done for you.

Snow will fall, later this afternoon. □P□P

1) Since the President is now dead, the Vice-president governs the country, until a

general election can be held. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 2) You are to tidy your bedroom. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 3) Her train gets in at 12:30. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 4) That building is going to collapse at any minute! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 5) He will come late to class, damn him! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 6) This room remains untouched until the police arrive. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 7) As far as I know, I am fl ying to New York, tomorrow. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 8) Oh dear, I think I’m about to faint! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 9) The captain of our soccer team is to have the privilege of meeting a famous

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soccer star. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤10) Tomorrow’s edition of this program is going to include a special report on

divorce. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤11) I fear I am never to see my father again. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤12) My daughter will be quite happy to drive you to the nearest station. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤13) I shall never trust you again. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤14) If you are not careful, I shall certainly fall in love with you. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤15) When she gets her fi rst paycheck, she is going to treat her mother to a

delicious meal. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤16) What do we do now? 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤17) You will fi nd this problem rather diffi cult to solve. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤18) We are going to hope that, sooner or later, our son will be released from

prison. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤19) He is to drive to New York, tomorrow, on business for the company. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤20) And tonight Mr. Kite is topping the bill! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤21) I will not tolerate such behavior in my subordinates! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤22) The plane lands in fi fteen minutes. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤

Next, it seems useful for learners to become familiar with the fact that all too many English

verbs have (bewilderingly enough for the learner) both a state-meaning and a change-meaning; and the

following is the activity that I use to drive this point home.

Learning-task ②

Unfortunately, what makes distinguishing the meanings of English verbs more

diffi cult for the learner is the fact that a very great number of verbs have both a state-meaning

and a different change-meaning. Here are examples of just 10 verbs, each of which is used

twice; decide in which type of meaning each verb is being used.

1) Richard worked for a bank. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 2) When he told me that he loved me, I believed him. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 3) She thought of a solution to our problem. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 4) The children used to run up to us. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 5) I always wished our sports-teacher would just die in a traffi c-accident. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 6) She is employed as an airfl ight-attendant. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 7) When the President comes in, everybody stands [up]. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤

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8) After the tennis-match, she felt tired. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 9) She worked at her computer all morning. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤10) The Leaning Tower of Pisa stands at a slight angle to the vertical. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤11) I believed him to be honest. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤12) She thought I was stupid. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤13) She once held a lot of shares in that company. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤14) The wrestler let me feel his huge muscles. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤15) At the wishing-well, I wished that I might fi nd a kind and handsome

husband. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤16) The road used to run along the sea-coast. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤17 He lived in Kyôto all his life. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤18) After the accident, she held her daughter close to her body. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤19) She employed all her strength to push the heavy car. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤20) At the time, I was living in a tent. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤

As the next stage, it seems appropriate to point out that there are simple tenses – the simple

past, the simple present (with its very different meanings for state-verbs and change-verbs) and various

ways of expressing the simple future, as to be seen in the examples offered in Learning-task ① ; and

also complex tenses, such as those that involve the continuative aspect, or the ‘perfect’ aspect, or a

combination of both.

The following teaching material expounds only various expressions of the simple aspect of

future matters. From here onwards I shall present my ideas as I present them to my own learners. What

I hope for is to be read with a binocular vision: one that both perceives the cognitive-semantic theoretical

basis to this approach, which would appear to be sound, because effective; yet also apprises why I have

so far found it most effective to teach it in this way.

Although the approach I take below may at first seem surprising, it was not until I began to

present future matters in terms of ownership-by-executant that I found my learners starting to make

the same choices of expression as a competent user of English would make; once learners have mastered

and have become able spontaneously to apply to what they wish to express three basic categories –

ownership impossible, complete ownership, and partial/zero ownership – this seems to provide them

with a stable and usable criterion for analysis, which then makes relatively painless their mastering the

details of subcategories of expression within ‘ownership impossible’ and ‘partial/zero ownership’, as

outlined later below.

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Expressing the future with the simple future tense

Of the three areas of time – the past, now and the future – the past and the present

can only be reported about (or denied, or questioned), or speculated about (or a

speculation can be either denied or questioned). The future, however, is more complicated, for

it can be expressed in basically four different ways. Each of these expresses a particular kind

of future state, process or instant-change, which differs from other kinds in terms of type of

cause.

Furthermore, the type of statement that each way expresses also differs. In English,

(and leaving speculation aside at this point) not only can an Addresser (1) 諤) 諤) 諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諤r諤r諱諱諱諱r諤repor諱諱諱諱epor諤epor諤諱諱諱諱諤epor諤謔諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱epor諱諱諱諱epor謔epor諱諱諱諱epor諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱 something 謔 something 謔諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱 something 諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱(or deny, or question, a report) about the future, she can also (2) 諤) 諤) p諤p諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諤p諤p諱諱諱諱諱p諤predic諱諱諱諱諱redic諤redic諤諱諱諱諱諱諤redic諤謔諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱redic諱諱諱諱諱redic謔redic諱諱諱諱諱redic諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱 something (or deny, 謔 something (or deny, 謔or question, a prediction) about the future, and she can further (3) 諤) 諤) d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諤d諤d諱諱諱諱諱d諤declar諱諱諱諱諱eclar諤eclar諤諱諱諱諱諱諤eclar諤謔諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱eclar諱諱諱諱諱eclar謔eclar諱諱諱諱諱eclare謔e諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱 something (or 謔 something (or 謔deny, or question, a declaration) about the future. And whenever she wishes or needs to

express a future state, process, or instant-change, she must think about that state, process, or

instant-change and its type of cause, and decide which act is most suitable: to make a

諤諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諤r諤r諱諱諱諱r諤repor諱諱諱諱epor諤epor諤諱諱諱諱諤epor諤謔諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱epor諱諱諱諱epor謔epor諱諱諱諱epor諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱謔謔諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱 , to make a 諤, to make a 諤, to make a d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諤declaratio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaratio諤eclaratio諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤eclaratio諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaratio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaratio謔 eclaratio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaration 謔 n 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 , or to make a 諤, or to make a 諤, or to make a p諤p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤p諤p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諤predictio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱redictio諤redictio諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤redictio諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱redictio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱redictio謔redictio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱rediction謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔 .

We can show this in the following way.

Chart ②

(1) Kind of expression: prediction

About: an About: an About: 諤 an 諤 an 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤involuntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul諤nvoluntary resul諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤nvoluntary resul諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul謔nvoluntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of the effect of a general tendency, or tendency, or tendency nature

of which ownership is impossible

future (2) Kind of expression: declaration

About: a About: a About: 諤p諤p諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諤p諤p諱諱諱 p諤plan 諱諱諱 lan 諤lan 諤諱諱諱諤lan 諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of諱諱of 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 voluntary 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 voluntary 諱諱 voluntary 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 voluntary 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 actio諱諱諱諱諱actio謔諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱actio諱諱諱諱諱actio謔actio諱諱諱諱諱action謔n諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱 , of which the executant has 謔 , of which the executant has 謔 complete

ownership, and so it can easily be changed

(3) Kind of expression: report

About:About:About a 諤s諤s諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤s諤s諱諱諱諱諱諱s諤schedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul諤chedul諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤chedul諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul謔chedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedule謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔 of voluntary action (a plan of which the executant does

not have complete ownership, and so it is one) that cannot easily be

changed

I shall now explain the terms used in the chart above.

Kinds of expression:

(1) A 諤(1) A 諤(1) A p諤p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤p諤p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諤predictio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱redictio諤redictio諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤redictio諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱redictio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱redictio謔redictio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱rediction謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 is an expression of a state, process or instant-change that, for some 謔 is an expression of a state, process or instant-change that, for some 謔reason, occurs in the future and is in the future and is in the future inevitable: given the present situation, it cannot be

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avoided. In Japanese, the following examples express predictions:avoided. In Japanese, the following examples express predictions:avoided

お祖母ちゃん、そろそろ危篤だろう。

雨が降りそうだね。

(2) A 諤(2) A 諤(2) A d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諤declaratio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaratio諤eclaratio諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤eclaratio諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaratio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaratio謔eclaratio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaration謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 here means an expression of something that 謔 here means an expression of something that 謔 has been decided

by someone or some unifi ed group of people; it informs us not just of a future probability, but

that that probability is the result of someone’s intention. In Japanese, the following examples

express declarations:

俺はもう帰るぞ。

明君、来るといっている。

(3) A 諤(3) A 諤(3) A r諤r諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諤r諤r諱諱諱諱r諤repor諱諱諱諱epor諤epor諤諱諱諱諱諤epor諤謔諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱epor諱諱諱諱epor謔epor諱諱諱諱epor諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱 is an expression of 謔 is an expression of 謔 fact, without any extra meaning of intention. In

Japanese, the following examples express reports:

明日、私がバイトすることになっているのよ。

近日、会議を開く予定です。

Voluntary and involuntary states and changes

One useful concept for thinking about how English expresses future matters is the

difference between changes and states that are 諤difference between changes and states that are 諤difference between changes and states that are 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤involuntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntar諤nvoluntar諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤nvoluntar諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntar謔nvoluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary謔y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔 , and those that are 諤, and those that are 諤, and those that are v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諱v諤voluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar諤oluntar諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤oluntar諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar謔oluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntary謔y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔 .

For example, a sneeze is an instant-change. Now, can you choose to sneeze? And can you choose to sneeze? And can you choose

choose not to sneeze? Usually, you can do neither. This means that sneezing is an example not to sneeze? Usually, you can do neither. This means that sneezing is an example not to

of an involuntary instant-change.

What about laughing? Unlike sneezing, it usually has continuance as well, and so it is

a process. But can you choose to laugh? Well, if you are a good actor, you may be able to choose to laugh? Well, if you are a good actor, you may be able to choose

produce an imitation of laughter that is more or less convincing to other people. But you

yourself will not actually be laughing; for genuine laughter is something that happens to bring

(often enjoyable) relief to the person that laughs; but, when you merely imitate a laugh, this

brings you no relief.

Again, can you choose not to laugh? You may be able to hide an impulse to laugh,

and hide it more or less successfully; but, whether or not other people notice, you know that you know that you

you want to laugh.

Thus, laughter is a response that you cannot (usually) choose either to have or not

to have. That is to say, it is an example of an involuntary process.

What about having an opinion of something? Supposing you have a woman friend,

and go shopping with her for clothes. She tries on a dress that you think does not suit her.

However strongly your friend insists it suits her, and however little you want to disagree with

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her, can you choose to think that it does in fact suit her? You cannot; and so /choose to think that it does in fact suit her? You cannot; and so /choose think that ~/ [=

have the opinion, ~, ] is an example of an involuntary state.

Concerning perception, /see/ and /see/ and /see hear/ are hear/ are hear involuntary instant-changes, where as

/look at/, /look at/, /look at watch/ and /watch/ and /watch listen to/ are listen to/ are listen to voluntary processes. /Look for [Look for [Look for something or someone]/ is

a voluntary process; /find [find [find something or someone]/ is an involuntary instant-change.

On the other hand, /marry/ is (usually) a marry/ is (usually) a marry voluntary instant-change; /write/ is (usually) write/ is (usually) write

a voluntary process; and /have [a pet]/ is a a pet]/ is a a pet voluntary state.

Ownership of future voluntary states, processes and instant-changes

Another important concept that will help you to distinguish between 1, 2 and 3 above

is that of a 諤is that of a 諤is that of a o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱o諤ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnershi諤wnershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤wnershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnershi謔wnershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership謔p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of 謔 of 謔 voluntary states, processes and instant-changes. voluntary states, processes and instant-changes. voluntary

If, for example, you make a plan to do something on Sunday, and on Sunday you are

completely free to do what you like, so do not have to take into account anybody else’s wishes

or needs, then you may be said to have 諤or needs, then you may be said to have 諤or needs, then you may be said to have c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱c諤complet諱諱諱諱諱諱omplet諤omplet諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤omplet諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱omplet諱諱諱諱諱諱omplet謔omplet諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱 ownership of the future action that you 謔 ownership of the future action that you 謔have planned. That means that you can choose to carry it out, or to abandon it or, again, to

change it, just as you like. In other words, that future action is voluntary, and you have

complete control over.

If, however, you make a plan to do something with some seniors in your club, or your

‘circle’, then, because those seniors have more authority than you do, you will have only

諤p諤p諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諤p諤p諱諱諱諱諱p諤partia諱諱諱諱諱artia諤artia諤諱諱諱諱諱諤artia諤謔諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱artia諱諱諱諱諱artia謔artia諱諱諱諱諱artia諱諱諱諱諱l諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱l諱諱諱諱諱 ownership of that plan: that is to say, if you alone then come to want to change the 謔 ownership of that plan: that is to say, if you alone then come to want to change the 謔諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱 ownership of that plan: that is to say, if you alone then come to want to change the 諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱plan, actually doing this may prove quite diffi cult.

And if you have to take part in carrying out a plan that has been created entirely by

your seniors, and for you alone to carry out, your seniors will have complete ownership, and

you will have none at all – 諤you will have none at all – 諤you will have none at all – z諤z諱諱諤諱諱諤z諤z諱諱z諤zer諱諱er諤er諤諱諱諤er諤謔諱諱謔諱諱er諱諱er謔er諱諱ero謔o諱諱o諱諱謔諱諱o諱諱 ownership! Although the future matter 謔 ownership! Although the future matter 謔 ought to be entirely

voluntary, your lack of actual ownership has the effect of reducing your actions to involuntary

behavior.

Other kinds of future events are ones of which no one, and no thing, can have

ownership. For instance, if a tree is struck by lightning, is this the result of some plan? Or does

the lightning voluntarily strike the tree? Or does the tree choose to be struck? No, it is a choose to be struck? No, it is a choose

natural accident, of which ownership is impossible (unless you believe in a god, or gods).

These kinds of future involuntary events can be called 諤 events can be called 諤 events can be called o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱o諤ownership-impossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossibl諤wnership-impossibl諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤wnership-impossibl諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossibl謔wnership-impossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossible謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 .

Kinds of ‘about’

(1) an 諤an 諤an 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤involuntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul諤nvoluntary resul諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤nvoluntary resul諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul謔nvoluntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of the effect of a general 諤 of the effect of a general 諤 of the effect of a general 諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤t諤t諱諱諱諱諱諱t諤tendenc諱諱諱諱諱諱endenc諤endenc諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤endenc諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱endenc諱諱諱諱諱諱endenc謔endenc諱諱諱諱諱諱endency謔y諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱 or 謔 or 謔諤 or 諤 or n諤n諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諤n諤n諱諱諱諱n諤natur諱諱諱諱atur諤atur諤諱諱諱諱諤atur諤謔諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱atur諱諱諱諱atur謔atur諱諱諱諱ature謔e諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱

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Let us take the example of a dog. Dogs are group-animals: unlike cats, they have an

instinct that makes them live in groups. They also have an instinct that makes them live in groups. They also have an instinct that makes them makes them follow makes them follow makes them

and obey any strong leader. These instincts are part of the 諤and obey any strong leader. These instincts are part of the 諤and obey any strong leader. These instincts are part of the n諤n諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諤n諤n諱諱諱諱n諤natur諱諱諱諱atur諤atur諤諱諱諱諱諤atur諤謔諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱atur諱諱諱諱atur謔atur諱諱諱諱ature謔e諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱 or 謔 or 謔諤 or 諤 or c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱c諤characte諱諱諱諱諱諱諱haracte諤haracte諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤haracte諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱haracte諱諱諱諱諱諱諱haracte謔haracte諱諱諱諱諱諱諱haracter謔r諱諱諱諱諱諱諱r諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱r諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of every 謔 of every 謔dog.

Dogs also have a hunting instinct. This means that most dogs enjoy running after

balls that have been thrown for them, and bringing them back to the thrower. Yet it may also

happen that some dogs are not interested in doing this. So we can call not interested in doing this. So we can call not ‘enjoying playing at

hunting’ a 諤 a 諤 a 諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤t諤t諱諱諱諱諱諱t諤tendenc諱諱諱諱諱諱endenc諤endenc諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤endenc諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱endenc諱諱諱諱諱諱endenc謔endenc諱諱諱諱諱諱endency謔y諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱 that can be seen in many dogs.謔 that can be seen in many dogs.謔Consequently, if you are given a little puppy, you know that, if you train it properly, it

is very likely to grow up into an animal that enjoys living with you and your family, that obeys

you when you give it simple commands, and that loves playing with things that are thrown, for it

to chase and bring back.

And every time it obeys you, that obedience is an 諤And every time it obeys you, that obedience is an 諤And every time it obeys you, that obedience is an 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤involuntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul諤nvoluntary resul諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤nvoluntary resul諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul謔nvoluntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary resul諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of the effects 謔 of the effects 謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of the effects 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱of its nature. So you can 諤of its nature. So you can 諤of its nature. So you can p諤p諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諤p諤p諱諱諱諱諱p諤predic諱諱諱諱諱redic諤redic諤諱諱諱諱諱諤redic諤謔諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱redic諱諱諱諱諱redic謔redic諱諱諱諱諱redic諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱 the future result of giving your dog a command that it 謔 the future result of giving your dog a command that it 謔understands.

Because th is k ind o f fu tu re even t i s involuntary , i t can be ca l led

諤o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱o諤ownership-impossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossibl諤wnership-impossibl諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤wnership-impossibl諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossibl謔wnership-impossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossible謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 .

kind of state, process or instant-change: 諤: 諤: 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤involuntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntar諤nvoluntar諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤nvoluntar諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntar謔 nvoluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nvoluntary 謔 y 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 ; 諤; 諤; o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱o諤ownership-impossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossibl諤wnership-impossibl諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤wnership-impossibl諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossibl謔wnership-impossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-impossible謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱type of cause: the 諤the 諤the n諤n諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諤n諤n諱諱諱諱n諤natur諱諱諱諱atur諤atur諤諱諱諱諱諤atur諤謔諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱atur諱諱諱諱atur謔atur諱諱諱諱ature謔e諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱 or the 謔 or the 謔諤 or the 諤 or the 諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤t諤t諱諱諱諱諱諱t諤tendenc諱諱諱諱諱諱endenc諤endenc諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤endenc諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱endenc諱諱諱諱諱諱endenc謔endenc諱諱諱諱諱諱endency謔y諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱 of some person, thing or situation謔 of some person, thing or situation謔kind of expression: 諤: 諤: p諤p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤p諤p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諤predictio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱redictio諤redictio諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤redictio諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱redictio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱redictio謔redictio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱rediction謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱

This is one of the ways in which we can express a future state, process or

instant-change in English.

(2) a 諤諤 p諤p諱諱諤諱諱諤p諤p諱諱p諤pla諱諱la諤la諤諱諱諤la諤謔諱諱謔諱諱la諱諱la謔la諱諱lan謔n諱諱n諱諱謔諱諱n諱諱 of 謔 of 謔諤 of 諤 of v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諱v諤voluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar諤oluntar諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤oluntar諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar謔oluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntary謔y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 action, of which the executant has 謔 action, of which the executant has 謔諤 action, of which the executant has 諤 action, of which the executant has c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱c諤complete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諤omplete ownershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤omplete ownershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi謔 omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownership 謔 p 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 ,

and so it can easily be changed

In many situations, people can choose, or decide, what to voluntarily do in the voluntarily do in the voluntarily do

future. That is to say, they can make 諤future. That is to say, they can make 諤future. That is to say, they can make p諤p諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諤p諤p諱諱諱p諤plan諱諱諱lan諤lan諤諱諱諱諤lan諤謔諱諱諱謔諱諱諱lan諱諱諱lan謔lan諱諱諱lans謔s諱諱諱s諱諱諱謔諱諱諱s諱諱諱謔謔 concerning 諤v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諱v諤voluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar諤oluntar諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤oluntar諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar謔oluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntary謔y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 actions謔 actions謔 , in order to meet

their needs, or satisfy their desires. One person can make up her mind what to do, and later

become the 諤become the 諤become the e諤e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤e諤e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諤executan諱諱諱諱諱諱諱xecutan諤xecutan諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤xecutan諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱xecutan諱諱諱諱諱諱諱xecutan謔xecutan諱諱諱諱諱諱諱xecutant謔t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of her plan – by 謔 of her plan – by 謔 carrying it out herself. And a pair or group that is carrying it out herself. And a pair or group that is carrying it out herself

used to acting together and cooperating can make a group-decision about to what voluntarily

to do, and later become the executants of their plan.

At the same time, one person, if she does not wish to, and does not have to, act as

12


part of a group, is free to change any plan that she may have previously made. This is free to change any plan that she may have previously made. This is free to change

because she does not have to take into account anybody else’s needs or desires. That is to

say, she has 諤諤 c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱c諤complete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諤omplete ownershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤omplete ownershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi謔omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownership謔p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of her 謔 of her 謔 plan of voluntary action.

Again, any pair or group that is accustomed to acting together and cooperating can

often quite easily change a plan of voluntary action that they have previously made. Again,

this is because together they have 諤this is because together they have 諤this is because together they have c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱c諤complete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諤omplete ownershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤omplete ownershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi謔omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownership謔p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of their plan.謔 of their plan.謔

kind of state, process or instant-change: 諤: 諤: v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諱v諤voluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar諤oluntar諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤oluntar諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntar謔 oluntar諱諱諱諱諱諱諱oluntary 謔 y 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 , and the

result of free choice, based on 諤result of free choice, based on 諤result of free choice, based on c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱c諤complete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諤omplete ownershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤omplete ownershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi謔omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownership謔p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱type of cause: 諤: 諤: 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤intentio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ntentio諤ntentio諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ntentio諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ntentio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ntentio謔ntentio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ntention謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱kind of expression: 諤: 諤: d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諤declaratio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaratio諤eclaratio諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤eclaratio諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaratio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaratio謔eclaratio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱eclaration謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱

This is another of the ways in which we can express a future state, process or


(3) a 諤s諤s諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤s諤s諱諱諱諱諱諱s諤schedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul諤chedul諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤chedul諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul謔chedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedule謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔 of voluntary action (a plan of which the 諤 of which the 諤 of which the e諤e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤e諤e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諤executan諱諱諱諱諱諱諱xecutan諤xecutan諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤xecutan諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱xecutan諱諱諱諱諱諱諱xecutan謔xecutan諱諱諱諱諱諱諱xecutant謔t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 does not have謔 does not have謔

諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱c諤complete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諤omplete ownershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤omplete ownershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi謔 omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownership 謔 p 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 , and so it is one) that cannot easily be changed

Now imagine that three different rock-bands, none of which is yet very popular, have different rock-bands, none of which is yet very popular, have different

decided to share a single live concert. They all have different schedules; the venue that they single live concert. They all have different schedules; the venue that they single

want to share also has its own schedule of concerts; and yet they manage to fi nd just one

evening when the venue is free, and none of the three bands has another engagement. So

they reach a consensus, and 諤, and 諤, and s諤s諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤s諤s諱諱諱諱諱諱s諤schedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul諤chedul諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤chedul諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul謔chedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedule謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱 their concert for that particular evening. Their 謔 their concert for that particular evening. Their 謔actually performing in the concert is a still voluntary act.

But suppose that one of the bands is suddenly offered the chance of making its fi rst

professional recording with a major recording-company; and that, unfortunately, the recording

session coincides with the night of the concert. So that band wants to change the date of the

concert. But the date of the concert has been agreed upon by two other bands, as well as by two other bands, as well as by two

the management of the venue for the concert. Thus, the band that wants to change the original

schedule does not have 諤諤 c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱c諤complete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諤omplete ownershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤omplete ownershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownershi謔omplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱omplete ownership謔p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of that 謔 of that 謔 schedule. So the date of the concert

will probably prove very 諤will probably prove very 諤will probably prove very d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諤diffi cult to chang諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱iffi cult to chang諤iffi cult to chang諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤iffi cult to chang諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱iffi cult to chang諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱iffi cult to chang謔iffi cult to chang諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱iffi cult to change謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔 .

Again, imagine that one professional boxer wants to challenge and fi ght another, who

holds a title in the fi rst boxer’s class. Each boxer will have his own schedule, and his own team

of trainers and seconds. The date of the boxing match can again only be decided by

諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤c諤c諱諱諱諱諱諱諱c諤consensu諱諱諱諱諱諱諱onsensu諤onsensu諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤onsensu諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱onsensu諱諱諱諱諱諱諱onsensu謔onsensu諱諱諱諱諱諱諱onsensus謔s諱諱諱諱諱諱諱s諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱s諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔 ; and therefore each boxer has only each boxer has only each 諤 boxer has only 諤 boxer has only 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤incomplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncomplete ownershi諤ncomplete ownershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ncomplete ownershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncomplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncomplete ownershi謔ncomplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncomplete ownership謔p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of the 謔 of the 謔諤 of the 諤 of the s諤s諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤s諤s諱諱諱諱諱諱s諤schedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul諤chedul諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤chedul諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul謔chedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedule謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱

13


of the match; once it has been decided, will be very diffi cult to change.

kind of state, process or instant-change: 諤: 諤: s諤s諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤s諤s諱諱諱諱諱諱s諤schedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul諤chedul諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤chedul諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedul謔chedul諱諱諱諱諱諱chedule謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱 of voluntary action, 謔 of voluntary action, 謔諤 of voluntary action, 諤 of voluntary action, n諤n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤n諤n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 n諤not easy to 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 ot easy to 諤ot easy to 諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ot easy to 諤

諱諱諱諱諱chang諱諱諱諱諱chang謔諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱chang諱諱諱諱諱chang謔chang諱諱諱諱諱change謔e諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱type of cause: 諤: 諤: 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤incomplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncomplete ownershi諤ncomplete ownershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ncomplete ownershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncomplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncomplete ownershi謔ncomplete ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncomplete ownership謔p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱kind of expression: 諤: 諤: 諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諤r諤r諱諱諱諱r諤repor諱諱諱諱epor諤epor諤諱諱諱諱諤epor諤謔諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱epor諱諱諱諱epor謔epor諱諱諱諱epor諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱t諱諱諱諱

This is the third (and last) way in which we can express a future state, process or


What you need to do next

Think about the following examples, and decide whether each expresses a prediction

of an involuntary result, ownership impossible, a declaration of a complete-ownership

plan, or a report of an incompletely-owned schedule. Write the results of your judgments in

the boxes, using P for a prediction, D for a declaration, and R for a report.

The clearest criterion for thinking about this is that of ownership by the executant.

��

��

��

complete ownership incomplete ownershipownership impossible

The fi rst example has been done for you.

Snow will fall, later this afternoon. □P□PAn event like a change in the weather is subject to no one’s ownership; and therefore

this statement is a prediction.

1) Since the President is now dead, the Vice-president governs the country, until a

general election can be held. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 2) You are to tidy your bedroom. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤

14


3) Her train gets in at 12:30. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 4) That building is going to collapse at any minute! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 5) He will come late to class, damn him! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 6) This room remains untouched until the police arrive. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 7) As far as I know, I am fl ying to New York, tomorrow. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 8) Oh dear, I think I’m about to faint! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤 9) The captain of our soccer team is to have the privilege of meeting a famous

soccer star. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤10) Tomorrow’s edition of this program is going to include a special report on

divorce. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤11) I fear I am never to see my father again. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤12) My daughter will be quite happy to drive you to the nearest station. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤13) I shall never trust you again. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤14) If you are not careful, I shall certainly fall in love with you. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤15) When she gets her fi rst paycheck, she is going to treat her mother to a

delicious meal. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤16) What do we do now? 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤17) You will fi nd this problem rather diffi cult to solve. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤18) We are going to hope that, sooner or later, our son will be released from


15


Subcategories of these three expressions of future matters

Chart ③

(a) involuntary result that will occur 諤) involuntary result that will occur 諤) involuntary result that will occur 諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諤l諤l諱諱諱l諤late諱諱諱ate諤ate諤諱諱諱諤ate諤謔諱諱諱謔諱諱諱ate諱諱諱ate謔ate諱諱諱ater謔r諱諱諱r諱諱諱謔諱諱諱r諱諱諱

(b) involuntary result of 諤u諤u諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤u諤u諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 u諤uncontrollable 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 ncontrollable 諤ncontrollable 諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ncontrollable 諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱compulsio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱compulsio謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱compulsio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱compulsio謔compulsio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱compulsion謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔 to be or do something

(c) result of 諤) result of 諤) result of 諤諱諤i諤i諱i諤i諤n諤諱諤n諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諤n諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱n諤n諤諱諤n諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤n諤諱諤n諤 evitable determinatio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱evitable determinatio諱evitable determinatio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱evitable determinatio諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱evitable determinatio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱evitable determinatio謔evitable determinatio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱evitable determination謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 to be 謔 to be 謔or do something

(d) involuntary result that will occur 諤) involuntary result that will occur 諤) involuntary result that will occur v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱v諤very soo諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soo諤ery soo諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ery soo諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soo諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soo謔 ery soo諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soon謔 n諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱

( 1 ) K i n d o f e x p r e s s i o n : prediction About: an About: an About: involuntary result of a general tendency or nature

future (2) Kind of expression: declaration

About: a plan of voluntary action of which the executant has complete ownership, and so it can easily be changed

(3) Kind of expression: reportAbout: a schedule (a plan of wh ich the executant has incomplete ownership, and so is one) that cannot easily be changed

(a i) 諤) 諤) u諤u諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤u諤u諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱u諤unilaterally impose諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterally impose諤nilaterally impose諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤nilaterally impose諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterally impose諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterally impose謔nilaterally impose諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterally imposed謔d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 , and 謔 , and 謔諤 , and 諤 , and i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤impossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱mpossibl諤mpossibl諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤mpossibl諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱mpossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱mpossibl諱mpossibl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱mpossible諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱

諱諱諱諱諱諱諱to chang諱諱諱諱諱諱諱to chang謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱to chang諱諱諱諱諱諱諱to chang謔to chang諱諱諱諱諱諱諱to change謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱

(a ii) 諤) 諤) v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱v諤very har諱諱諱諱諱諱ery har諤ery har諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ery har諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱ery har諱諱諱諱諱諱ery har謔ery har諱諱諱諱諱諱ery hard謔d諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱 to change謔 to change謔

(a iii) 諤) 諤) 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤) 諤) 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱) 諤) t諤t諱諱諱諱諱諱諱t諤timetabl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱imetabl諤imetabl諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤imetabl諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱imetabl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱imetabl謔 imetabl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱imetable 謔 e 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 , etc.

(b) 諤(b) 諤(b) n諤n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤n諤n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諤not so har諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ot so har諤ot so har諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ot so har諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ot so har諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ot so har謔ot so har諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ot so hard謔d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 to change謔 to change謔

(

Kinds of result that can be predicted

(1 a) involuntary result that will occur 諤 involuntary result that will occur 諤 involuntary result that will occur 諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諤l諤l諱諱諱l諤late諱諱諱ate諤ate諤諱諱諱諤ate諤謔諱諱諱謔諱諱諱ate諱諱諱ate謔ate諱諱諱ater謔r諱諱諱r諱諱諱謔諱諱諱r諱諱諱All events are in some sense inevitable, because they have causes. Some can be

predicted because we understand the relation between cause and effect. If the cause is not a

plan of some kind, it will lie in the general nature or tendency of someone, something, or

some situation. And, in such a case, the effect will be an involuntary result.

For example, if you leave ice in a warm place, it melts: that is the nature of ice. So, if

your mother has bought some ice-cream, but has forgotten to put it in the refrigerator

freezer-box, you can predict that it will melt. Your mother has not left the ice-cream out of the

refrigerator in order to make it melt; nor can the ice-cream in order to make it melt; nor can the ice-cream in order to make choose to melt. So its melting will choose to melt. So its melting will choose to

be an involuntary result.

On the other hand, well-frozen ice-cream takes some time to melt: the melting does

not fi nish immediately.not fi nish immediately.not fi nish immediately

Again, if you are on a ferry, sailing from Osaka to Shōdoshima, and on the way there

occurs a storm that makes the ship travel more slowly than is usual, the delay in reaching

16


Shōdoshima will be an involuntary result; but this can be predicted long before the ship

actually reaches the island.

These are both examples of one kind of one kind of one future result that we can predict in English;

and of course, being involuntary, it is ‘ownership-impossible’.

(1 b) involuntary result of 諤 result of 諤 result of u諤u諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤u諤u諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱u諤uncontrollable compulsio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncontrollable compulsio諤ncontrollable compulsio諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ncontrollable compulsio諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncontrollable compulsio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncontrollable compulsio謔ncontrollable compulsio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ncontrollable compulsion謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 to be or do something謔 to be or do something謔Each person or animal has an individual character – which is one part of his or her

nature. And our characters may cause us to want to do something, or be something, that we

have no choice about wanting to do, or be: doing or being that (or trying to do, or be, that) is no choice about wanting to do, or be: doing or being that (or trying to do, or be, that) is no choice

involuntary.

For example, someone whose character is gentle and kind will often fi nd herself or

himself compelled by that character to sacrifi ce her or his own interests to those of someone

else. Or someone whose life is not normally fi lled with other thrills may fi nd herself or himself

compelled to indulge in, say, gambling.

Because that person’s character allows her, or him, no choice about what to do or be, no choice about what to do or be, no choice

and therefore she or he cannot control whether or not she or he does that thing, or is that thing,

we can call this kind of compulsion ‘uncontrollable’.

And such general uncontrollable compulsion will make that person or animal

involuntarily do something, as its result. If you throw a ball while you are with a dog that is

free to run, it is very likely indeed that the dog will run after the ball, fi nd it, take it in its mouth, very likely indeed that the dog will run after the ball, fi nd it, take it in its mouth, very likely indeed

and bring it back to you. If a very kind person encounters someone who is in trouble, it is very

likely that that person will try to help the one in trouble. And if you take a compulsive gambler

to a race-track, it is extremely likely that she or he will try to place at least one bet. Thus, the extremely likely that she or he will try to place at least one bet. Thus, the extremely likely

involuntary results of such uncontrollable compulsions can be predicted.

This is another kind of another kind of another future result that we can predict in English; and, even in the

case of the compulsive gambler, though he may indeed want to gamble, he is not really want to gamble, he is not really want free to free to free

choose whether or not to gamble; nor can anyone make him stop wanting to gamble; thus, his stop wanting to gamble; thus, his stop

gambling is involuntary, and so ‘ownership-impossible’.

(1 c) involuntary result of 諤 result of 諤 result of 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤inevitable determinatio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nevitable determinatio諤nevitable determinatio諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤nevitable determinatio諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nevitable determinatio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nevitable determinatio謔nevitable determinatio諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nevitable determination謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 to be or do something謔 to be or do something謔This appears to be a further development of 1 b. Normally, determination is a matter

of choice. But someone who has become a professional boxer, and spent years and years in

painful training, will no longer feel that wanting to win the title of world-champion in his

weight-class is any matter of his own choice: if he does not try to win that title, much of his life

17


so far will have been meaningless. Thus, his determination has by now got beyond ‘complete

ownership’: it has by now become 諤: it has by now become 諤: it has by now become 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤inevitabl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nevitabl諤nevitabl諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤nevitabl諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nevitabl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nevitabl謔nevitabl諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nevitable謔e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔 . So he will communicate that it is inevitable

for him to try to gain that title in the future, by expressing that determination as

‘ownership-impossible’.

This is a third kind of future result that we can predict in English.

(1 d) involuntary result that will occur 諤 result that will occur 諤 result that will occur v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱v諤very soo諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soo諤ery soo諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ery soo諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soo諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soo謔ery soo諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soon謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱Let us imagine that you have caught cold, and the inside of your nose starts to tickle.

You know that this feeling means that you are about to sneeze – about to sneeze – about to within the next few seconds

or minutes. This case is different from that of the ice-cream that your mother has forgotten to

put in the refrigerator, but will take some time to melt. On the other hand, you cannot choose

whether to sneeze or not: like the later melting of the ice-cream, your sneezing 諤whether to sneeze or not: like the later melting of the ice-cream, your sneezing 諤whether to sneeze or not: like the later melting of the ice-cream, your sneezing v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱v諤very soo諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soo諤ery soo諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ery soo諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soo諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soo謔ery soo諱諱諱諱諱諱ery soon謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱 is 謔 is 謔quite involuntary.

This is fourth kind of fourth kind of fourth future result that we can predict in English.

The difference between 1 a and 1 d is this: in 1 d, the cause d, the cause d has already begun to has already begun to has already begun

take effect, or is just about to take effect; on the other hand, in is just about to take effect; on the other hand, in is just about 1 a it a it a has not yet begun to

take effect, or is not acting very quickly. (Later you will understand why I have numbered is not acting very quickly. (Later you will understand why I have numbered is not acting very quickly 1 d

not as ‘1 b’ but, instead, as ‘1 d ’.)

Kinds of schedule that can be reported

(3 a i) result of a schedule of voluntary action that is 諤諤 u諤u諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤u諤u諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱u諤unilaterally impose諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterally impose諤nilaterally impose諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤nilaterally impose諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterally impose諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterally impose謔nilaterally impose諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterally imposed謔d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 , and 謔 , and 謔so 諤so 諤so i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤i諤i諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱i諤impossible to change (ownership-‘unknown’諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱mpossible to change (ownership-‘unknown’諤mpossible to change (ownership-‘unknown’諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤mpossible to change (ownership-‘unknown’諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱mpossible to change (ownership-‘unknown’諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱mpossible to change (ownership-‘unknown’謔mpossible to change (ownership-‘unknown’諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱mpossible to change (ownership-‘unknown’諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱)諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱)諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱

One common type of this use is when a parent tells a child what to do, and wants to

make it clear that the child may under no circumstance refuse to do this thing, and that the

parent will accept no counter-argument. Thus it is really equivalent to the issuing of an

absolute command. The action ought to be voluntary on the part of the executant; but,

because the child has not already voluntarily executed the plan, the parent now has

諤u諤u諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤u諤u諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱u諤unilaterall諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterall諤nilaterall諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤nilaterall諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterall諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterall謔nilaterall諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱nilaterally謔y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 to impose it. In this case, despite the plan requiring 謔 to impose it. In this case, despite the plan requiring 謔 voluntary action, the

executant of the plan has zero zero zero諤諤 o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱o諤ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnershi諤wnershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤wnershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnershi謔wnershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership謔p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of the plan.謔 of the plan.謔Another common example concerns what is expressed as the result of the power of

fate. When the Addresser wants to imply, ‘Fate (OR destiny) decided that ~’, this is the

expression of a future matter that she will use. For no one can control fate. In this case too,

18


the executant of the ‘plan’ has 諤z諤z諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諤z諤z諱諱諱z諤zero諱諱諱ero諤ero諤諱諱諱諤ero諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ownershi謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ownershi謔ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ownership謔p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 of the plan. Thus the difference between 謔 of the plan. Thus the difference between 謔voluntary and involuntary is cancelled.

Another important aspect of 3 a i is that the schedule that it unilaterally imposes is

諤‘諤‘o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤o諤o諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱o諤ownership-unknow諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-unknow諤wnership-unknow諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤wnership-unknow諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-unknow諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-unknow謔wnership-unknow諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱wnership-unknown謔n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔’ 謔 : that is to say, when an Addresser says not /I want you to wash the

family car/ but instead /family car/ but instead /family car You are to wash the family car/, she avoids acknowledging any the family car/, she avoids acknowledging any the family car

personal ownership of this schedule, though she may in fact have complete ownership of it:

what she instead strongly implies to her Addressee is, in effect, that ‘This is simply how things

are….’

(3 a ii) result of a schedule of voluntary action that is 諤result of a schedule of voluntary action that is 諤result of a schedule of voluntary action that is v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤v諤v諱諱諱諱諱諱v諤very har諱諱諱諱諱諱ery har諤ery har諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ery har諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱ery har諱諱諱諱諱諱ery har謔ery har諱諱諱諱諱諱ery hard謔d諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱謔謔 to change

We have already thought about one example of this kind of schedule, in the example

of the three rock-bands. Each executant has ownership of the voluntary action of performing

in the concert, but the degree of ownership far from complete, and so changing it is far from

easy. The ownership, however, is not ‘unknown’.

(3 a iii) result of a timetable, etc.

Another kind of schedule that is very hard to change is one that is ‘owned’ by a very

large number of people indeed – such as a city bus timetable. The ownership of a timetable is

not so much ‘unknown’ as 諤‘諤‘h諤h諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤h諤h諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱h諤hard to identif諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ard to identif諤ard to identif諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ard to identif諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ard to identif諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ard to identif謔ard to identif諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ard to identify謔y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱y諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔’ 謔 .

An Addresser will sometimes use this expression of future matters in order to imply

that someone’s individual timetable (even though that person may in fact have complete in fact have complete in fact

ownership of it) is as diffi cult to change as is a bus- or train-timetable. And, in the as diffi cult to change as is a bus- or train-timetable. And, in the as diffi cult to change media, it is

often used to report the schedules of important people.

Therefore, when an Addresser uses this of her own schedule, it can sometimes own schedule, it can sometimes own

sound a little pompous, or self-aggrandizing: ‘My schedule happens to be too important to be My schedule happens to be too important to be My

subject to change….’ – particularly if her Addressee knows that, in fact, she has complete

ownership of that schedule.

(3 b) result of a schedule of voluntary action that is 諤result of a schedule of voluntary action that is 諤result of a schedule of voluntary action that is n諤n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤n諤n諱諱諱諱諱諱諱n諤not so har諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ot so har諤ot so har諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤ot so har諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ot so har諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ot so har謔ot so har諱諱諱諱諱諱諱ot so hard謔d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 to change

The effect of choosing this way of expressing a future voluntary state, process or

instant-change can be compared with those of 2, 3 a i, 3 a ii and 3 a iii as shown following:

19


Chart ④

impossible very easy

to change to change

◆――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――◆

諤諤 3諤3 諱諤諱諤3諤3 諱 3諤3 a 諱 a 諤 a 諤諱諤 a 諤謔諱謔諱 a 諱 a 謔 a 諱 a i謔i 謔謔諤3諤3 諱諱諤諱諱諤3諤3 諱諱3諤3 a i 諱諱 a i諤 a i諤諱諱諤 a i諤謔諱諱謔諱諱 a i 諱諱 a i謔 a i 諱諱 a i 諱諱i 諱諱謔諱諱i 諱諱　　　謔　　　謔諱諱謔諱諱　　　諱諱謔諱諱 ←―――　諤　諤　 3 諤 3 謔諤謔諤 3 諤 3 謔3 諤 3 b謔b謔謔―――→ □ □ 2□2 諤諤 3諤3 諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諤3諤3 諱諱諱3諤3 a ii 諱諱諱 a ii諤 a ii諤諱諱諱諤 a ii諤謔諱諱諱謔諱諱諱 a ii 諱諱諱 a ii謔 a ii 諱諱諱 a ii 諱諱諱i 諱諱諱謔諱諱諱i 諱諱諱

Exactly how hard to change such a schedule may be will vary, case by case. But, by how hard to change such a schedule may be will vary, case by case. But, by how

choosing not to use either choosing not to use either choosing not 3 a or 2, the Addresser can indicate some degreesome degree of restraint some degree of restraint some degree

imposed upon the executant’s future situation or action, and which is (very often) the result of

incomplete ownership of the schedule in question. This may also be appropriately thought of

as 諤‘諤‘a諤a 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤a諤a 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱a諤a fairly fl exible schedul 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 fairly fl exible schedul諤 fairly fl exible schedul諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤 fairly fl exible schedul諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 fairly fl exible schedul 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 fairly fl exible schedul謔 fairly fl exible schedul 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 fairly fl exible schedule謔e 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 ’ 謔’ 謔 .

What you need to do next

When you speak or write English, you yourself become, of course, ‘an Addresser’. So

you need to become accustomed to analyzing what you want to say, that is, to deciding fi rst

whether you want to express either (1) ‘an involuntary result of the effects of a general nature

or tendency’, or else (2) ‘a plan of which the executant has complete ownership’, or else (3) ‘a

schedule (of which the executant does not have complete ownership)’; and then, if you have

chosen (1), which of (a~d) you need to choose and, if (3), which of (a i~iii) and (b). As a fi rst

step in doing this, I want you to decide which of 1 a~d, 2, 3 a i~iii and 3 b the following

examples belong to. The fi rst example has been done for you.

Snow will fall, later this afternoon. 諤, later this afternoon. 諤, later this afternoon. 1諤1謔諤謔諤1諤1謔1諤1a謔a諤a諤謔諤a諤1) Sinc e t he President is now dead, the Vice-president governs the country, until a

general election can be held. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤2) You are to tidy your bedroom. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤3) Her train gets in at 12:30. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤4) That building is going to collapse at any minute! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤5) He will come late to class, damn him! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤6) This room remains untouched until the police arrive. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤7) As far as I know, I am fl ying to New York, tomorrow. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤8) Oh dear, I think I’m about to faint! 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤9) The captai n of our soccer team is to have the privilege of meeting a famous

20


soccer star. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤10) Tomorrow’ s edition of this program is going to include a special report on

divorce. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤11) I fear I am never to see my father again. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤12) My daughter will be quite happy to drive you to the nearest station. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤13) I shall never trust you again. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤14) If you are not careful, I shall certainly fall in love with you. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤15) When sh e gets her fi rst paycheck, she is going to treat her mother to a delicious

meal. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤16) What do we do now? 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤17) You will fi nd this problem rather diffi cult to solve. 諤諤諱諤謔諱謔諱諤諱諤謔諤諱諤18) We are g o ing to hope that, sooner or later, our son will be released from


What you have to do next

Look at your results, and decide what pattern of words (= pattern of words (= pattern of words expression) is used to

express what kind of future state, process, or instant change. Category 2 has been done for

you:

21


Chart ④

1 a 諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱1 b 諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱1 c 諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱1 d 諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 OR 諱諱 OR 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 OR 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 OR 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 OR 諱諱 OR 諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR 諱諱 OR 謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱2 諤諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤b諤b諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱b諤be going to ～諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e going to ～諤e going to ～諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤e going to ～諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e going to ～諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e going to ～諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e going to ～諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱e going to ～謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱3 a i 諤諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱3 a ii 諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱3 a iii 諤諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱3 b 諤諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱

What you have to do next

Below are a large number of examples, in which the verbs that express future matters

are shown only in their dictionary forms [for example, will fi nd → (fi nd)]. Think about the

context that is implied by each example, and decide (1) whether the Addresser is predicting

[P], declaring [D], OR reporting [R], (2) what 諤], (2) what 諤], (2) what d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤d諤d諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱d諤degree of ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱egree of ownershi諤egree of ownershi諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諤egree of ownershi諤謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱egree of ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱egree of ownershi謔egree of ownershi諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱egree of ownership謔p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱p諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱 the executant has 謔 the executant has 謔(owner-ship impossible [I] OR complete ownership [C]) OR zero ownership [Z] OR partial

ownership [Pt]); (3) where necessary, 諤]); (3) where necessary, 諤]); (3) where necessary, h諤h諱諱諱諱諱諤諱諱諱諱諱諤h諤h諱諱諱諱諱h諤how soo諱諱諱諱諱ow soo諤ow soo諤諱諱諱諱諱諤ow soo諤謔諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱ow soo諱諱諱諱諱ow soo謔ow soo諱諱諱諱諱ow soon謔n諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱n諱諱諱諱諱 the matter will happen (謔 the matter will happen (謔 soon [S] OR later

[L]; and, fi nally, (4) how the dictionary forms should be changed to express the appropriate

future matter. (There may be some examples for which you feel that either of two choices is two choices is two

equally appropriate.)

1) I (expect) you to come back by midnight. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR 謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱2) Remember, whatever plan he may suggest, you (agree) with it. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR 謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱

謔

謔

謔

謔

22


3) Who is going to help me? – O.K., I (I (I help). 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR 謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱4) Whatever you say, I (be) happy with her! 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱5) You never (speak) to my daughter again. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱6) I (start) working in our Kyūshū・branch on the 25th of next month. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱7) If you break with her in the near future, she (feel) very unhappy. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱8) The Emperor (meet) the President of the U.S.A. tomorrow, at noon. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR 謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱9) Tomorrow night, I probably (remain) at the offi ce. I think my boss needs some help. 1)□ 2)

□ 3)□ 諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱10) We not (doubt) the truth of what he says. After all, he is our boss. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱11) They have agreed that for now they (share) an apartment. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱12) Our grandmother no longer (eat) properly. I think she’s lost her appetite. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱13) This little kitten (die), if we don’t give it some milk very soon! 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR 謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱14) I (go) to Venice for my next summer holiday. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱15) Autumn eventually (come), and the leaves gradually (drop) from the trees. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱16) He says he (live) in Tibet. 1)□ 2)□ 3)□

諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱17) Your parents (be) so happy once they have learned that you have got into Kandai. 1)□ 2)

□ 3)□ 諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱OR諱諱OR 謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱18) This summer, my parents (take) me to Paris. (I myself should prefer to go to New York.) 1)

□ 2)□ 3)□ 諤4諤4諱諤諱諤4諤4諱4諤4諤）諤諱諤）諤諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱謔諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱諱

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Follow-up activities

Of course, merely completing the above few tasks does not mean that all learners will therefore

have immediate and fluent command of this system of choices; a considerable amount of reinforcement

is necessary. First of all, it seems essential that learners should have a combination of Charts ③ and ④,

above (see Appendix 1, below) at first in printed form to hand, and a little later in their heads, both as a

mind-map accessible as a visual image and as information. In order to bring the latter situation about,

for several consecutive classes I use first a blank form of that combination-chart (see Appendix 2, below)

and ask learners to fill it in from memory, and later provide no visual structure at all, and ask learners as

quickly as possible to draw the chart from scratch.

Later on, I use a variety of increasingly less controlled activities designed to allow groups of at

least three learners to take turns in being questioner, answerer, and monitor and, using packs of pre-

prepared cards, seek and give information concerning various future matters that have first been

presented in such a way as to make the appropriate choice of expression as little ambiguous as possible;

each monitor chooses at random a card, which she does not show to the others, and which contains

directions to the questioner, the correct results (or the essence of these), and points about which she

should be vigilant. Learners are trained to request, when acting as monitors, any necessary revision of a

question or an answer, and to do so by means of hand-signals (this avoiding recourse to the mother-

tongue), or else (with more able classes) instructions in English only.

Finally I ask each learner to devise and memorize a short, original speech, concerning some

aspect of her own future, and somehow incorporating at least one example of each of the choices for the

expression of future matters, which she will then use as a basis for freer conversation with a number of

other learners.

Higher-level development: rhetorical applications of the system of choices

I have entitled this first part ‘Objective Application’ because the system of choices is at the

same time frequently applied in ways that deliberate break the basic rules concerning its use, in order to

communicate more than is actually expressed – i.e. is applied rhetorically.

One very common example of this sort of application is, ‘If you don’t take greater care of your

wife, one day you are going to be sorry.’ ‘One day’ shows us that this perfectly well-formed utterance

cannot be an example of 1 d (an involuntary result that is going to happen very soon); thus it can only be

a use of 2; and yet what rational person would accuse another person of nursing a voluntary plan to make

himself sorry? The rhetorical force of this apparently irrational use is, it seems to me, more or less this:

‘You are behaving towards your wife in such a way that anyone might reasonably suppose you were

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deliberately choosing to give yourself later cause for regret.’

Another example is when a well-trained waiter asks, ‘What will you have for dessert, ma’

am?’ Objectively, one would expect this request to acknowledge the customer’s complete ownership of

her choice, and yet ‘What will you have for dessert, ma’am?’ is, pragmatically, politer in rhetorical

effect, because more respectful, than is ‘What are you going to have for dessert, ma’am?’. Along

with the respective effects of many other rhetorical applications of this system of choices, the cause of

this greater degree of politeness is something that I shall explore in subsequent parts of this paper, also

presenting the interactive tasks that I use with higher-level students, to help them to expand their range

of applications of the system in such a way as to meet more sophisticated communicational needs.

Acknowledgements

The research and materials-development the results of which are presented here were made

possible by part of a generous research grant from Kansai University, awarded under the auspices of its

annual JūJūJ ten Ryū ten Ryū ōten Ryōten Ry iki Kenkyōiki Kenkyō ūiki Kenkyūiki Kenky project.ū project.ū

I should like to express my great gratitude to my distinguished colleague Professor Eiichi

Yamamoto, of IFLER, Kansai University, for many opportunities of discussing with him some of the

ideas presented here.

END NOTE

１）As I have so far been yearly piloting and improving the teaching materials that are here either summarized

or quoted from, and am publishing this somewhat prematurely, I as yet have no Before-and-After studies with

which to back up such assertions; but experience of taking my place among a double ring of students that talk

to partner after partner has led me to feel pretty confident that, for those students that can take this approach on

board – and they are far from any minority – it signally increases the appropriateness and assurance of their

handling of the expression of future matters.

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an effective way of teaching the expression of …...this introduces the key idea of expressive...

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