ÀÔãã¾ã¶ã ãäÌã—ãã¶ã - resultdhaba.com · 1 sciecne fokku dh og 'kk[kk ft l ds...

1

SCIECNE

foKku dh og ' kk[ kk ft l ds vUrxZr i nkFkksZa ds HkkSfrd j l k; fud xq.kksa] l a?kVu] l ajpuk rFkk ml esa gksus okysHkkSfrd , oa jkl k; fud i fjorZuksa dk vè; ; u gksrk gS jl k; u foKku dgykrk gSA dsfeLVªh* ' kCn dh mRi fÙk fel z ns' kds çkphu uke dhfe; k* l s gqbZ gS bl dk vFkZ gSµdkykjaxA ysokfl , dks j l k; u foKku dk t ud ekuk t krk gSA

orZeku esa j l k; u foKku ekuo ds HkkSfrd t hou esa egÙoi w.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkk jgk gSA j l k; u foKku [ kk| i Ql yksadh mRi kndrk esa of¼] LokLF; j{kk] chekfj ; ksa l s cpko] fuek.kZ l kexzh , oa vU; kU; ekuoksi ; ksxh l kexzh ds fuekZ.k, oa j [ kµj[ kko esa l ayXu gSA ekuo t hou dk dksbZ ugha gSa ft l s j l k; u foKku çHkkfor u dj jgk gSAj l k; u foKku dh ' kk[ kk, avdkcZfud j l k; uµ dkcZfud ; kSfxdksa dks NksM+dj “ks"k l Hkh rÙoksa vkSj muds ; kSfxdksa ds cukus dh fofèk] xq.kµèkeZ]mi ; ksx , oa l a?kVu dk vè; ; u fd; k t krk gSAdkcZfud j l k; uµ bl esa dkcZu o ml ds ; kSfxdksa dk vè; ; u fd; k t krk gSA1- HkkSfrd j l k; uµ bl esa HkkSfrd vfHkfØ; kvksa ds fu; eksa rFkk fl ¼karksa dk vè; ; u fd; k t krk gSA2- fo' ysf. kd j l k; u ( Anatytical Chemistry) µ bl esa i nkFkksZa dh i gpku rFkk mudh ek=kk fuèkkZfjr djus dk

vè; ; u fd; k t krk gSA3- v kS| ksfxd j l k; uµ bl esa i nkFkksZa dk O; ki kfjd ek=kk esa fuekZ.k djus okys m| ksxksa l s l EcfUèkr fu; eksa]

vfHkfØ; kvksa fofèk; ksa vkfn dk vè; ; u fd; k t krk gSA4- t ho j l k; u ( Bio-Chemistry) µ bl esa t hoèkkfj ; ksa esa gksus okyh jkl k; fud vfHkfØ; kvksa rFkk çkf.k; ksa rFkk

ouLi fr; ksa l s çkIr i nkFkksZa dk vè; ; u fd; k t krk gSA5- Ñf"k j l k; u ( Agricultural Chemistry) µ bl esa Ñf"k l s l EcfUèkr j l k; uksa dk vè; ; u gksrk gSA6- v kS"kfèk j l k; uµ bl esa çkf.k; ksa ds ç; ksx esa vkus okyh vkS"kfèk; ksa] muds l a?kVu o cukus dh fofèk; ksa dk vè; ; u

fd; k t krk gSA7- ukfHkdh; j l k; u ( Nuclear Chemistry) µ bl esa ukfHkdh; fØ; kvksa] jsfM+; ksa , fDVo rÙo] rFkk buds vuqç; ksxksa

dk vè; ; u gksrk gSAnzO; (Matter)

os l Hkh oLrq, a ft l esa Hkkj gksrk gSa rFkk LFkku ?ksjrh gSa nzO; dgykrk gSA gekjs pkjksa vksj t ks dqN fn[ kkbZ nsrkgSa l c nzO; ds vUrxZr vkrk gSA fdl h oLrq dk nzO; eku l nSo fuf” pe jgsxk bl s dgha Hkh i k; k t k; kA nzO; dks u rksfufeZr fd; k t k l drk gS vkSj u rks fou"V fd; k t k l drk gsA fu"d"kZ Lo#i dgk t k l drk gS fd l Ei w.kZ czg~ek.Mdk nzO; eku v i fjofrZr jgrk gSAnzO; dk oxhZdj . k (Classification of Matter)

nzO; ds okg~; l ajpuk ds vkèkkj i j bl s rhu Hkkxksa esa ck¡Vk x; k gSA Bksl ] nzo] xSl (pkSFkh voLFkk IykTek Hkhekuk t krk gS t ks vfr rki i j nzO; dh voLFkk gSA)1- Bksl ( Solid) µ v.kq , d nwl js ds l kFk n‘<+rk l s caèks gksus ds dkj.k ; g dBksj gksrk gSa bl dk nzO; eku rFkk

vk; ru fuf” pr gksrk gSA t Sl s µ yksgk] i RFkj] ydM+h] ued vkfnA2- nzO; ( Liquids) µ budk vk; ru fuf' pr gksrk gSa i jUrq vkdkj vfuf” pr gksrk gS ft l Hkh crZu esa j[ ks t krs

gSa ml dk vkdkj xzg.k dj ysrs gSA t Sl s µ t y] nwèk] ' kgn] i sVªksy vkfnA3- xSl ( Gases) µ budk vkdkj o vk; ru nksuksa vfuf' pr gksrk gSa ft l crZu esa j[ ks t krs gS ml dk vkdkj o

ÀÔãã¾ã¶ã ãäÌã—ãã¶ã

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2

SCIECNE

vk; ru nksuksa èkkj.k dj ysrs gSA t Sl sµ ok; q] t yok"i ] èkqvk¡] vkDl ht u vkfnA[ t y ] xaèkd ( Sulphur) ] i QkLi Qksj l µ rhuksa voLFkkvksa esa i k; k t kr k gS t cfd µ d i wj ] ukSl knj ]v k; ksMhu Bksl l s xSl voLFkk esa i fj ofrZr gks t kr s gSA

4- IykTekµ nzO; dh og voLFkk gS ft l esa mPp rki i j i jek.kq vk; fur voLFkk esa jgrs gSA ; g voLFkk fo| qrdh l qpkyd gksrh gSA

j kl k; fud oxhZdj . k ( Chemistry Classfication)1- fo"kekax i nkFkZ ( Heterogemeous Substan-ces) µ , sl s i nkFkZ ft uesa fHkUuµfHkUu i nkFkksZ ds nks ; k nks l s vfèkd

Hkkx gksrs gSa fo"kekax i nkFkZ dgykrs gSA t Sl sµ nwèk] jDr] èkqvk¡] ckny] ck#n vkfnA2- l ekax i nkFkZ ( Homogeneous Substances) µ , sl s i nkFkZ ft l dk çR; sd Hkkx l eku çdkj dk gksrk gS l ekax

i nkFkZ dgykrk gSA t Sl sµ yksgk] rk¡ck] vkDl ht u] ukbVªkst u vkfnA l ekax i nkFkZ nks çdkj ds gksrs gSµ1- foy; u ( Solution) µ nks ; k nks l s vfèkd i nkFkksZa ds l eku feJ.k dks foy; u dgrs gSaA bl dk dksbZ

fuf' pr l a?kVu ugha gksrk gSA2- ' kq¼ i nkFkZ ( Pure Substances) µ ft u l ekax i nkFkksZa dk l a?kVu fuf' pr vkSj fLFkj gksrk gS] ' kq¼ i nkFkZ

dgykrs gSaA l Hkh rÙo vkSj ; kSfxd ' kq¼ i nkFkZ gSA1- rÙo ( Element) µ l eku çdkj ds i jek.kqvksa l s cus ' kq¼ i nkFkZ dks rÙo dgrs gSA t Sl s l ksuk] pk¡nh] rk¡ck] yksgk

vkfnA rÙo Hkh nks çdkj ds gksrs gSaµ èkkrq , oa vèkkrqA2- èkkrq ( Metal) µ çÑfr esa i kjs dks NksM+dj yxHkx l Hkh èkkrq, a Bksl voLFkk esa i kbZ t krh gSA i kjk , d , sl h èkkrq

gSa t ks fd nzo voLFkk esa i kbZ t krh gSA èkkrqvksa ds fuEu l kekU; xq.k gksrs gSa µ pkydrk] rU; rk] v?kkron~Zèkuh; rk]l q?kV~; rk vkfnA vEyksa l s fØ; k djds gkbMªkst u xSl foLFkkfi r djrh gSA fofHkUu èkkrqvksa dks i jLi j feykus l scuus okyh èkkrq dks feJèkkrq dgrs gSA

3- vèkkrq ( Non Metal) µ èkkrqvksa ds foi jhr xq.kksa okys rÙoksa dks vèkkrq dgrs gSa ; s Hkaxqj gksrs gSA ; s Bksl ] nzo oxSl µ rhuksa voLFkkvksa esa i kbZ t krh gSa l kekU; r% dqpkyd gksrh gSa rFkk buds xyuk¡d èkkrqvksa l s de gksrs gSA

4- mi èkkrq ( Semimetal) µ os rÙo t ks èkkrqvksa , oa mi èkkrqvksa ds chp ds xq.k j [ krs gSa mi èkkrq dgykrs gSA t Sl sµt esZfu; e] vkl sZfud] , .Vheuh vkfnA

5- ekuo ' kj hj esa fofHkUu rÙoksa dh vkSl r ek=kk fuEuor~ gSµvkDl ht u 65 çfr' krdkcZu 18 çfr' krgkbMªkst u 10 çfr' krukbVªkst u 3 çfr' krdSfY' k; e 2 çfr' kri QkLi Qksjl 1 çfr' kri ksVSf' k; e -35 çfr' krl Yi Qj -25 çfr' krl ksfM; e -15 çfr' krDyksjhu -15 çfr' kreSXuhf' k; e -05 çfr' kryksgk 0-4 çfr' krvU; -46 çfr' kr



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SCIECNE

1- Hkwi i Zrh esa i k; sa t kus okys rÙoksa dk çfr ' kr fuEu gSµvkDl ht u 49-9 çfr' krfl fydkWu 26-0 çfr' kr, sY; wfefu; e 7-3 çfr' kryksgk 4-1 çfr' krdSfY' k; e 3-2 çfr' krl ksfM; e 2-3 çfr' kri ksVSf' k; e 2-3 çfr' kreSXuhf' k; e 2-1 çfr' krvU; rÙo 2-8 çfr' kr

1 ; kSfxd ( Compound) µ rÙo vki l esa fuf' pr vuqi kr esa feydj ; kSfxd dk fuekZ.k djrs gSA nwl js ' kCnksa esadgk t k; rksµfHkUuµfHkUu çdkj ds i jek.kqvksa ds , d fuf' pr] vuqi kr esa l a; kst u l s cus ' kqn~/ i nkFkZ dks ; kSfxddgrs gSA t Sl sµ i kuh gkbMªkst u vkSj vkDl ht u ds 2%1 ds vuqi kr esa feyus l s curk gSA ; kSfxd nks çdkj dsgksrs gSaµ

2 dkcZfud ; kSfxdµ dkcZu] gkbMªkst u ds O; qRi Uu bl Js.kh esa vkrs gSA2 vdkcZfud ; kSfxdµ gkbMªksdkcZu dks NksM+dj ' ks"k l Hkh ; kSfxd bl ds vUrxZr vkrs gSArÙoksa ds fof' k"V xq. k (Spicific Properties of Elements)

1- uehdj . k ( Diliquescence) µ dqN ; kSfxd t c ok; qe.My esa [ kqys j [ k fn; s t krs gSa t ks os ueh dks vo” kksf"krdj ysrs gSa ; g xq.k uehdj.k dgykrk gSA1- l kèkkj . k ued ( l ksfM; e Dyksj kbM) esa ; g xq. k ugha i k; k t kr k gSa i jUrq eSXuhf' k; e Dyksj kbM dh

v ' kq¼ ds dkj . k ; g ue gks t kr k gSA2- çLi Qi QVu ( Efflorescence) µ dqN fØLVyh; i nkFkZ v i us fØLVyh; t y dks ok; qe.My esa fudky dj

pw.kZ #i esa i fjofrZr gks t krs gSA t Sl sµ i Qsjl l Yi QsV] l ksfM; e dkcksZusV vkfnA3- vk?kkroèkZuh; r k ( Mallebility) µ dqN Bksl i nkFkZ i hVus i j VwVus ds LFkku i j i ryh pknj ds #i esa

i fjofrZr gks t krs gSA Bksl ksa esa i k; s t kus okys bl xq.k dks vk?kkroèkZuh; rk dgrs gSA t Sl sµ l ksuk] pk¡nh] rk¡ckvkfnA l ksuk l okZfèkd vk?kkroèkZuh; èkkrq gSA

4- vknzZrkxzkgh ( Hygroscopic) µ i nkFkksZ esa ok; qe.My dh ueh dks xzg.k djus dh {kerk dks dgrs gSA i nkFkksZds bl xq.k dks gkbxzksLdksi h ( Hygroscopy) dgrs gSA

2- rU; rk ( Ductility) µ dqN i nkFkksZa esa , sl s xq.k i k; s t krs gSa ft ul s i rys rkj cuk; s t k l drs gSa i nkFkZ ds blxq.k dks rU; rk dgrs gSA

3- yphyki u ( Elasticity) µ i nkFkksZ ds os xq.k ft l ds }kjk os yxk; s x; s fo#i d cy dk fojksèk dj i qu% vi uhLokHkkfod voLFkk dks çkIr dj ysrs gSA ml s yphyki u dgykrk gSA

4- dkseyrk ( Plasticity) µ i nkFkZ dk og xq.k ft l ds dkj.k i nkFkZ i qu% vi uh LokHkkfod fLFkfr esa ugha vk i krsdkseyrk dgykrk gSA

5- Hkaxqj r k ( Brittleness) µ dqN Bksl i nkFkksZa dks gFkkSM+s l s i hVus i j NksVsµNksVs VqdM+ksa esa i fjofrZr gks t krs gSA blxq.k dks Hkaxqjrk dgrs gSA

6- dBksj r k ( Hardness) µ fofHkUu i nkFkZ , d nwl js dh rqyuk esa de ; k vfèkd dBksj gksrs gSA dBksjrk dh eki



4

SCIECNE

eksg Ldsy ( Mohs Scale) }kjk dh t krh gSA l okZfèkd dBksj i nkFkZ ghjk gSA eksg Ldsy i j bl dh dBksjrk 10gSA

7- feJ . k ( Mixturess) µ nks ; k nks l s vfèkd ; kSfxdksa ; k rÙoksa dks vfuf” pr vuqi kr esa feykus i j çkIr nzO;dks feJ.k dgrs gSA ; g nks çdkj dk gksrk gSµ• l ekaxh feJ . k ( Homogeneous Mixture) µ bl esa çR; sd Hkkx ds xq.k èkeZ ,d l eku gksrs gSA t Sl sµ ued

dk t yh; foy; uA• fo"kekaxh feJ . k ( Heteogeneous Mixture) µ bl esa çR; sd Hkkx ds xq.k èkeZ ,oa l a?kVu fHkUuµfHkUu gksr

gSA t Sl sµ ck#nA8- feJ èkkrq ( Alloy) µ nks ; k nks l s vfèkd rÙoksa dks , d l kFk nzfor voLFkk esa feykdj i qu% Bksl esa i fjofrZr

dj ysus i j çkIr mRi kr dks feJ èkkrq dgrs gSA bl esa èkkrq ds l Hkh xq.k l fUufgr jgrs gSAfeJ . kksa dks v yx d juk (Separation of Mixtures)

1- fØLVyu ( Gystallisation) µ bl fofèk esa v ' kq¼ Bksl dks ; k feJ.k dks mfpr foyk; d ds l kFk ?kksydj Nkuysrs gSA Nkuus ds i ' pkr~ Bksl i nkFkZ vyx gks t krk gSa

2- v kl ou ( Distillation) µ t c feJ.k esa mi fLFkr nzoksa ds DoFkukadks esa vfèkd varj gksrk gSa rks buds feJ.kdks vkl ou fofèk l s i Fkd djrs gSA vkl ou l s de DoFkukad okyk rÙo i gys okf"i r gksus yxrk gSA bl sl a?kfur djds vyx dj fy; k t krk gSA• mèoZi kru ( Sublimation) µ Bksl i nkFkksZa dks xeZ djus i j l kekU; r% os nzo voLFkk esa vkSj Å"ek nsus i j

ok"i voLFkk esa i fjofrZr gks t krs gS] i jUrq dqN i nkFkZ xeZ djus i j Bksl voLFkk l s nzo voLFkk esa vk; sfcuk xSl esa i fjofrZr gks t krs gSA , sl s i nkFkksZa dks mèoZi krt rFkk bl fØ; k dks mèoZi kru dgrs gSAmèoZi kru çfØ; k }kjk nks , sl s Bksl feJ.kksa dks i Fkd djrs gSa] ft l esa , d Bksl mèoZi krt gksrk gSA nwl jkughaA bl s xeZ djus i j mèoZi krt Bksl l hèks ok"i esa i fjofrZr gks t krk gSA bl dks B.Mk djds nksuksa dks i Fkddj ysrs gSA

1- çHkkt h vkl ou ( Fractional Distillation) µ bl ds }kjk mu fefJr nzoksa dks i Fkd djrs gSA ft uds DoFkukadksaesa cgqr de varj gksrk gSA HkwxHkZ l s fudkys x; s [ kfut rsy l s i sVªksy] Mht y feV~Vh dk rsy vkfn bl fofèkn~Okjk i Fkd fd; k t krk gSA

2- o. kZys[ ku ( Chromatography) µ ; fn fdl h feJ.k ds fofHkUUk ?kVdksa dh vfèk' kks"k.k {kerk (Absoption

Capacity) fHkUuµfHkUu gksrh gSA rFkk os fdl h vfèk' kks"kd i nkFkZ esa fofHkUu nwfj; ksa i j vo' kksf"kr gksrs gSa vkSjos vyx gks t krs gSA t Sl sµ gjh l fCt ; ksa l s jaxhu nzO; ksa dk vyx gksukA

3- Hkki v kl ou ( Steam Distillation) µ Hkki vkl ou ds }kjk , sl s dkcZfud i nkFkksZa dk ' kq¼dj.k fd; k t krk gSat ks t y esa v?kqyu' khy i jUrq Hkki ds l kFk ok"i ' khy gksrs gSA

v . kq] i j ek. kq , oa i jek. kq l aj pukv . kq ( Molecule) µ v.kq fdl h i nkFkZ dk og NksVk l s NksVk Hkkx gSa ft l esa i nkFkZ ds l Hkh xq.k mi fLFkr gksrs

gSa ; g ; qDr voLFkk esa jg l drk gSA ; s nks çdkj ds gksrs gSµ• l ei j ek. kqd ( Homoatomic) µ ; s v.kq rÙoksa l s feydj cus gksrs gSA t Sl sµ H2

^ fd l h v . kq esa mi fLFkr dqy i j ek. kqvksa dh l a[ ; k dks i j ek. kqdrk dgrs gSA**• fo"kei j ek. kqd ( Hetero Atomic) µ ; s v.kq fofHkUu çdkj ds i jek.kqvksa l s feydj cus gksrs gSaA t Sl sµ

Hcl, Co2, H2So4 vkfnA



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SCIECNE

i j ek. kq ( Atom) µ i jek.kq fdl h rÙo dk og l w{e Hkkx gS t ks fdl h Hkh jkl k; fud i fjorZu esa Hkkx ys l drkgSa] i jUrq eqDrkoLFkk esa ugha jg l drkA l Hkh rÙoksa ds i jek.kq vR; kfèkd fØ; k' khy gksrs gSa ysfdu ; s eqDr voLFkk esau jgdj] vi us gh ; kSfxd ds fdl h nwl js ; k l eku rÙo ds l kFk l a; qDr voLFkk esa jgrs gSA dsoy vkn' kZ xSl ksa ds i jek.kqvfØ; k' khy gksrs gSa vkSj eqDr voLFkk esa jg l drs gSAMkYVu dk i jek. kqokn

Hkkjrh; Ñf"k d.kkn (800 bZ-) us l oZçFke i jek.kq fl ¼kUr fn; k ft l s ; wukuh nk' kZfudksaµywfl i l rFkk fMeksØkbfVlus vkxs c<+k; k vkSj 1808 bZ- esa t ku MkYVu us ç; ksxksa }kjk bl dh i qf"V dhA MkYVu dk i jek.kqokn fuEuor~ gSµ

• çR; sd i nkFkZ vR; ar l w{e d.kksa l s feydj cuk gksrk gSa ft Ugsa i jek.kq dgrs gSaA i jek.kq vfoHkkT; gksrk gSA• i jek.kq u rks mRi Uu fd; k t k l drk gS vkSj u gh u"VA• , d gh rÙo ds l Hkh i jek.kq vkdkj] nzO; eku rFkk jkl k; fud xq.kksa esa l eku gksrs gSa fdarq nwl js rÙo ds

i jek.kq l s fHkUu gksrs gSA• jkl k; fud i fjorZuksa esa i jek.kq v i uh fut h l Rrk cuk; sa j [ krs gSA• fdl h Hkh ; kSfxd ds l eLr ; kSfxd i jek.kq (v.kq) vki l esa l eku gksrs gSa vkSj rÙo dk l a; kst u Hkkj gh

i jek.kqvksa dk l a; kst u Hkkj gksrk gSAMkYVu ds i jek.kqokn dh dfe; ksa dks nwj dj vkèkqfud i jek.kqokn dk fl ¼kUr fn; kA t ks i jek.kq dh foHkkT; rk]l eLFkkfud] l eHkkjh vkfn dks O; kf[ ; r dj l dkA

i j ek. kq dh l aj puk (Structure of Atom)

20 oha l nh ds i woZ rd ekuk t krk Fkk fd i jek.kq vfoHkkT; gSa i jUrq t s-t s- Vkel u] jnj i QksMZ] pSMfod vkfnus fl ¼ dj fn; k fd i jek.kq foHkkft r fd; k t k l drk gSA i jek.kq esa bysDVªku] çksVªku , oa U; wVªku vkfn LFkkbZ rFkki kft Vªku] U; wfVªuksa] , fUVU; wfVªuksa rFkk esl ku vkfn vLFkkbZ d.k gksrs gSAbysDVªku ( Electron)

bysDVªku dh [ kkst t s-t s- Vkel u us dh FkhA bl i j bdkbZ Í .kkos' k gksrk gSA bl dk fojke nzO; eku 9-1X10µ19

dwykWe vkos' k gksrk gSa ; s i jek.kq ds ukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj vi uh fuf' pr d{kkvksa esa pDdj dkVrs gSA1- çksVªkWu ( Protron) µ bl dh [ kkst jnj i QksMZ us dh FkhA bl i j bysDVªku ds vkos” k ds cjkcj èkukos” k gksrk gSA

bl dk vkos' k 1-6X10µ19 dwykWe gksrk gSA ; g i jek.kq ds ukfHkd esa U; wVªku ds l kFkµl kFk fLFkr gksrk gSA2- U; wVªkWu ( Neutron) µ bl dh [ kkst pSMfod us dh FkhA og fo| qr mnkl hu d.k gSA bl dk Hkkj çksVkWu ds Hkkj

(1-6748X10µ24) ds cjkcj gksrk gSa çksVªkWu ds l kFk ukfHkd esa U; wVªku LFkk; h gksrk gS i jUrq ukfHkd ds ckgj Lora=kvoLFkk esa vLFkk; h gksrk gSA

i j ek. kq ekWMy ( Atomic Model)(a) FkkWel u ekWMyµ 1903bZ- esa l oZçFke Fkkel u us i jek.kq ekWMy çLrqr fd; k( ft l ds vuql kj i jek.kq Bksal

xksykdkj vkÑfr ds l eku gS ft l esa èkukosf” kr rFkk Í .kkosf” kr d.k l eku #i l s forfjr jgrs gSA i jek.kqdk nzO; eku i jek.kq ds pkjksa vksj v l eku #i l s i QSyk jgrk gSA Fkkel u ds i jek.kq ekWMy us i jek.kq dhfo| qr mnkl hurk dks rks Li "V dj fn; k i jUrq vYi Qkd.k ( ±) ds jnj i QksMZ ds ç; ksx dks Li "V ugha dj l dkA

(b) j nj i QksMZ dk ekWMyµ jnji QksMZ us 1911bZ- (±) d.kksa ds çdh.kZu ç; ksx l s çkIr fu"d"kksZ l s i jek.kq ekWMyçLrqr fd; kA

1- i jek.kq vfrl w{e] xksykdkj] fo| qr mnkl hu d.k gSA t ks èkukosf' kr ukfHkd vkSj bl ds ckgjh Hkkjx ft l esa bysDVªkujgrs gSa l s cuk gSA



6

SCIECNE

2- i jek.kq dk dqy èkukos' k vkSj yxHkx l eLr nzO; eku dsUnz esa l afpr jgrk gS ft l s ukfHkd dgrs gSA3- i jek.kq esa bysDVªku ukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj èkwers jgrs gSA4- i jek.kq esa bysDVªkuksa dh l a[ ; k i jek.kq ukfHkd i j fLFkr èkukos” kksa dh l a[ ; k ds cjkcj gksrh gSA bl hfy, i jek.kq

mnkl hu gksrs gSA5- bysDVªkuksa i j ukfHkd vkd"kZ.k cy vkjksfi r djrk gSA bysDVªkuksa ds i fjØe.k l s mRi Uu v i dsUnz cy ukfHkd ds

vkd"kZ.k cy dks l Urqfyr djrk gS bl l s bysDVªku ukfHkd esa ugha fxjrk gSAuhYl cksj us 1913bZ- esa jnj i QksMZ ds nks"kksa dks nwj dj u; k ekWMy DokaVe fl ¼kUr ekWMy fn; kA( c) uhYl cksj ekWMyµ cksj us gkbMªkst u Li sDVªe dh O; k[ ; k dj DokaVe eSdsfudy ekWMy çLrqr fd; kµ

• i jek.kq ds dsUnz esa , d ukfHkd gksrk gS] t gka çksVªkWu rFkk U; wVªku fLFkr gksrs gSA ukfHkd dk vkdkj cgqr NksVkgksrk gSA

• bysDVªku ukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj , d fuf' pr xksykdkj i Fk esa pDdj yxkrs jgrs gSa ft Ugsa Åt kZ Lrj dgrsgSA ukfHkd o bysDVªku ds chp esa , d vkd"kZ.k cy dk; Z djrk gS] t ks bysDVªku ds vfHkdsUnzh; cy dscjkcj gksrk gSA

• çR; sd Åt kZ Lrj dh , d fuf” pr Åt kZ gksrh gSA• Åt kZ Lrjsa dks Øe' k% K, L, M, N (1- 2- 3- 4) dgrs gSA• t c , d bysDVªku mPp Åt kZ Lrj l s fuEu Åt kZ Lrj esa vkrk gS ; k fuEu Åt kZ Lrj l s mPp Åt kZ Lrj esa

t krk gSA rks bl esa Åt kZ i fjorZu gksrk gSa fuEu d{kk l s mPp esa t kus i j Åt kZ dk vo' kks"k.k rFkk mPp l sfuEu esa t kus i j Åt kZ dk mRl t Zu gksrk gSA

• bysDVªku ukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj dsoy mUgha d{kkvksa esa èkwe l drk gSA ft uesa ml dk dks.kh; l aosx (m v r)n/2À dk l jy xq.kkad gksrk gSA

vFkkZr~ µ m v r ¾ n n/2À

t gka µn eq[ ; DokaVe l a[ ; k ¾ 1] 2] 3 ; k 4v bysDVªku dk osx] r d{kk dh f=kT; km bysDVªku dk nzO; eku] n Iykad fu; rkadA

bysDVªkfud foU; kli jek.kq esa bysDVªku ukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj fofHkUu d{kkvksa esa èkwers jgrs gSA uhYl cksj rFkk cjh us i jek.kq dh

fofHkUu d{kkvksa esa bysDVªkuksa dh l a[ ; k Kkr djus ds dqN fu; e cuk; s ft l s cksj cjh ; kst uk dgrs gSµ• fdl h d{kk esa bysDVªkuksa dh vfèkdre l a[ ; k 2n2 gksrh gSA t gka n d{kk dh l a[ ; k gSA• i jek.kq dh l cl s ckgjh d{kk esa 8 l s vfèkd rFkk bl l s i gyh okyh d{kk esa 18 l s vfèkd bysDVªku ugha

gks l drs gSA• vko” ; d ugha gS fd fdl h d{kk esa bysDVªkuksa dh l a[ ; k 2n2 ds vuql kj i w.kZ gksus i j gh bysDVªku ml l s

vxyh d{kk esa t k; sxsa] vfi rq t c ckg~; d{kk esa 8 bysDVªku gks t krs gSA rks bysDVªku u; h d{kk esa ços' kdjuk çkjEHk dj nsrs gSA

• l cl s ckgjh d{kk esa 2 l s vfèkd rFkk ml l s i gys okyh d{kk esa 9 l s vfèkd bysDVªku rc rd ugha gksl drs t c rd fd ckgj l s rhl jh d{kk esa bysDVªku dh l a[ ; k 2n2 ds vuql kj i wjh u gks t k; sA

bl fu; e l s fdl h rÙo dk i jek.kq Øekad rFkk i jek.kq Hkkj Kkr gksus i j ml rÙo dh i jek.kq l ajpuk Kkr dh



7

SCIECNE

t k l drh gSA bl fu; e ds dqN rÙo vi okn gSA t Sl sµ dkWi j] fl Yoj] l ksuk] Øksfe; e vkfnA1- dks"k ( Shell) µ bysDVªku ukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj fuf” pr d{kkvksa esa pDdj yxkrs jgrs gSA bysDVªku rc rd bu

d{kkvksa esa pDdj yxkrs jgrs gSA t c rd os Åt kZ dk mRl t Zu ; k vo” kks"k.k ugha djrs gSA bu d{kkvksa dks eq[ ;Åt kZ Lrj ( Major Energy Level) ; k dks' k dgrs gSA bu d{kkvksa dks K L M N 1] 2] 3] 4 l s çnf' kZr fd; k t krkgSA çR; sd dks”k esa vfèkdre bysDVªkuksa dh 2n2 l a[ ; k gksrh gSA t gka n dks' k l a[ ; k gSA vkèkqfud i jek.kq ekWMyds vkèkkj i j bUgsa eq[ ; DokaVe l a[ ; k dgrs gSA

2- mi dks"k ( Sub Shell) µ çR; sd dks' k ; k eq[ ; Åt kZ Lrj dh Åt kZ, a l eku ugha gksrh gSa] dks"kksa dks i qu% NksVsµNksVsdks"kksa esa foHkkft r fd; k x; k gSA ft Ugsa mi dks"k dgrs gSa bUgsa Øe' k% s, p, d, f v{kjksa l s çnf"kZr djrs gSA çFkedks"k dks , d] f}rh; dks nks] r‘ rh; dks rhu rFkk prqFkZ dks pkj mi dks” kksa esa foHkkft r fd; k x; k gSA

3- d{kd ( Orbital) µ fdl h i jek.kq ds ukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj dk og f=kfoeh; {ks=k t gka bysDVªku i k; s t kus dhl EHkkouk vfèkdre gksrh gS d{kd dgykrk gSAukfHkd ds pkjksa vksj bysDVªku rhoz xfr l s i fjØek djrs gSA bl dkj.k ukfHkd ds vkl µi kl Í .kkRed fo| qr

vkos” k dk , d èkqaèkyk ckny l k cu t krk gS] ft l s bysDVªku esèk* ( Electron Cloud) dgrs gSA bysDVªku es?k esa ghbysDVªku ds i k; s t kus dh çkf; drk vfèkd gksrh gSAvkWi QckÅ fu; e (Aufbou Principle)

vkWi QckÅ t eZu Hkk"kk dk ' kCn gS ft l dk vfHkçk; cukuk ; k jpuk djuk gSA rÙoksa ds bysDVªkfud foU; kl cukusdk fu; e vkWi Q ckÅ fu; e dgykrk gSA bl fu; e ds vuql kj fdl h Hkh i jek.kq esa mi fLFkr fofHkUu d{kdksa esa bysDVªkuÅt kZ ds c<+rs Øe esa ços' k djrk gSA bysDVªku l oZçFke 1s d{kd esa ços' k djrs gSa vkSj t c 1s d{kd i w.kZ gks t krkgSA rks bysDVªku 2s d{kd esa ços' k djrs gSa t c 2s d{kd Hkh i w.kZ gks t krk gS rks bysDVªku 2p d{kd esa ços' k djrsgSA bl çdkj bysDVªku Åt kZ ds c<+rs gq, Øe esa fjDr d{kdksa esa ços' k djrs gSA Åt kZ dk c<+rk Øe fuEu çdkj gSµi kmyh dk v i ot Zu fu; e

bl ds vuql kj fdl h i jek.kq ds fdl h Hkh nks bysDVªkuksa ds fy, pkjksa DokaVe l a[ ; kvksa dk eku , d l eku ughagks l drkA ; fn fdl h i j ckdh rhuksa DokVe l a[ ; kvksa dk eku l eku gks Hkh t k; ] fi Qj Hkh fLi u DokaVe l a[ ; k dkeku ($1@2 o µ1@2) l eku ugha gks l drkAgq. M dk fu; e

bl ds vuql kj fdl h Hkh vkfcZVy esa bysDVªku bl çdkj Hkjrs gSa fd v; qfXer bysDVªkuksa dh l a[ ; k ft uds fLi ul eku gks l cl s vfèkd gS vFkkZr~ fdl h Hkh vkfcZVy ds mi dks' kksa esa bysDVªku l oZçFke , dµ, d djds t krs gSa rFkkckn esa ; qXe cukrs gSaA

os i jek.kq ft uesa bysDVªku v; qfXer jgrs gSa os i jkpqEcdh; rFkk os i jek.kq ft uesa bysDVªku ; qfXer jgrs gSavuqpqEcdh; dgykrs gSA

fdl h èkkrq dh l rg dks çdk' k ds l e{k j [ kus i j gksus okyk bysDVªkuksa dk mRl t Zu çdk' k fo| qr çHkkodgykrk gS] mRl ft Zr bysDVªkuksa dks i QksVksa bysDVªku dgrs gSAog U; wure foHko ft l i j i QksVksa fo| qr èkkjk ' kwU; gks t krh gS] çfrjksèkd foHko dgykrk gSAj sfM; ks, fDVfoVh (Radioactiviy)

çÑfr esa çkIr i nkFkZ t Sl sµ ; wjsfu; e] Fkksfj ; e] jsfM; e vkfn Lor% Hksnh ( Penetrating) fdj.ksa mRl ft Zr djrsjgrs gSA , sl s i nkFkksZa dks jsfM; ks, fDVo i nkFkZ vkSj i nkFkksZa ds bl xq.k dks jsfM; ksa, fDVork dgrs gSA Úkal hl h oSKkfud gsujhcSdqjy us 1896 bZ- esa vpkud jsfM; ks, fDVork dh [ kskt dh FkhA

jsfM; ksa, fDVo i nkFkZ dh ml ek=kk dks , d cSdqjy (ek=kd) dgk t krk gS t ks çfr l sds.M , d fo?kVu ; k



8

SCIECNE

fodj.k dk mRl t Zu djrh gSA 1975 bZ- ds i woZ jsfM; ks, fDVork dh bdkbZ dks D; wjh dgk t krk FkkA fdl h jsfM; ks, fDVoi nkFkZ dh og ek=kk t ks çfr l sds.M 3-70X1010 fo?kVu djrh gS D; wjh dgykrh gSAj sfM; ks, fDVork dh [ kskt

l oZçFke gsujh cSdqjy us ç; ksx djrs gq, i k; k fd ; wjsfu; e ds fudV dkys dkxt esa fyi Vh i QksVksxzki Qh IysVdkyh i M+ x; hA bl l s bUgksus fu"d"kZ fudkyk fd ; wjfu; e l s , Dl fdj.kksa t Sl h vn‘ ” ; fdj.ksa fudyrh jgrh gS ft ui j rki , oa nkc dk çHkko ugh i M+rk gSA bUgha ds uke i j çkjEHk esa bu fdj.kksa dks cSdqjy fdj.ksa vkSj ckn esajsfM; ks, fDVo fdj.ksa dgk t kus yxkA eSMe D; wjh o f' eV us Lor% fo?kVu dk xq.k Fkksfj ; e esa Hkh i k; kA eSMe D; wjh oi sjh D; wjh us fi pCyS.M l s ; wjsfu; e l s 30 yk[ k xquk vfèkd jsfM; ks, fDVo rÙo jsfM; e dh [ kkst dhA bl ds i ”pkr~ eSMeD; wjh us i ksyksfu; e uked jsfM; ks, fDVo rÙo dh [ kkst dhA orZeku esa yxHkx 40 çkÑfrd rFkk vusd Ñf=kejsfM; ks, fDVo rÙoksa dh [ kkst gks pqdh gSAj sfM; ks, fDVo fd j . ksa ( Radioactive Rays)

1902 bZ- esa jnj i QksMZ us jsfM; ks, fDVo rÙo dks ' kh' ksa ds çdks"B ( Lead Chamber) esa j [ kdj fudyus okyhfdj.kksa dks fo| qr {ks=k l s xqt kj dj fudyus okyh fdj.kksa dk vè; ; u fd; k vkSj bUgsa , sYi Qk ( ±) chVk ( ²) xkek ( ³)uke l s vfHkfgr fd; k x; kA, sYi Qk fd j . k1 ; s èkukosf"kr gksrh gSa bu i j nks bdkbZ èku vkos"k gksrk gS ; s ghfy; e ukfHkd gh (He2$) gksrs gSa budk nzO; eku

gkbMªkst u i jek.kq nzO; eku dk pkj xquk gksrk gSA2 ; s fo| qr pqEcdh; {ks=k esa Í .kkosf"kr IysV dh vksj eqM t krh gSA3 budk osx 2-3X 109 l seh@l sds.M (çdk"k ds osx dk 1@10) gksrk gSA4 nzO; eku vfèkd gksus ds dkj.k xfrt Åt kZ vfèkd gksrh gSA5 budh Hksnu {kerk xkek , oa xhVk fdj.kksa dh v i s{kk de gksrh gSA vr% 1 feeh eksVh , ywfefu; e pknj dks Hksn

ugha i krh gSA6 i QksVksxzki Qh IysV dks vR; fèkd çHkkfor djrh gSA7 , Yi Qk fdj.ksa dqN i nkFkksZ l s Vdjkdj Li QqjnhfIr mRi Uu djrh gSA8 xSl ksa dks vk; uhÑr djus dh çcy {kerk gksrh gS ; s chVk fdj.kksa dh v i s{kk 100 xquk o xkek dh rqyuk esa

10]000 xquk vk; uu {kerk j [ krh gSAchVk fd j . ksa9 rhoz osx l s pyus okyk bysDVªku i qat gksrh gSA bu i j Í .kkos"k gksrk gSA10 i QksVksxzki Qh IysV i j , Yi Qk fdj.kksa dh v i s{kk vfèkd çHkko Mkyrh gSA11 budh Hksnu {kerk , Yi Qk fdj.kksa l s 100 xquk vfèkd gksrh gSa12 budk osx 2-79X 1010 l seh@l sds.M (yxHkx çdk"k ds osx ds cjkcj) gksrk gSA13 xSl ksa dks vk; fur djus dk xq.k gksrk gSA14 dqN i nkFkksZa l s Vdjkus i j , Yi Qk fdj.kksa l s de Li QqjnhfIr mRi Uu djrh gSAxkek fd j . k15 xkek fdj.ksa fo| qr pqEcdh; rjaxs gksrh gSA budh rjax nSè; Z l cl s de gksrh gSA16 ; s vkos"k j fgr gksus ds dkj.k fo| qr {ks=k , oa pqEcdh; {ks=k esa fo{ksfi r ugha gksrh gSA



9

SCIECNE

17 ; s i QksVksxzki Qh IysV dks , Yi Qk , oa chVk fdj.kksa dh v i s{kk vfèkd çHkko Mkyrh gSA18 budh Hksnu {kerk vfèkd gksrh gS ; s 100 l seh eksVh , Y; wfefu; e pknj dks Hkh Hksn l drh gSA19 budk osx çdk' k ds osx cjkcj gksrk gSAÑf=ke j sfM; ks, fDVork20 Ñf=ke fofèk; ksa }kjk LFkk; h rÙoksa dks jsfM; ks, fDVo rÙoksa esa i fjofrZr djuk Ñf=ke jsfM; ks, fDVo dgykrk gSA

l oZçFke 1934 bZ- esa vkbjhu D; wjh (eSMe D; wjh dh i q=kh) o muds i fr , i Q- t ksfy; ksV us Ñf=ke jsfM; ks, fDVorkdh [ kkst dh FkhAÑf=ke j sfM; ks, fDVo rÙo budk mi ; ksxvk; ksMhu µ131 FkkbjkW; M jksx esai QkLi Qksjl v fLFkjksxksa esadksckYV &60 efLr"d V~; wej , oa dSal j ds bykt esal ksfM; e &24 jDr çokg dk osx uki us esa

ukfHkdh; fo?kVu (Nuclear Decay)fdl h rÙo ds i jek.kq ukfHkd ds fo?kfVr gksus dks ukfHkdh; fo?kVu dgrs gSA jsfM; ks, fDVo rÙoksa esa ukfHkdh; fo?kVu

Lor% gksrk gSa t cfd vU; rÙoksa esa rhozxkeh d.kksa dh ckSNkj djkds Ñf=ke #i l s ukfHkdh; fo?kVu djk; k t krk gSAukfHkdh; fo?kVu ds çdkj

, Yi Qk d.k ; k ghfy; e ( He) ukfHkd ds mRl t Zu dh çfØ; k dks , Yi Qk fo?kVu dgrs gSA , Yi Qk d.k esa nksçksVku rFkk nks U; wVªku gksrs gSa vr% fdl h ukfHkd l s , Yi Qk d.k ds mRl t Zu l s ml ds nzO; eku o vkos” k esa nks deh gksrhgS vFkkZr~ rÙo ds i jek.kq Øekad esa nks rFkk Hkkj esa pkj vadksa dh deh gks t k; sxhA ± d.kksa dk fo?kVu mu Hkkjh ukfHkdksaesa gksrk gS t gka çksVku rFkk ukfHkd ds chp dk fo| qr LFkSfrd çfrd"kZ.k cy cgqr vfèkd gksrk gSA bl fØ; k esa Åt kZmRi Uu gksrh gSA ; g Åt kZ xfrt ds #i esa i fjofrZr gks t krh gSA1 chVk ( ²) fo?kVuµ ; g Í .kkosf"kr bysDVªku d.k gS vr% bl ds fo?kVu ds i ' pkr~ ukfHkd dk i jek.kq Øekad

, d ; wfuV c<+ t krk gS i jUrq i jek.kq nzO; eku v i fjofrZr jgrk gSA bl çfØ; k esa l eHkkjh ( Isobars) mRi Uu gksrsgSA bl çfØ; k esa ukfHkd dk nzO; eku c<+ jgk gS] vr% vkbal Vhu ds fl ¼kUr ds vuql kj nzO; eku Åt kZ esai fjofrZr gksxk vkSj Åt kZ mRi Uu gksxhA

2 xkek fo?kVu ( ³) fo?kVu µ ; s fo| qr pqEcdh; fofdj.k gS t ks ukfHkdh; vkos"k ds i qufoZrj.k l s mRi Uu gksrhgSA xkek fdj.ksa Åt kZ i QksVkWu gksrh gSA i jUrq xkek fdj.kksa dh rjax nSè; Z] i QksVkuks dh rjax nSè; Z l s dki Qh NksVhgksrh gSA xkek d.kksa ds mRl t Zu l s ukfHkd ds vkos” k rFkk nzO; eku esa dksbZ i fjorZu ugha gksrk i jUrq bysDVªkfudfoU; kl cny t krk gSA

oxZ ; k l ewg foLFkki u fu; et c jsfM; ks, fDVo rÙo ds i jek.kq esa l s , d , Yi Qk ( ±) d.k fudyrk gS rks u; s i jek.kq dk i jek.kq Hkkj i gys

i jek.kq l s 4 bdkbZ de gks t krk gS rFkk bl dk i jek.kq Øekad i gys l s 2 bdkbZ de gks t krk gSA , sl s esa fufeZr rÙodk vkorZ l kj.kh esa LFkku i woZ dh v i s{kk nks LFkku cka; h vksj pyk t krk gSA

t c jsfM; ks, fDVo rÙo ds i jek.kq esa l s , d chVk ( ²) d.k fudyrk gS rks u; s i jek.kq ds vkos' k ( i jek.kqØekad) esa , d bdkbZ dh of¼ gks t krh gSa chVk d.k dk Hkkj ux.; gksrk gS vr% u; s i jek.kq Hkkj esa dksbZ i fjorZuugha gksrk gSA vkorZ l kj.kh esa u; k i jek.kq , d LFkku nk; ha vksj pyk t krk gSAv¼Z vk; q ( Half Life Period)



10

SCIECNE

fdl h jsfM; ks, fDVo rÙo dh çkjfEHkd ek=kk dk vkèkk Hkkx fo?kfVr gksus esa ft ruk l e; yxrk gS] ml s rÙodh v¼Z vk; q dgrs gSa bl s t1/2 l s çnf' kZr fd; k t krk gSA jsfM; ks, fDVo i nkFkZ dh v¼Z vk; q dqN l sds.Mksa l s ysdjyk[ kksa o"kksZ rd gkss l drh gSA dqN rÙoksa dh v¼Z vk; q fuEuor~ gSµj sfM; ks, fDVo rÙo l adsr v¼Z vk; qi ksyksfu; e & 212 84PO212 3X10-7 l sa-czksehu µ 80 35Br80 18 fe-czksehu & 82 35Br82 35-9 ?kaVkl YQj & 35 16S

15 867 fnudkscky & 60 27CO60 5-2 o"kZgkbMªkst u µ 3 1H

3 12-26 o"kZ; wjsfu; e µ 235 92u

235 7.04X108 o"kZt hok' eksa er i sM+ i kSèkksa vkfn dh vk; q dk vadu ( Dating) dkcZu ds }kjk rFkk i Foh o i qjkuh pV~Vkuksa vkfndh vk; q dk vadu ; wjsfu; e ds }kjk fd; k t krk gSA

rÙoksa dk oxhZdj . kvc rd 112 rÙoksa dh [ kkst gks pqdh gS vkSj u; s rÙoksa dh [ kkst t kjh gSA brus rÙoksa ds xq.kksa dks ; kn j [ kuk

l EHko ugha gS , sl s esa oSKkfudksa us vè; ; u dks l jy , oa Øec¼ cukus ds fy, rÙoksa dks oxhZÑr djus dk ç; kl çkjEHkfd; kA l eku HkkSfrd , oa jkl k; fud xq.k okys rÙoksa dks , d gh oxZ esa j[ kus dk ç; kl fd; k x; k ft l esa muds xq.kksadk vè; ; u l jyrki woZd gks l dsA bl fn' kk esa ot hZfy; l ] çkmV] M~; wek] U; wySaM] yksFkjes; j , oa esaMyhi Q o cksj vkfndk ç; kl l jkguh; jgk ft l l s vkxs pydj vkèkqfud vkorZl kj.kh dk fuekZ.k fd; k x; kA mi ; qZDr oSKkfudksa esa l cl sl qO; ofLFkr oxhZdj.k #l h oSKkfud esaMyhi Q us fd; kA bUgksusa , d fu; e fn; k ft l s esaMyhi Q dk vkorZ fu; e dgrsgSA bl fu; e ds vuql kj] ^rÙoksa ds HkkSfrd rFkk jkl k; fud xq.k muds i jek.kq Hkkjksa ds vkorhZ i Qyu gksrs gS]** vFkkZr~; fn rÙoksa dks muds i jek.kq Hkkjksa ds c<+rs Øe esa O; ofLFkr fd; k t k; s] rks , d fu; fer vUrjky ds i ' pkr~ l ekuxq.kèkeZ okys rÙoksa dh i qujkofÙk gksrh gSA ft l s vkorhZ i Qyu dgrs gSAesaMyhi Q dh vkorZ l kj . kh dh fo' ks"krk, a

ft l l e; esaMyhi Q us vkorZ l kj.kh dk fuekZ.k fd; k Fkk ml l e; 60 rÙo Kkr Fks vkxs vkSj rÙoksa dk i rkpyus i j mUgksus l a' kksfèkr vkorZ l kj.kh çLrqr dhA bl esa ukS mèokZèkj (oxZ) l kr {kSfrt i afDr; ka (vkorZ) gSA

vkorksZ dh fo' ks"krk, a1 çFke vkorZ esa ek=k nks rÙo gSa bl s vfr y?kq vkorZ dgrs gSA2 f}rh; , oa r rh; esa 8µ8 rÙo gSa bl s y?kq vkorZ dgrs gSA3 pkSFks o i k¡posa vkorZ esa 18µ18 rÙo gSa bl s nh?kZ vkorZ dgrs gSA4 NBs vkorZ esa 32 rÙo gSa bl s vfr nh?kZ vkorZ rFkk l krok¡ vkorZ 20 rÙoksa ds l kFk vi w.kZ vkorZ gSAl a; kst drk esa i fjorZu1- y?kq vkorksZ ds rÙoksa dh l a; kst drk] gkbMªkst u ds l ki s{k i gys 1 l s 4 rd c<+rh gS i qu% ?kVdj , d gks t krh gSA2- y?kq vkorksa esa rÙoksa dh l a; kst drk vkDl ht u ds l ki s{k 1 l s 7 rd c<++rh gSAèkkfRod v èkkfRod xq. k esa i fjorZu

vkorksZ esa ck; ha vksj l s nk; h vksj c<+us i j rÙoksa ds èkkfRod xq.kksa esa deh gksrh gS vkSj vèkkfRod xq.kksa esa o¼gksrh gSA bl h çdkj ck; h vksj l s nk; ha vksj pyus i j fo| qr èkukRedrk esa deh , oa Í .kkRedrk esa o¼ gksrh gSA



11

SCIECNE

rÙoksa dh çÑfr esa i fjorZuvkorZ esa rÙoksa ds vkDl kbMksa dk xq.k ck; sa l s nk; sa t kus i j {kkjh; rk l s vEyh; rk dh vksj c<+rk gSA

rÙoksa ds fod. kZ l EcUèkf}rh; , oa r rh; vkorZ ds rÙoksa esa , d çdkj dk fod.kZ l acaèk i k; k t krk gSAl ewgksa dh l kekU; fo” ks"krk, a

vkoZÙk l kj.kh esa mèokZèkj 9 [ kkusa gSa bUgsa l ewg dgrs gSA esaMyhi Q us v i uh l kj.kh esa dsoy vkB oxZ gh cuk; sFks] ckn esa ' kwU; oxZ t ksM+k x; kA ' kwU; rFkk vkBosa oxZ dks NksM+dj vU; l Hkh oxZ nks mi oxksZa , rFkk ch esa ck¡Vkx; k gSA budh l kekU; fo' ks"krk, a fuEu gS µ

1- fdl h oxZ dh oxZ l a[ ; k ml oxZ ds rÙoksa dh vkDl ht u ds l kFk l a; kst drk dks çnf' kZr djrh gSA bl dkvi okn v"Ve oxZ gSA

2- , d gh mi oxZ ds rÙo vki l esa xq.kksa esa yxHkx l eku gksrs gSa i jUrq nwl js mi oxZ ds rÙoksa ds xq.kksa l s çk; % fHkUugksrs gSA

3- mi oxZ esa i jek.kq Hkkj ds c<+us ds l kFkµl kFk rÙoksa dh èkkfRod çÑfr c<+rh gSA4- mi oxZ esa Åi j l s uhps t kus i j vkDl kbMksa dk {kkjh; xq.k c<+rk vEyh; xq.k ?kVrk gSA5- fdl h mi oxZ esa Åi j l s uhps pyus i j vkèkrqvksa ds gkbMªkbMksa dk LFkkf; Ro ?kVrk gSA6- , d gh mi oxZ ds rÙoksa ds i jek.kq f=kT; k, a] èku fo| qr xq.k vkfn Åi j l s uhps dh vksj t kus i j c<+rs gSa t cfd

fo| qr Í .kkRedrk] xyukad rFkk DoFkukad Åi j l s uhps dh vksj t kus i j ?kVrs gSAesaMyhi Q dh vkorZ l kj.kh vè; ; u esa l qfoèkk] vuql aèkku esa l gk; rrk] u; s rÙoksa ds [ kkst dh çsj.kk] i jek.kq Hkkjdk Kku djkus ds l kFkµl kFk =kqfVi w.kZ i jek.kq Hkkjksa esa l a' kksèku djus esa mi ; ksxh gSAgkbMªkst u vfuf' pr fLFkfr] l eLFkkfudksa dks mfpr LFkku i j u j [ kuk] l eku xq.kksa okys rÙoksa dks fHkUu rFkkvl eku xq.kksa okys rÙoksa dks , d gh mi oxZ esa j[ kk t kuk] nqyZHk enk rÙoksa dks LFkku u nsuk] dghaµdghavl kekU; l a; kst drk dks vfèkd egÙo nsuk esaMyhi Q dh vkorZ l kj.kh ds nks"k gSA

vkèkqfud ; k nhèkkZdkj v korZ l kj . khesaMyhi Q dh vkorZ l kj.kh ds nks"kksa dks jkx] ouZj eksTys] cjh vkfn us feydj nwj fd; kA eksTys us vkèkqfudvkorZ fu; e fn; kA rÙoksa ds HkkSfrd] jkl ; fud xq.k muds i jek.kq Øekadksa ds vkorhZ i Qyu gksrs gSa vFkkZr~ ; fnrÙoksa dks muds i jek.kq Øekad ds c<+rs gq, Øe esa O; ofLFkr fd; k t k; s] rks , d fuf” pr vUrjky ds cknl eku xq.k okys rÙoksa dh i qujkofÙk gksrh gSA

1- v kèkqfud vkorZ l kj . kh dh fo' ks"krk, a µ7- bl esa Hkh l kr {kSfrt [ kkus ; k vkorZ gSA8- çR; sd vkorZ dk çFke rÙo {kkj èkkrq rFkk vfUre rÙo mRÑ"V xSl gSA çFke vkorZ esa nks rÙo ,oa l krok¡ vkorZ

vi w.kZ gSA9- vfØ; xSl ksa dks vkorZ l kj.kh ds nk; ha vksj vUr esa ' kwU; l ewg esa j[ kk x; k gSA10- l kj.kh esa vfèkd èkkfRod rÙoksa dks cka; h vksj rFkk vfèkd vèkkfRo rÙoksa dks nka; h vksj j [ kk x; k gSA11- l kj.kh dks bysDVªkafud foU; kl ds vkèkkj i j pkj Cyk¡dksa s, p, d, f esa foHkkft r fd; k x; k gSA12- l aØe.k rÙoksa dks d Cykd esa j[ kk x; k gSA13- vkorZ VI , oa VII ds 14µ14 rÙoksa dks vkorZ l kj.kh ds uhps nks Jsf.k; ksa es j [ kk x; k gSa bUgsa Øe' k% ysUFksukbM

, oa , sfDVukbM rÙo dgrs gSA



12

SCIECNE

14- vkorZ l kj.kh esa mèokZèkj [ kkuksa dh l a[ ; k 18 i jUrq oxksZa dh l a[ ; k 16 gSA bu oxksZa dk Øe Øe' k% I A, II A,

III B ........... VII B, VIII, I B, II B, III A........ VIII A rFkk ' kwU; l ewgAv kèkqfud vkokZ l kj . kh ds nks"k

esaMyhi Q dh rjg bl l kj .kh esa Hkh ysUFksukbM , oa , fDVukbM rÙoksa dks vkorZ l kj.kh esa uhps j[ kk x; k gSA1 bl vkorZ l kj.kh l s dqN rÙoksa dk bysDVªkfud foU; kl l gh çnf' kZr ugha gksrk gSA2 vkBosa oxZ ds rÙoksa dks rhu mèokZèkj [ kkuksa esa j[ kuk mfpr ugha gSAesaMyhi Q dh rqyuk esa v kèkqfudvkorZ l kj . kh ds xq. k3 bysDVªkWfud foU; kl dh l ekurk ds dkj.k gkbMªkst u dk LFkku oxZ I A esa fuf' pr gks x; k gSA4 i jek.kq Øekad ds Øe esa j[ kus l s l eLFkkfudksa dks , d gh oxZ esa j[ ks t kus dk nks"k l ekIr gks t krk gSA5 vkèkqfud vkorZ l kj.kh esa , o ch mi oxksZ dks vyxµvyx dj fn; k x; k gS bl l s esaMyhi Q l kj.kh esa dqN

vl eku rÙoksa dks , d gh oxZ esa j[ ksa t kus dk nks"k Lor% l ekIr gks t krk gSAv kèkqfud vkorZ l kj . kh esa rÙoksa ds çeq[ k vkorhZ xq. k

rÙoksa dks i jek.kq Øekad ds c<+rs gq, Øe esa j[ kus l s muds cká dks' k ds l eku bysDVªfud foU; kl ds rÙo]vkorZ l kj.kh esa] fu; fer vUrj l s vkrs jgrs gSA ft l ds dkj.k rÙoksa ds xq.kksa esa Hkh vkofrZrk i k; h t krh gSA budsvkorhZ xq.k fuEu gS µ1 vkorZ l kj.kh ds fdl h vkorZ esa ck; sa l s nk; s c<+us i j i jek.kq dk vkdkj de gksrk t krk gSa2 fdl h oxZ esa Åi j l s uhps t kus i j rÙo ds i jek.kq Øekad esa t Sl sµt Sl s o¼ gksrh gS oSl s vkdkj c<+rk t krk gSA3 vkorZ l kj.kh ds fdl h vkorZ esa ck; sa l s nk; sa t kus i j fo| qr Í .kkRedrk c<+rh gS t cfd oxZ esa Åi j l s uhps

vkus i j fo| qr Í .kkRedrk ?kVrh gSA4 vkorksZa esa ck; sa l s nk; sa c<+usa i j ukfHkdh; vkos' k c<+rk t krk gS vkSj i jek.kq vkdkj ?kVrk t krk gS bl l s oká

bysDVªkuksa i j ukfHkdh; vkd"kZ.k esa o¼ gksrh t krh gSA5 fdl h oxZ esa Åi j l s uhps t kus i j i jek.kq vkdkj esa o¼ gksrh t krh gS bl l s ckgjh d{kk esa bysDVªkuksa i j

ukfHkdh; i dM+ det ksj gksrh t krh gSAukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu

Hkkjh ukfHkd okys i jek.kqvksa dk nks yxHkx l eku nzO; eku okys ukfHkd esa foHkDr gks t kuk ukfHkdh; fo[ kaMudgykrk gSA l oZçFke t eZu oSKkfud vkWVksgkWu ,oa LVªkWl eSu us 1939 bZ- ; wjsfu; e i jek.kq i j eUn xfr ds U; wVªkWu dhckSNkj djds bl ds ukfHkd dks nks yxHkx cjkcj nzO; eku okys ukfHkdksa esa foHkDr fd; kA bl çfØ; k esa vR; fèkd ek=kkesa Åt kZ rFkk nks ; k rhu U; wVªku mRl ft Zr gksrs gSA bl vfHkfØ; k dks ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu rFkk bl l s çkIr Åt kZ dksukfHkdh; Åt kZ dgrs gSAçR; sd ; wjsfu; e vfèkd ds fo[ k.Mu l s yxHkx 200 Mev Åt kZ mRi Uu gksrh gS ft l esal okZfèkd Å"ek rFkk ' ks"k çdk' k] xkek fdj.ksa rFkk mRi kfnr ukfHkd , oa U; wVªkuksa dh xfrt Åt kZ ds #i esa gksrh gSA ; gÅt kZ nzO; eku {kfr ds dkj.k mRi Uu gksrh gSA nzO; eku dh ; g {kfr vkbUl Vhu ds nzO; eku Åt kZ l ehdj.k ds ( E =

” MC2) vuql kj i fjofrZr gksrh gSAi j ek. kq ukfHkd dk vLFkkf; Ro

ukfHkd ds vUnj nks cyµ fLFkj oS| qr cy (çksVkuksa esa i jLi j çfrd"kZ.k) , oa ukfHkdh; cy (çksVkuksa rFkkU; wVªkuksa esa i jLi j vkd"kZ.k) dk; Z djrs gSA ukfHkdh; cyksa ds dkj.k mRi Uu vkd"kZ.k dsoy rHkh çHkkoh gksrk gS t cukfHkd ds d.k vR; ar U; wu nwjh i j gksA pw¡fd ; wjsfu; e 235 ds ukfHkd esa ukfHkd ds d.kksa ds chp dh nwjh vfèkd



13

SCIECNE

gksrh gS vr% ukfHkdh; cyksa dk i fjek.k de gksrk gSA t cfd fLFkjµoS| qr cy ds dkj.k çfrd"kZ.k cy dk i fjek.krqyuk esa vfèkd jgrk gSA bl h dkj.k ; wjsfu; e µ 235 ukt qd l Urqyu l s c¡èkk jgrk gS ft l ds dkj.k bl dh çofÙkvLFkkbZ cu t krh gSAÜka[ kyk v fHkfØ; k

; wjsfu; e 235 i j U; wVªkWu dh ckSNkj djus i j ukfHkd nks cjkcj Hkkx esa VwV t krk gSa ft l l s 200 Mev Åt kZ , oarhu u; s U; wVªku fudyrs gS] ; s u; s U; wVªku ; wjsfu; e ds vU; rhu i jek.kqvksa dk fo[ k.Mu djrs gSa i QyLo#i 9 U; wVªkWumRi Uu gksrs gSA t ks vU; 9 i jek.kqvksa dk fo[ k.Mu djrs gSA bl çdkj ukfHkd ds fo[ k.Mu dh , d Üka[ kyk cu t krhgSA bl çdkj dh fØ; k dks Üka[ kyk vfHkfØ; k dgrs gSA ; g fØ; k rc rd gksrh jgrh gS t c rd l Ei w.kZ ; wjsfu; efo[ kf.Mr ugha gks t krk gSA Üka[ kyk vfHkfØ; k nks çdkj gh gksrh gSa µ fu; af=kr o vfu; af=kd Üka[ kyk vfHkfØ; kAfu; af=kr Üka[ kyk v fHkfØ; k

; fn ; wjsfu; e 235 ds ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu vfHkfØ; k ds çkjEHk esa mRl ft Zr U; wVªkWuksa dh xfr dks bl çdkjfu; af=kr fd; k t k l ds fd Üka[ kyk vfHkfØ; k gksrh jgs i jUrq ml dh nj c<+us u i k; sa] rks , sl h Üka[ kyk vfHkfØ; k dksfu; af=kr Üka[ kyk vfHkfØ; k dgrs gSa bl l s eqDr Åt kZ dks fu; af=kr nj l s çkIr fd; k t k l drk gS] ft l dk mi ; ksx ekuorkds fodkl ds fy, fd; k t krk gSA bl esa eUnd ds #i esa Hkkjh t y ( D2O) , oa xzsi QkbV vkfn dk ç; ksx fd; k t krkgSA fu; af=kr Üka[ kyk vfHkfØ dk mi ; ksx ukfHkdh; fj , DVj ; k i jek.kq HkV~Vh esa fd; k t krk gSAv fu; af=kr Üka[ kyk v fHkfØ; k ( Uncontrolled Chain Reaction)

ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu fØ; k dh nj dks fdl h Hkh çdkj l s t c fu; af=kr ugha fd; k t krk vkSj çkIr Åt kZ dksfouk' kdkjh gksus l s cpk; k ugha t k l drk rks gksus okyh fØ; k vfu; af=kr Üka[ kyk vfHkfØ; k dgykrh gSA U-235 dsfo[ k.Mu dh nj çkjEHk gksus ds 10µ5 l sds.M ckn 500 xquk , oa 11X10µ15 l sds.M ckn 1000 xquk rd c<+ t krh gSAi jek.kq ce bl h fl ¼kUr i j dk; Z djrk gSAukfHkdh; l ay; u

t c nks ; k nks vfèkd gYds ukfHkd] vR; fèkd mPp rki i j i jLi j l a; ksx djds Hkkjh ukfHkd dk fuekZ.k djrsgSa bl çfØ; k dks ukfHkdh; l ay; u dgrs gSA ukfHkdh; l ay; u dh çfØ; k vfr mPp rki eku yxHkx 2X1070C i j gksrhgS ft l dkj.k bl s rki ukfHkdh; vfHkfØ; k Hkh dgrs gSApkj çksVkuksa ds l ay; u l s , d ghfy; e ukfHkd] nks i kt hVªkWu] nks U; wfVªuksa rFkk 26-7Mev Åt kZ çkIr gksrh gSA l ay; u l sçkIr Åt kZ] fo[ k.Mu l s çkIr Åt kZ (200 Mev) l s de gSA okLro esa , sl k ugha gSA l eku nzO; eku ds gYds ukfHkdksads l ay; u l s çkIr Åt kZ Hkkjh ukfHkdksa ds fo[ k.Mu l s çkIr Åt kZ l s vfèkd gksrh gS D; ksafd gYds i nkFkZ ds , dkadnzO; eku esa i jek.kq dh l a[ ; k Hkkjh i nkFkZ ds , dkad nzO; eku esa i jek.kqvksa dh l a[ ; k l s cgqr vfèkd gksrh gSA gkbMªkst uce ukfHkdh; l ay; u ds fl ¼kUr i j cuk; k x; k gSA

ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu v kSj ukfHkdh; l ay; u es v Ur jukfHkdh; fo[ k. Mu ukfHkdh; l ay; u

1- ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu esa U; wVªkWu dh ckSNkj djus l s Hkkjh 1- ukfHkdh; l ay; u esa nks gYds ukfHkd i jLi j l a; qDrukfHkd yxHkx l eku nzO; eku ds nks ukfHkdksa esa gksdj , d Hkkjh ukfHkd cukrs gSAfoHkDr gks t krk gSA

2- ; g v fHkfØ; k l kèkkj.k rki i j gksrh gSA 2- bl fØ; k dks çkjEHk djus ds fy, mPp rki(yxHkx 2X107 OC) dh vko' ; drk i M+rh gSA

3- bl fØ; k esa vR; fèkd Åt kZ (yxHkx 200 Mev) 3- bl esa yxHkx 26-7 Mev Åt kZ mRi Uu gksrh gSAmRi Uu gksrh gSA



14

SCIECNE

4- ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu esa Ja[ kyk v fHkfØ; k, a gksrh gSA 4- ukfHkdh; l ay; u esa Üka[ kyk v fHkfØ; k, a ugha gksrh gSA5- bu v fHkfØ; kvksa dks ukfHkdh; fj, DVj esa fu; fU=r fd; k 5- bl dksa fu; fU=kr ugha fd; t k l drk gSA

t k l drk gS] ft l l s mRi Uu Åt kZ dk mi ; ksx jpukReddk; ksZ esa fd; k t k l drk gSA

6- i jek.kq ce bl h fl ¼kUr i j dk; Z djrk gS 6- gkbMªkst u ce dk fuekZ.k bl h fl ¼kUr i j fd; k x; k gSA

ukfHkdh; Åt kZukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu rFkk ukfHkdh; l ay; u fØ; k esa eqDr Åt kZ dks ukfHkdh; Åt kZ (Nuclear Energy) dgrs gSA

ukfHkdh; Åt kZ ds mi ; ksx1- ukfHkdh; Åt kZ dk mi ; ksx fo| qr ' kfDr i Snk djus esa fd; k t krk gSA2- ; kfU=kd Åt kZ esa i fjofrZr djds bl dk mi ; ksx eksVj] jsy rFkk t gkt vkfn pykus esa fd; k t krk gSA3- ukfHkdh; fj , DVj }kjk ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu dks fu; fU=kr djds vusd jsfM; ksaµ, sfDVo l eLFkkfud cuk; s x; s gS]

ft udk mi ; ksx fpfdRl k] fofHkUu çdkj dh oSKkfud [ kkst ksa rFkk Ñf"k ds {ks=k esa fd; k t krk gSAt hok' e bZèku dh rqyuk esa ukfHkdh; Åt kZ ds ykHk rFkk gkfu1. Åt kZ ds ykHk µ1- ukfHkdh; bZèku dh FkksMhµl h ek=kk vR; fèkd ukfHkdh; Åt kZ mRi Uu djrh gS] t cfd t hok' e bZèku] t Sl s

dks; ys ds ngu l s çkIr Åt kZ ukfHkdh; Åt kZ dh rqyuk esa cgqr de gksrh gSA2- ukfHkdh; Åt kZ }kjk l apkfyr fo| qr l a; U=k esa ckjµckj ukfHkdh; bZèku Mkyus dh vko' ; drk ugha gksrh gS]

t cfd t hok' e bZèku l s pyus okys fct yh ?kjksa esa dks; yk ( t hok' e bZèku) ckjµckj Mkyuk i M+rk gSA2. t hok' e bZèku dh v i s{kk ukfHkdh; Åt kZ dh gkfu; ka µ3- ukfHkdh; Åt kZ ds mRi knu esa vusd , sl s mRi kn mRi Uu gksrs gS] ft ul s gkfudkjd jsfM; ksµ, sfDVo fofdj.k (±µ

fdj.ksa] ²µ fdj.ksa] ³µ fdj.ksa) fudyrs gSA bu fofdj.kksa dh Hksnu {kerk cgqr vfèkd gksrh gSA ; g vR; fèkdek=kk esa bu fofdj.kksa l s ekuo ' kjhj mn~Hkkfl r (Expose) gks t k; s] rks ekuo ' kjhj dh dksf' kdk, a u"V gks t krhgSA bl ds foi jhr t hok' e bZèkuksa] t Sl s dks; ys ds mi ; ksx l s mRi Uu çnw"k.k bruk vfèkd gkfudkjd ugha gksrkgSA

4- ukfHkdh; Åt kZ ds mRi knu dh çfØ; k ds fofHkUu pj.kksa esa mRi Uu ukfHkdh; v i f' k"V i nkFkksZ ( Nuclear

Wastes) dk fui Vku djuk ( Disposal) vkl ku ugha gS] D; ksafd ; s ukfHkdh; v i f' k"V i nkFkZ jsfM; ksµ, sfDVogksrs gS] t ks gkfudkjd fofdj.k mRi Uu djrs gSA bl ds foi jhr t hok' e bZèkuksa ds mi ; ksx l s mRi Uu v i f' k"Vi nkFkksZa ( t Sl s dks; ys ds mi ; ksx l s mRi Uu jk[ k) ds fui Vku dh dksbZ fo' ks"k l eL; k ugha gSA

ukfHkdh; fj , DVjukfHkdh; fj , DVj , d fo' ks"k çdkj dh HkV~Vh gksrh gS] ft l dh l gk; rk l s ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu dh fu; fU=kr

Üka[ kyk vfHkfØ; k ( Controlled Chain Reaction) }kjk Åt kZ mRi Uu dh t krh gSA i gyk ukfHkdh; fj , DVj l u~ 1942 esaf' kdkaxks fo' ofo| ky; esa vesfjdu oSKkfud i QehZ vkSj muds l kfFk; ksa us cuk; k FkkA Hkkjr us v i uk i gyk fj , DVj l u~1952 esa eqEcbZ ds fudV VªWEcs esa cuk; k] ft l dk uke v Il jk* j [ kkAukfHkdh; fj , DVj ds eq[ ; Hkkx1 bZèku ( Fuel) µ ; g fj , DVj dk og Hkkx gS ft l ds fo[ k.Mu l s Åt kZ çkIr gksrh gSA bl ds fy, ; wjsfu; e

µ 235 ; k IywVksfu; e µ 239 ç; qDr fd; k t krk gSA



15

SCIECNE

2 eUnd ( Moderator) µ os i nkFkZ t ks ukfHkdh; fo[ k.Mu dh fØ; k dks eUn dj nsrs gSA bl ds fy, Hkkjht y ; k xzsi QkbV ç; qDr fd; k t krk gSA

3 ' khryd ( Coolant) µ fo[ k.Mu ds i ” pkr~ fuLr‘ r vR; fèkd ek=kk esa Å"ek dks fu; af=kr djus ds fy,ok; q] t y ; k CO2 dks fj , DVj esa çokfgr fd; k t krk gSA

4 fu; a=kd NM+sa ( Controlling Rods) µ Üka[ kyk vfHkfØ; k dks fu; af=kr djus ds fy, dSMfe; e dh NM+sa ç; ksxdh t krh gSA

5 i fj j {kd ( Shield) µ fj ,DVj l s fudyus okyh rhoz gkfudkjd fofdj.kksa l s vkl µi kl dke djus okysyksxksa dh l qj{kk gsrq dadjhV dh eksVh i fjj {kd nhokj cuk nh t krh gSA

6. ukfHkdh; fj , DVj ds mi ; ksx µ1- fo| qr mRi knu esa2- jkdsVksa ds mMku esa3- ok; q; ku] l eqnzh t gkt ] jsy o dkj[ kkus pykus esa4- jsfM; ks, sfDVo l eLFkkfud cukus esa5- IywVksfu; eµ239 dk mRi knu djus esa Hkh mi ; ksx fd; k t krk gSaA7- r ki h; rFkk czzhMj fj , DVj µ , sl s fj , DVj ft uesa eUnxkeh U; wVªkuksa }kjk ; wjsfu; eµ235 dk fo[ k.Mu djds

Åt kZ çkIr dh t krh gS mUgsa rki h; fj , DVj dgrs gSA, sl s fj ,DVj ft uesa mRi kfnr IywVksfu; eµ239 rFkk ; wjsfu; eµ233 dh ek=kk O; ; gksus okys i nkFkksZa ; wjsfu; eµ238rFkk Fkksfj ; eµ232 l s vfèkd gksrh gS czhMj fj, DVj dgykrs gSA

[ kfut , oa v ; Ld1 [ kfut ( Minerals) µ èkkrq ; k muds ; kSfxdksa l s ; qDr os çkÑfrd i nkFkZ t ks i Foh ry ds uhps i k; s t krs

gSa [ kfut dgykrs gSA2 v ; Ld ( Ores) µ os [ kfut ft ul s èkkrqvksa dks vkl kuh l s çkIr fd; k t k l drk gSA v; Ld dgykrs gSA

l Hkh v; Ld [ kfut gksrs gSa fdUrq l Hkh [ kfut v; Ld ugha gksrsA3 èkkrq µ v; Ldksa dk ' kqf¼dj.k djds mi ; ksx ; ksX; çkIr èkkRr~fod xq.kksa l s ; qDr oLrq dks èkkrq dgrsa gSA

çeq[ k èkkrq, a , oa muds v ; Ldèkkrq, a v ; Ld, Y; wfefu; e ckWDl l kbV dksjaMe i QsyLi kjØk; ksykbV , Y; qukbV dkvksyhu rkackD; wçkbV dkWi j Xykl dkWi j i k; jkbVfl Yoj #ch fl Yoj i k; jk xkbZjkbZVgkuZfl Yoj ft ad ft ad CysaM dSysekbuft adkbV i kjk fl usckj fVudsl hVsjkbV ysM xSyuk yksgkgsekVkbV eSXusVkbV fyeksukbV fl MsjkbVvk; ju i k; jkbV dSYdksi kbjkbV dksckYVLesYVkbV fufdy feysjkbV Øksfe; eØksekbV i kbjksY; ql kbV l hyksehfyu (eSxukbV); wjsfu; e dkusZVkbV fi pOySM



16

SCIECNE

/ krq, a , oa buds ; kSfxdksa dk mi ; ksx; kSfxd mi ; ksxi Qsjl vkWDl kbV gjk dkap cukus esa i Qsjl yo.kksa ds fuekZ.k esaAi Qsfjd ; kSfxd vkHkw"k.k i kWfy' k djus esa i Qsfjd yo.kksa ds fuekZ.k esai Qsfjd gkbMªksDl kbM ç; ksx' kkyk esa çfrdkjd ds #i esai Qsjl l Yi QsV jax m| ksx esa eksgj yo.k cukus esa L; kgh cukus esavk; ksMhu dhVk.kquk' kd ds #i esa vkS"kf/ ; ksa ds mRi knu esa fVapj vk; ksMhu cukus esajax m| ksx esaczksehu jax m| ksx esa fVapj xSl cukus esa çfrdkjd ds #i esa vkS"kf/ cukus esagkbMªksDyksfjd vEy Dyksjhu cukus esa vEyjkt cukus esa jax cukus esaDyksjhu gkbMªksDyksfjd vEy ds fuekZ.k esa eLVMZ xSl cukus esaCyhfpax i kmMj cukus esa di Mksa

, oa dkxt dks fojaft r djus esal YÝ; wfjd vEy i sVªksfy; e ds ' kqf¼dj.k esa LVksjst cSVjh esal Yi Qj MkbvkWDl kbV vkWDl hdkjd ds #i esa fojat d ds #i esal Yi Qj dhVk.kquk' kd ds #i esajcj oydsukbt djus esa ck#n cukus esa vkS"kf/ ds #i esaveksfu; k vkbl i QSDVªh esajs; kWu cukus esaukbVªl vkWDl kbV ' kY; &fpfdRl k esai QkWLi Qksjl yky i QkWLi Qksjl ] fn; kl ykbZ cukus esa ' osr i QkWLi Qksjl ] pwgs ekjus esa ' osr i QkWLi Qksjl ]

nok cukus esa i QkWLi Qksjl czkat cukus esaçksM~; wl j xSl HkV~Vh xeZ djus esa l Lrs bZ/ ku ds #i esa / krq fu"d"kZ.k esaokVj xSl bZ/ u ds #i esa csfYMax ds dk; Z esadkcZu MkbZvkWDl kbM l ksMk okVj cukus esa vkx cq>kus esa gkMZ LVhy ds fuekZ.k esadkcZu eksuksDl kbM COCI2 cukus esa t y xSl cukus esaxzsi QkbV bysDVªksM cukus esa yksgs ds cus i nkFkZ i j i kWfy' k djus esaghjk vkHkw"k.k&fuekZ.k esa dkap dkVus esafi QVdjh t y dks ' kq¼ djus esa vkS"kf/ fuekZ.k esa peM+s ds m| ksx esadi Mksa dh jaxkbZ esa, Y; qfefu; e l YQsV dkxt m| ksx esa di Mksa dh Ni kbZ esa vkx cq>kus esaejD; wfjd vkWDl kbM eyge cukus esa t gj ds #i esa FkekZehVj esa fl Unwj cukus esa veyxe cukus esaft ad l YQsV ; k mt yk FkksFkk vka[ kksa ds fy, yks' ku cukus esa dSfydksa Ni kbZ esa peZ m| ksx esaft ad DyksjkbV VSDl Vkby m| ksx esa dkcZfud l a' ys"k.k esa rkez] dkap vkfn dh l rgksa dks t ksM+us esaft ad cSVjh cukus esa gkbMªkst u cukus esaCyhfpax i kmMj dhVk.kquk' kd ds #i esa dkxt rFkk di Mksa ds fojat u esaIykLVj vkWi Q i sfj l ewfrZ cukus esa ' kY; &fpfdRl k esa i V~Vj cka/ kus esadSfY' k; e l Yi QsV ; k ft Il e IykLVj vkWi Q i sfj l cukus esa veksfu; e l Yi QsV cukus esal hesaV m| ksx esadSfY' k; e dkcksZusV pwuk cukus esa VwFki sLV cukus esavuknzZ eSXuhf' k; e DyksjkbM #bZ dh l t koV esa



17

SCIECNE

eSXuhf' k; e dkcksZusV nUr eat u cukus esa nok cukus esa ft Il e yo.k cukus esaeSXuhf' k; e ÝyS' k cYc cukus esa FkekZbV osfYMax cukus esaeSXuhf' k; e vkWDl kbM jcj i wjd ds #i esa ck; yjksa ds ç; ksx esaeSXuhf' k; e gkbMªksDl kbM phuh m| ksx esa eksykfl l l s phuh rS; kj djus esadkWi j l Yi QsV ; k uhyk FkksFkk dhVk.kquk' kd ds #i esa fo| qr l syksa esa dkWi j ds ' kqf¼dj.k esa jax cukus esaD; wfçd DyksjkbM t yµ' kqf¼dj.k esa èkkxs dh jaxkbZ esaD; qfçd vkWDl kbM Cyw rFkk xzhu Xykl µfuekZ.k esa i sVªksfy; e ds ' kqf¼dj.k esaD; wçl vkWDl kbM yky Xykl ds fuekZ.k esa i sfLVl kbM ds #i esadkWi j fct yh dk rkj crZu czkl rFkk czhat cukus esal ksfM; e ukbVªsV [ kkn ds #i esal ksfM; e l Yi QsV ; k Xykscj yo.kvkS"kfèk cukus esa l Lrk dkap cukus esal ksfM; e ckbdkcksZusV vfjuked ; a=kcsdjh m| ksx esa çfrdkadj ds #i esal ksfM; e dkcksZusV Xykl µfuekZ.k esa dkxt m| ksx esa t y dh dBksjrk gVkus esagkbMªkst u i jkWDl kbM vkWDl hdkjd ds #i esal hesaV

l hesaV , d vR; fèkd eghu pw.kZ gksrk gS] t ks i kuh ds l kFk feyus i j Bksl cu t krk gS vkSj dBksj #i èkkj.kdj ysrk gSA çkjfEHkd fel zokfl ; ksa us Hkou fuekZ.k esa ç; ksx fd; k t kus okyk , d , sl k i nkFkZ cuk; k Fkk ft l esa pwuk]fpduh feV~Vh ; k ft Il e gksrk Fkk vkSj t ks vkèkqfud l hesaV t Sl k gh FkkA jkseokfl ; ksa us Hkh pqus rFkk Tokykeq[ kh jk[ kl s l hesaV rS; kj fd; k] ft l dk ç; ksx ; wjksi esa bZVksa rFkk i RFkjksa dks t ksM+us ds fy, fd; k t krk FkkA l u~ 1824 esa , d fczfV” kbat hfu; j t ksl si Q , Li Mhu us pwuk i RFkj rFkk fpduh feV~Vh l s , d t ksM+us okyk , sl k u; k i nkFkZ cuk; k t ks vfèkd' kfDr” kkyh rFkk t yjksèkh FkkA ml us bl s i ksVZySaM l hesaV dgk] D; ksafd ; g jax esa i ksVZySaM ds pwuk i RFkj l s feyrkµt qyrkFkkA pwuk i RFkj rFkk fpduh feV~Vh l s l hesaV cukusa ds fy, pkj ewy l a?kVdksaµdSfYl ; e dkcksZusV (pwuk i RFkj l s)fl fydk , syqfeuk rFkk vk; ju vkWDl kbM (fpduh feV~Vh) dh vko' ; drk gksrh gSA i ksVZySaM l hesaV cukus ds fy,pwukµi RFkj rFkk fpduh feV~Vh dks pw.kZ ds #i esa i hl k t krk gSA bl ds i ' pkr~ bfPNr vuqi kr esa mUgsa feykdj ?kw.khZHkV~Vh esa mPprki i j xeZ fd; k t krk gSaA çkIr mRi kn ft l s fDyUdj dgrs gSa] dks l kèkkj.k rki i j B.Mk dj fy; k t krkgSA fDyUdj dh FkksMh ek=kk esa ft Il e feykdj i hal k t krk gSA ; g i kmMj l hesaV nsj esa t erk gSA bl dk mi ; ksx vfèkdl qfoèkkt ud gks t krk gSA i jUrq njkjksa esa Hkjus ds vfrfjDr ; g cgqr gh de ç; ksx fd; k t krk gSA l kèkkj.kr; k bl s fdl hi wjd i nkFkZ] ft l s , xzhxsV dgrs gS] ds l kFk feykdj ç; ksx fd; k t krk gSA t c bl s ct jh ds l kFk feykdj t eus fn; kt krk gSA t c bl s ct jh ds l kFk feykdj t eus fn; k t krk gS] t ks ; g dUØhV cukrk gSAdk¡p

l kèkkj.k dk¡p] fl fydk (SiO2) ] l ksfM; e fl fydsV (Na2SiO3) vkSj dSfYl ; e fl fydsV dk Bksl foy; u( feJ.k) gksrk gSA vU; çdkj ds dk¡p Hkh fofHkUu fl fydsVksa ds Bksl foy; u gksrs gSA dk¡p] vfØLVyhx Bksl ds #ies , d vfr' khfrr nzo gSA bl fy, dk¡p dh fØLVyh; l ajpuk ugha gksrh vkSj u gh ml dk dksbZ fuf' pr xyukad gksrkgSA dk¡p dk dksbZ fuf' pr jkl k; fud l a?kVu ; k l w=k ugha gksrk gS] D; ksafd dk¡p feJ.k gS] ; kSfxd ughaA l kèkkj.k dk¡pdk vkSl r l a?kVu Na2SiO2. CaSiO3. 4SiO2 gksrk gSA( x) j ax nsus okys i nkFkZ1 dk¡p esa jax nsus ds fy, vYi ek=kk esa èkkrqvksa ds ; kSfxd ( jaxhu) feyk; s t krs gSA



18

SCIECNE

j ax nsus okyk i nkFkZ dk¡p dk j ax1- dksckYV vkWDl kbM xgjk uhyk2- l ksfM; e ØksesV ; k QSjl vkWDl kbM gjk jax3- fl ysfu; e vkWDl kbM ukjaxh yky4- i QSfjd yo.k ; k l ksfM; e ; wjsusV i hyk jax5- xksYM DyksjkbM i hyk jax6- dSMfe; e l YQkbM pVd yky7- D; wfçd yo.k uhykdk¡p dk vuhyu

dk¡p dh oLrqvksa dks cukus ds ckn fo' ks"k çdkj dh HkfV~B; ksa esa èkhjsµèkhjs BaMk djrs gSA bl fØ; k dks dkapdk vuhyhdj.k dgrs gSAdk¡p ds çdkj

dk¡p dbZ çdkj ds gksrs gSA dqN eq[ ; çdkj ds dk¡p fuEufyf[ kr gSaµ1- enq dk¡p µ ; g l ksMkµpwuk gksrk gSA xeZ djus i j ; g vkl kuh l s de rki i j enq i M+ t krk gSa bl dk mi ; ksx

f[ kM+dh ds dk¡p] cksry] i j[ kuyh o vU; mi dj.k cukus esa fd; k t krk gSA2- dBksj dk¡p µ ; g i ksVk' kµpwuk dk¡p gksrk gSA bl dk ueZ gksus dk rki enq dk¡p l s vfèkd gksrk gSA3- fÝyUV dk¡p µ ; g l ksfM; e dkcksZusV] i ksVSf' k; e dkcksZusV] ysM dkcksZusV] cksfjd vEy vkSj fl fydk l s cuk; k

t krk gSA bl dk mi ; ksx fçTe rFkk çdkf' kd rU=kksa ds ysUl cukus esa gksrk gSA4- ØqDl dk¡p µ bl dk¡p esa çfrfØ; k ugha djus okys èkkrqvksa ds vkWDl kbM gksrs gSA bl dk mi ; ksx p' eksa ds

ysUl cukus esa fd; k t krk gSA5- i kbj SDl dk¡p µ ; g eq[ ; r% l ksfM; e vkSj ,Y; wfefu; e ds cksjksfl fydsV dk feJ.k gksrk gSA bl dk çl kj

xq.kkad cgqr de gksrk gSA ; g rki ds vkdfLed i fjorZu l s VwVrk ugha gSA ç; ksx' kkyk ds mPp dksfV dsmi dj.k cukus esa ; g dk¡p ç; qDr gksrk gSA

6- i fV~Vdk dk¡p µ ; g l kèkkj.k dk¡p l s dki Qh eksVk gksrk gS vkSj bl dk mi ; ksx nqdkuksa dh f[ kM+fd; ksa rFkknjokt s cukus esa gksrk gSA

7- Lr fj r dk¡p ; k xksyhj ksèkh dk¡p µ ; g l qjf{kr dk¡p l s Hkh vfèkd çcy gksrk gSA bl s l qjf{kr dk¡p dh dbZi jrksa dks fdl h i kjn' khZ vkl at d }kjk , dµnwl js l s t ksM+dj cuk; k t krk gSA bl dk¡p dks cukus esa ft ruhvfèkd i jrksa dk ç; ksx fd; k t krk gS] og dk¡p mruk gh vfèkd çcy gksrk gSa bl çdkj ds dk¡p ds i "Bi j i M+h njkj vkl at d i jr i j l ekIr gks t krh gSA vkSj bl dk i QSyko #d t krk gSA Lrfjr dk¡p dk mi ; ksxok; q; kuksa , oa dkj ds okr çfrj{kh ' kh' kksa vkSj xksyhjksèkh i nksZ ds fuekZ.k esa fd; k t krk gSA

8- çdk' kh; dk¡p µ ; g fo' ks"k fofèk; ksa }kjk cuk; k t krk gSA rkfd bl esa fdl h Hkh çdkj dh foÑfr vFkoknks"k u jgsA bl çdkj ds dkap dk mi ; ksx p' ek] l w{en' khZ] nwjn' kZd dSejksa] fçTeksa rFkk vU; çdkf' kd ; a=kksads ysUl ksa ds fuekZ.k esa gksrk gSA

9- r ki j ksèkh dk¡p µ rki jksèkh dk¡p dk Å"eh; çl kj xq.kkad de gksrk gSA , sl k l ksfM; e vkWDl kbM xkyd gkscksfjd vkWDl kbM }kjk vkSj dqN pwus dks , sy; uk }kjk foLFkkfi r djds fd; k t krk gSA bl fofèk }kjk fufeZrdk¡p dks cksjksfl yhdsV dk¡p dgrs gSA bl dk xyuk¡d mPp gksrk gS vkSj ; g Å"ek l gus dh {kerk j [ krk gSAbl çdkj dk dk¡p ç; ksx' kkykvksa dkj[ kkuksa] jl ksbZ?kjksa rFkk HkfV~V; ksa esa fd; k t krk gSA



19

SCIECNE

10- i QksVksØkseSfVd dk¡p µ i QksVksØkseSfVd dk¡p , d fo' ks"k çkdj dk dk¡p gksrk gS t ks çdk' k dh mi fLFkfr esavLFkk; h #i l s xgjs jax dk gks t krk gSA vr% èkwi l s cpus ds fy, ; g cgqr mi ; ksxh gSA , sl k dk¡p esa mi fLFkrfl Yoj vk; ksMkbM ds yo.k ds dkj.k gksrk gSA

11- ySM fØLVy dk¡p µ ; g , d fo' ks"k çdkj dk dk¡p gksrk gS] ft l ds fuekZ.k esa ysM vkWDl kbM ( PbO) dkç; ksx fd; k t krk gSA ysM dk¡p dk mPp vi orZukad gS] ft l ds dkj.k ; g pedrk gSA bl dk mi ; ksx mÙkedykRed oLrqvksa rFkk dk¡p ds egaxs mi dj.kksa ds fuekZ.k esa fd; k t krk gSA

Lej . kh; rF;2 l okZfèkd çfrfØ; k' khy Bksl rRo — yhfFk; e3 l okZfèkd çfrfØ; k' khy rjy rRo — l hft ; e4 l okZfèkd çfrfØ; k' khy xSl h; rRo — Ýyksjhu5 l okZfèkd fo| qr Í .kkRedrk — Ýyksjhu6 l okZfèkd vk; uhdj.k {kerk — ghfy; e7 jsfM; ksa l fØ; rk çÑfr okyk rjy rRo — Ýsafl ; e8 vkorZ l kj.kh esa jsfM; ksl fØ; rRoksa dh dqy l a[ ; k — 259 d-Block ds vfLFkj rRo — ft ad] dSMfe; e] i kjk10 og rRo ft l esa U; qVªkWu ugha gksrs — 1H

1

11 i Foh i j çpqj ek=kk esa i k; s t kus okys rRo — vkWDl ht u12 i Foh dk l okZfèkd nqyZHk rRo — , LVsVhu13 i Foh i j i k; k t kus okyk çpqj ek=kk esa èkkrq — , yqfefu; e14 og rRo ft l esa ( Üka[ kyk cukus dh) dh l okZfèkd ps"Vk gksrh gS— dkcZu15 l okZfèkd gYdk rRo — gkbMªkst u16 çkÑfrd #i esa l cl s Hkkjh i k; k t kus okyk rRo — U238

17 fo| qr dk U; wure l qpkyd — ysM (èkkrq) ] l Yi Qj (vèkkrq)18 Amphoteric vèkkrq rRo — fl fydu19 vèkkrq t ks ns[ kus esa èkkrq l n' k gSa— vk; ksMhu] xzsi QkbV20 i nkFkZ t ks xeZ djus i j mèoZi frr gks t krs gSa— vk; ksMhu] di qj] uSÝFkyhu] xaèkdA21 vfØ; èkkrq— IySfVue] l ksuk22 mPp xyukad , oa mPp DoFkukad okyk vèkkrq— ghjk23 vR; fèkd i QSyko {kerk okyk rRo — csjkWu24 ukfHkdh; l a; a=k esa ç' khrd— D2O (Hkkjh t y)25 l cl s uohu [ kkst k x; k rRo— Hahnium (Ha, atomic no-105) Eka (Eka mercury

atomic no. 112)

26 i kuh esa j[ kk t kus okyk rRo — i hyk i QkWLi Qksjl27 fdjksfl u rsy esa j[ kk t kus okyk rRo— l ksfM; e] i ksVsf' k; e] vk; ksMhu] l hft ; e (Cs)28 ' kq"d ci QZ — Bksl dkcZu MkbvkWDl kbM29 Ñf=ke foLi QksVd— Mk; ukekbV



20

SCIECNE

30 jl k; u foKku esa ukscsy i qjLdkj i kus okys çFke oSKkfud— okaV gksi Q31 Vhapj vk; ksMhu — , Ydksgy esa vk; ksMhu32 l kèkkj.kr; k ç; qDr gksus okys vkWDl hdkjd— H2O2, SO2, SO3, Cl2, H2SO4, HNO3

33 dqN cgqvkÑfrd rRo — vkWDl ht u] l Yi Qj] i QkWLi Qksjl• l kèkkj.k rki i j i kjk] xsfy; e vkSj l hft ; e èkkrq, a nzo gSa vkSj ' ks"k èkkrq, a Bksl gSA• l kèkkj.k rki i j vèkkrq, a esa czksehu nzo gS rFkk ' ks"k vèkkrq, a Bksl ; k xSl gSA• èkkrqvksa esa fl Yoj l cl s vPNk l qpkyd vkSj l hl k dqpkyd gksrk gSA• dkcZu dks NksM+dj vèkkrq, a uje gksrh gSA• ghjk l Hkh çkÑfrd oLrqvksa esa l cl s vfèkd dBksj gksrk gSA

j l k; u foKku l s l EcfUèkr [ kkst sj l k; u oSKkfud mudh [ kkst

• cksj ( Bohr) i jek.kq ekWMy] vkorZ l kj.kh dk foLr r Lo#i• ct sZfy; l ( Burxelius) dSVsfyfl l• csdjsy (Becquerrel) jsfM; ksèkfeZrk• pSMfod (Chadwick) U; wVªkWu dh [ kkst• Mh czkWxyh (de Broglie) bysDVªku dh rjax çÑfr• i QSjkMs (Faraday) fo| qr v i ?kVu ds fl ¼kUr• eSMe D; wjh , aM , i Q t ksfyvkWV Ñf=ke jsfM; ks èkfeZrk• fych (Libby) jsfM; ksèkehZ MsfVax• ykjsUl (Lawrence) l kbDyksVªkWu• esaMfyi Q (Mendeleef) vkorZ l kj.kh• fefydu (Mulliken) bysDVªkWuµvkos' k• ekWLys (Modley) vkèkqfud vkorZ l kj.kh• vkWLokYM (Ostwald) det ksj fo| qr v i ?kVdksa ds fu; e• IySad (Planck) çdk” k dk rjaxh; fl ¼kar• jnji QksMZ ( Rutherford) U; wVªkWu dh [ kkst• jksUVt u ( Roentzen) , Dl µfdj.kksa dh [ kkst• jsys&jkel s (Rayleigh-Ramsay) vkxZu dh [ kkst• jkel s&Vsªol Z (Ramsay-Travers) fu; ksu] fØIVkWu , oa t sukWu dh [ kkst• l ksjsUl u (Sorenson) pH

• ' kYt &gkMZys (Schulze-Hardly) fo| qrh; v i ?kVu l s t eko• FkkWel u (Thomson) bysDVªkWu dh [ kkst• VhUMy (Tyndall) Bksl d.kksa l s çdk” k dk çdh.kZu• ; wdkck (Yukawa) esl kWu dh [ kkst



21

SCIECNE

v Ey] {kkj , oa yo. k1 vEy ( Acid) µ vEy os i nkFkZ gSa ft uesa gkbMªkst u i k; k t krk gS , oa t yh; foy; u esa os gkbMªkst u vk; u

mRi Uu djrs gSA vEy l kèkkj.kr; % [ kV~Vs i Qyksa t Sl s uhcw] beyh vkfn esa i k; sa t krs gSA uhcw esa l kbfVªd vEyo beyh esa VkjVSfjd vEy i k; s t krs gSA

2 {kkj ( Base) µ {kkj os i nkFkZ gSa ft uesa gkbMªkfDl y l ewg i k; k t krk gS rFkk ft uds t yh; foy; u esagkbMªkfDl y vk; u mi fLFkr jgrs gSA {kkj yky fyVªel i si j dks uhyk dj nsrs gSA dkfLVd l ksMk ( l ksfM; egkbMªkDl kbM) o dkfLVd i ksVk' k ( i ksVsf' k; e gkbMªkDl kbM) çeq[ k {kkj gSA

3 yo.k ( Salt) µ vEyksa o {kkjksa dh i jLi j fØ; k l s yo.k curs gSA l kèkkj.k ued] ft l s l ksfM; e DyksjkbMdgrs gS] gkbMªksDyksfjd vEy o l ksfM; e gkbMªkDl kbM dh i jLi j v fHkfØ; k l s curk gSA

vEy çkÑfrd l zksr mi ; ksxl YÝ; wfjd vEy gjkdl ksl i sVªksfy; e ds ' kksèku esa] dbZ çdkj ds foLi QksVd cukus esa]

jax o vkS"kfèk; ka cukus esa] l apk; d cSVfj; ksa esaAukbfVªd vEy fi QVdjh o ' kksjk vkS"kfèk; ka] moZjd] cukus esa] i QksVksxzki Qh esa] foLi QksVd i nkFkZ

cukus esaAgkbMªksDyksfjd vEy ç; ksx' kkyk esa v fHkdeZd ds #i esa] jax o vkS"kfèk cukus esa

vEyjkt cukus esaA, l hfVd vEy i Qyksa ds jl ks esa] l qxfUèkr rsyksa esa foyk; d ds #i esa , l hVksu cukus esa o [ kV~Vs [ kk| i nkFkZ

cukus esaAi QkfeZd vEy yky phfV; ksa esa] cjksZ o fcPNw esa t hok.kq uk' kd ds #i esa i Qyksa dks l ajf{kr o jcj ds

LdUnu esa] peMk O; ol k; esaAvkDt sfyd vEy l kjsy dk o{k i QksVksxzki Qh esa] di Mksa dh Ni kbZ o jaxkbZ esa] peM+s ds

fojat d ds #i esaAcsUt ksbd vEy ?kkl ] i Ùks o ew=k nok o [ kk| i nkFkksZ ds l aj{k.k ds #i esal kbfVªd vEy [ kV~Vs i Qyksa esa èkkrqvksa dks l ki Q djus esa [ kk| i nkFkksZ o nokvksa ds cukus

esa o di M+k m| ksxksa esaApH eku µ fdl h foy; u dh vEyh; rk ; k {kkjh; rk dks O; Dr djus ds fy, pH eki naM ; k pH Ldsy dk mi ; ksx gksrk

gSA bl l s t y , oa feV~Vh dh mi ; ksfxrk dk i rk pyrk gSA jDr , oa i s” kkc ds pH eku esa cnyko l s ' kjhj esajksxksa dk i rk yx l drk gSA

dqN l keU; i nkFkksZ ds pH ekui nkFkZ pH

mnkl hu t y 7vEyh; foy; u 7 l s de{kkjh; foy; u 7 l s vfèkdfl jdk 2-4µ3-4' kjkc 2-8µ3-8nwèk 6-4µ6-6



22

SCIECNE

l eqnzh t y 8-4ykj (euq"; dk) 6-5µ7-5ew=k (euq"; dk) 4-8µ8-4jDr (euq"; dk) 7-4uhacw 2-2µ2-4

funsZ' kd ; k l wpd ( Indicator)oSl k jkl k; fud ; kSfxd t ks v i us jax esa i fjorZu ykdj ; g l wfpr djrk gS fd foy; u vEyh; gS ; k {kkjh;

vFkok mnkl hu] l wpd dgykrk gSA bl dh vR; ar vYi ek=kk gh mnkl huhdj.k vfHkfØ; k esa mi ; ksx gh t krh gSAdkcZu rFkk bl ds ; kSfxd

dkcZu , d vèkkrq rRo gS] dkcZu i jek.kq ds pkj l a; kst h bysDVªkWuksa ds dkj.k ; g vko” ; d gS fd LFkk; h l ajpukdh çkfIr gsrq ; k rks pkj bysDVªkWu xzg.k djs ; k pkj bysDVªkWuksa dk R; kx djsaA dkcZu l nSo vU; rRoksa ds l kFk l k>snkjhdjds l gl a; kst d ; kSfxd cukrk gSA dkcZu dks Tetravalent Hkh dgrs gSA dkcZu esa ; g xq.k i k; k t krk gS fd ; g vi us; kSfxdksa esa oy; ; k dbZ dfM+; ka ( Chains) cukrk gS] dkcZu ds bl xq.k dks ^Catenation** dgrs gSA dkcZu , d vfØ;rRo gSA vr% ; s eqDrkoLFkk , oa l a; qDrkoLFkk nksuksa esa i k; k t krk gSA l a; qDrkoLFkk esa dkcZu fofHkUu #i esa i k; s t krs gSaµ1- dkcksZusV ds #i esa ( l axejej , oa MksyksekbV)2- i sVªksfy; e , oa çkÑfrd xSl A3- dkcZu ; kSfxd t Sl s çksVhu , oa ol k ds #i esaA4- dkcZuµMkbZvkWDl kbM (gok esa) ds #i esaA

l Hkh t hoksa esa dkcZu mi fLFkr jgrk gSA

dkcZu ds v i #içÑfr esa ' kq¼ dkcZu nks #i ksa esa i k; k t krk gS µ ghjk , oa xzsi QkbV ds #i esaA t c ghjs rFkk xzsi QkbV dks ok; q

esa vR; fèkd xeZ djrs gSa t ks ; g i w.kZ #i l s t y t krk gS vkSj dkcZuµMkbZvkWDl kbM cukrk gSa t c ghjs rFkk xzsi QkbV dhl eku ek=kk ngu dh t krh gS rc dkcZuµMkbZvkWDl kbM dh cjkcj ek=kk mRi Uu gksrh gS rFkk dksbZ vo' ks"k ugha cprkA; | fi ghjk rFkk xzsi QkbV jkl k; fud #i l s , d l eku gSa] i jUrq muds HkkSfrd xq.k cgqr gh fHkUu gSaA , sl s xq.kksa dks çnf' kZrdjus okys rRoksa dks v i #i ( Allotropy) dgrs gSA1- ghjk ( Diamond) µ ghjk , d i kjn” kZd i nkFkZ gSA ghjs ds mPp vi orZu xq.kkad ds dkj.k ; g pedhys , oa

dherh vkHkw"k.k rFkk t sojksa dks cukus ds dke esa yk; k t krk gSA l cl s vfèkd dBksj Kkr i nkFkZ gksus ds dkj.kdsoy ghjk gh , d , sl k i nkFkZ gS] t ks vU; i nkFkksZ dks i hl us rFkk dkVus ds fy, ç; qDr gksrk gSA bl dk mi ; ksxi Foh dh pV~Vkuh i jrksa dks osfèkr djus gsrq Hkh fd; k t krk gSA

2- xzsi QkbV ( Graphite) µ xzsi QkbV fo| qr dk l qpkyd gksus ds dkj.k ' kq"d l sy rFkk fo| qr vkdZ esa bysDVªksMksads #i esa mi ; ksx gksrk gSA bl dk mi ; ksx i sfUl y rFkk dkys jax dk i sUV cukus esa Hkh gksrk gSAC12 l eLFkkfud dh vèkZµvk; q 5770 o"kZ gksrh gS] ft l dk ç; ksx jsfM; ks, fDVo MsfVax esa fd; k t krk gS] t ksi qjkrRo oLrqvksa dh vk; q t kuus ds ç; ksx esa vkrk gSA



23

SCIECNE

dkcZu ds mi ; ksxdkcZu dh voLFkk mi ; ksx

1. ghjk (Diamond) Gemstone, dkVus esa] i hl us esa] i kWfy” k esa] m| ksx esa] Drilling

2. xzsQkbV (Graphite) LVhy m| ksx] i sfUl y] mPp rki Øqfl cy] rRoksa ds fo| qrv i ?kVu esa ç; ksx fd, t kus okys fo| qr v i ?kV~; ds #i esa

3. dksd (Coke) LVhy m| ksx] bZaèku4. dkcZu CySd (Carbon Black) jcj m| ksx] L; kgh esa] i saV rFkk IykfLVd5. l fØ; dkcZu phuh m| ksx esa jax gVkus esa] jl k; uksa ds “kksèku esa] mRçsjd bZèku]

v i pk; ddkcZu MkbZµv kWDl kbM

dkcZu MkbZµvkWDl kbM , d jaxghu] xaèkghu xSl gSA ok; qe.My esa dkcZu MkbZµvkWDl kbM vk; rukuql kj 0-03çfr' kr i k; h t krh gSA bl dk t yh; foy; u vEyh; gksrk gSA ok; qe.Myh; nkc i j ; g µ780C rki i j Bksl voLFkkesa i fjofrZr gks t krh gS] ft l s ” kq"d ci QZ* dgrs gSA ” kq"d ci QZ* dk ç; ksx jsfÝt js' ku esa fd; k t krk gSA dkcZuMkbZµvkWDl kbM mPp nkc i j “khry i s; i nkFkksZa ds l kFk cksryksa esa Hkj nh t krh gSA cksry dks [ kksyus i j ; g >kx ds#i esa fudyrh gSA

dkcZfud ; kSfxddkcZu ds i jek.kq dki Qh cM+h l a[ ; k esa , dµnwl js ds l kFk l gl a; kst h vkcaèk }kjk t qM+s jgrs gSA ; gh dkj.k gS

fd dkcZu ds ; kSfxdksa dh cgqr l a[ ; k gksrh gSA ehFksu (CH4) ] , Fksu ( C2H6) ] çksi su ( C3H8) ] C; wVsu ( C4H10) ] i sUVsu( C5H12) ] bFkkbyhu (C2H4) ] , l hfVd vEy ( CH3COOH) , fFky ,Ydksgy ( C2H5OH) bR; kfn dkcZu ds ; kSfxd gSavkSj ; s cgqr l jkl k; fud m| ksxksa esa dke vkrs gSaA bl ds vykok nokbZ; ka] i Qkbcj] fl UFksfVd dkWVu] IykfLVd] jcj ]ysnj bR; kfn Hkh dkcZfud ; kSfxd l s cuk; s t krs gSA

feFksu; g , d jaxghu] xaèkghu] o Loknghu xSl gSA ; g vfèkdrj nynyh {ks=kksa esa i k; h t krh gS% ft l ds dkj.k bl s

ek”kZ xSl Hkh dgrs gSA ; g xSl t y esa vYi foys; gS i jUrq , Ydksgy esa vfèkd foys; gSA bl dk mi ; ksx esfFky, sYdksgy] i QkeksZfYMgkby o Dyksjksi QkeZ vkfn ds cukus esa fd; k t krk gSA bl ds vfrfjDr dkys jax] eksVj Vk; j ] Nki s[ kkus dh L; kgh] i saV] dkcZu NM+sa vkfn cukus esa Hkh bl dk ç; ksx fd; k t krk gSA bl ds l aw?kus i j O; fDr ewfNZr gks t krkgSA ; g bZèkj] ,Ydksgy vkfn esa foys; gSA , fFkyhu l Yi Qj eksuksDyksjkbM l s fØ; k djds , d fo"kSyk nzo MkbZµDyksjks, fFky Mkbµl Yi QkbM] ft l s eLVMZ xSl Hkh dgrs gS] cukrh gSA , fFkyhu cgqydhdj.k dh fØ; k }kjk IykfLVd cukrhgSA bl xSl dk mi ; ksx eq[ ; #i l s dPps i Qyksa dks i dkus esa fd; k t krk gSA

, sl sfVyhu, sl sfVyhu dh [ kkst vesfjdh oSKkfud foYl u us dh FkhA bl xSl dk mi ; ksx eq[ ; r% di wj cukus] çdk' k

mRi Uu djus] Ñf=ke jcj cukus] osfYaMx djus esa] js”keh di M+s] , l hfVd vEy vkfn cukus esa fd; k t krk gSA

bZFkjbZFkj jaxghu o l qxfUèkr nzo gSA ; g vR; fèkd ok"i ' khy gksrk gSA ; g ,Ydksgy esa foys; gksrk gSA bl dk ç; ksx

fu' psrd ds #i esa] ol k] rsy vkfn ds foyk; d ds #i esa] B.Md i Snk djus ds fy; s] , Ydksgy cukus vkfn esa fd; kt krk gSA O; kol kf; d #i esa bZFkj , Ydksgy dks l kUnz l YÝ; wfjd vEy ds l kFk xeZ djds cuk; k t krk gSA



24

SCIECNE

, sfFky , Ydksgy, sfFky , Ydksgy , d jaxghu nzo gS rFkk vR; kfèkd Toyu' khy gksrk gSA bl s i hus l s ' kjhj esa mÙkst uk mRi Uu

gksrh gS] bl fy; s bl s eknd nzo ds #i esa bLrseky fd; k t krk gSA , sfFky , Ydksgy i Qyksa o LVkpZ; qDr vukt ksa t Sl sµt kS vkfn esa i k; k t krk gSa vkS| ksfxd fofèk esa bl s fd.ou ( Fermentation) fofèk l s cuk; k t krk gSA bl dk ç; ksx ' kdZjk]fl jdk o ' kjkc cukus esa] eksVj o gokbZ t gkt esa bZaèku ds #i esa] i kjn' kZd l kcqu cukus esa] b=k o vU; l qxfUèkr i nkFkZcukus esa rFkk foyk; d ds #i esa fd; k t krk gSA

esfFky , YdksgyesfFky , Ydksgy dks l cl s i gys ydM+h ds Hkat d vkl ou ds }kjk cuk; k x; k FkkA ; g yk¡x ds rsy o dbZ

i Qyksa esa i k; k t krk gSA esfFky ,Ydksgy , d fo"kSyk nzo gS o bl dh xUèk ' kjkc dh rjg gksrh gSA bl s i h ysus l s O; fDrvaèkk gks t krk gSA vkt dy ns” k ds fofHkUu Hkkxksa esa ' kjkc i hus okyksa dh vfèkdka” k eR; q esfFky , Ydksgy ds gh dkj.kjgh gSA bl dk mi ; ksx i sVªksy ds l kFk feykdj bZaèku ds #i esa] Ñf=ke jax cukus esa] rFkk okfuZ' k vkfn ds foyk; d ds#i esa fd; k t krk gSA

Xywdkstbl s vaxwj dk ' kDdj Hkh dgrs gSA ; g vaxwjksa] ehBs i Qyksa o ew=k esa i k; k t krk gSA eèkqesg ds jksfx; ksa ds ew=k esa

bl dh ek=kk vfèkd i k; h t krh gSA ; g pk¡nh] ds yo.k] veksfu; e fl Yoj ukbVªsV ds l kFk feydj pk¡nh dh rjg l i Qsni rZ cukrk gS] ft l s pk¡nh dk ni Z.k dgrs gSA bl dk ç; ksx ' kjkc cukus esa i Qyksa dks l qjf{kr j [ kus esa] vkS"kfèk ds #i esarFkk ' kfDroèkZd vkfn ds #i esa fd; k t krk gSA

, fuyhu; g rsy ds l eku nzo gS] t ks fd vR; Ur fo"kSyk gksrk gSA ,Ydksgy] bZFkj vkfn esa ; g foys; i jUrq t y esa

vfoys; gksrk gSa bl dk mi ; ksx jcj cukus esa o fofHkUu çdkj dh vkS"kfèk; ksa o jaxks vkfn ds cukus esa fd; k t krk gSA

l eko; orkdkcZu ds i jek.kq bruh l qxerk l s caèk cukrs gSa fd mul s , d gh vkf.od l w=k okys çk; % nks ; k nksµl sµvfèkd

fHkUu ; kSfxd curs gSA , sl s ; kSfxd dks l eko; oh dgrs gSa rFkk bl ?kVuk dks l eko; ork dgrs gSA

cgqydcgqyd mPp v.kq Hkkj okys] cM+s vkdkj ds v.kq gSa] ft udk gekjh fnup; kZ esa cgqr egÙo gSA ; s dbZ NksVsµNksVs

v.kqvksa l s feydj curs gSA jpukRed #i l s dbZ vkf.od Üka[ kyk,a vFkok Cross-Linked Network ds #i esa O; ofLFkrjgrs gSA bl ds chp ds cUèk cgqyd cukus esa ç; qDr gqbZ vfHkfØ; k ds çdkj i j fuHkZj djrs gSA

cgqydhdj . kt c , d gh ; kSfxd ds nks vFkok nksµl sµvfèkd v.kq vki l esa l a; ksx djds , d cM+k v.kq cukrs gSa] ml s

cgqyd dgrs gSa rFkk ; g fØ; k ; ksx”khy cgqydhdj.k dgykrh gSA ; fn ; g vfHkfØ; k l a?kuu esa gks rks l a?kuucgqydhdj.k gksrk gSA



25

SCIECNE

dqN egRoi w. kZ cgqydcgqyd mi ; ksx

1. i kWyhFkhu (Polythene) fo| qrjksèkd] i Sfdax ?kjsyw rFkk ç; ksx' kkyk esa2. i kWyhLVkbjhu (Polystyrene) fo| qrjksèkd] i Sfdax i nkFkZ] f[ kykSus rFkk ?kjsyw oLrq, ¡3. i kWyhfoukby DyksjkbM (Polyvinylchloride) ( PVC) jsudksV] cSx] okbfuy] i Q' kZ] peM+s ds di M+sa4. VsÝyksu ( Teflon) fo| qrjksèkd] [ kkus ds crZu5. i kWyh, fØyksukbVªkby (Polyacrylonitrile) ( Orlon) l a' ysf"kr js' ks rFkk l a' ysf"kr Åu6. LFkbjhu U; wVkMkbZu jcj (Styrene butadiene rubber) vkWVkseksckby Vk; j rFkk pIi y7. ukbVªkby jcj (Nitrile rubber) l hy cukus esa] VSad ds vLrj cukus esa8. i kWyhbZFky , ØkbysV (Poly ethyl acrylate) fi QYe cukus] ?kj ds i kbi rFkk di M+s cukus esa9. Vsjhyhu (Terylene) js' ks] csYV] rkj rFkk VSUV cukus esa10. fXyi Vy (Glyptal) IykfLVd rFkk i saV esa11. ukW; ykWu&6 (Nylon-6) js' ks] IykfLVd] Vk; j ] jLl h12. ukW; ykWu&66 (Nylon-66) cz' k] l a' ysf"kr js' ks] i sjk' kwV] jLl h rFkk njh13. csdsykbV (Bakelite) xs; j] l qj{kk i rZ rFkk fo| qr mi dj.k cukus esa14. eSykekbu QkeZfYMgkbM jsfl u IykfLVd ds crZu cukus esafoLi QksVd

foLi QksVd , sl s i nkFkZ gksrs gS] ft l ds ngu l s vR; fèkd Å"ek o rhoz èofu mRi Uu gksrh gSA ml s foLi QksVddgrs gSA dqN foLi QksVd fuEu gS µ1- Vh-, u-Vh- ( T.N.T) µ T.N.T gYdk i hyk fØLVyh; Bksl i nkFkZ gSA ; g VkywbZu ds l kFk l kUnz l YÝ; wfjd

vEy] l kUnz ukbfVªd vEy dh fØ; k l s cuk; k t krk gSA bl dk l cl s vfèkd mi ; ksx foLi QksVd ds #i esa fd; kt krk gSa bl dk i wjk uke VªkbZukbVªksµVkywbZu (T.N.T) gSA

2- Mk; ukekbV ( Dynamite) µ 1865 esa vYÝsM ukscsy us Mk; ukekbV dk vkfo"dkj fd; k FkkA vkèkqfudMkbukekbV esa ukbVªksfXl jhu dh t xg l ksfM; e ukbVªsV dk ç; ksx fd; k t krk gSA

3- vkj -Mh-, Dl - ( R.D.X) µ bl dk i wjk uke fj ; pZ Msoyi esaV , Dl Iyksf” ko gSA bl foLi QksVd dks l a-jk-vesfjdk esa l kbDyksukbV* t eZuh esa gsDl kst u* rFkk bVyh esa Vhµ4* ds uke l s t kuk t krk gSA bl esa IykfLVdi nkFkZ] t Sl s µ i kWfyC; wVkbu] , fØfyd vEy] ; k i kWfy; wjsFksu dks feyk dj IykfLVd ckUMsM , Dl Iyksfl o*cuk; k t krk gSA

4- VªkbukbVªks fXyl j hu ( T.N.G) µ VªkbZ ukbVªks fXyl jhu , d jaxghu rSyh; nzo gSA ; g MkbukekbV cukus dsdke vkrk gSA

5- VkbZµukbVªks fi QukWy ( T.N.P) µ dks fi dfjd vEy Hkh dgk t krk gSA ; g i Qhuky o l kUnz ukbfVªd vEydh vfHkfØ; k }kjk cuk; k t krk gSA ; g gYdk i hyk] fØLVyh; Bksl gksrk gS] t ks vR; fèkd foLi QksVd gksrk gSA

v kS"kfèk; k¡jksxksa ds bykt esa dke vkrh gSA çkjEHk esa i sM+µi kSèkksa] t hoµt Urqvksa l s çkIr dh t krh Fkh ysfdu t Sl sµt Sl s

j l k; u foKku dk foLrkj gksrk x; k] u; sµu; s rRoksa dh [ kkst gqbZ rFkk mul s ubZµubZ vkS"kfèk; ka Ñf=ke fofèk l s rS; kjdh xbZA jl k; u fofèk esa vfèkdrj vkS"kfèk; ka dkckZfud i nkFkksZa l s rS; kj dh t krh gSA , l hfVd , ugkbVªkbM l s , Lçhu]; wfj; k l s osjkuy] csUt ksbd vEy l s l Sdjhu o Dyksjfeu] fi Quky l s i Qsusfl fVu] , sfLi fju] l Syksy] o l Sfyfl fyd vEy



26

SCIECNE

vkfn nok; sa cuk; h t krh gSA dqN çeq[ k vkS"kfèk; ksa dk oxhZdj.k fuEu gSµ1- , UVhck; ksfVDl ( Antibioties) µ , UVhck; ksfVDl vkS"kfèk; ka vR; Ur l w{e t hok.kqqvksa eksYMl ] i QUt kbZ vkfn l s

cuk; h t krh gSA ; s vkS"kfèk; ka vU; nwl js çdkj ds t hok.kqvksa dks ekjrh gSA o mudh of¼ dks jksdrh gSAvysaDt saMj Ýysfeax us 1929 esa i gyh ,UVhck; ksfVd vkS"kfèk i sfUl yhu dk vkfo"dkj fd; k ft l ds }kjk fo” ks"kçdkj ds cSDVhfj; k dks u"V fd; k t krk l drk FkkA i sfufl yhu] VsVªkl kbfDyu] l si QsyksfLçUl ] LVsªIVksekbl hu]t sUVkekbl hu vkfn çeq[ k , UVhck; ksfVd vkS"kfèk; ka gSA

2- i wfrZj ksèkh ( Antiseptics) µ ; s vkS"kfèk; ka l w{e t hok.kqvksa dks ekjus o mudh of¼ jksdus esa l gk; d gksrh gSA; s jDr dks nwf"kr gksus l s jksdus o ?kko vkfn Hkjus esa fo' ks"k #i l s ç; qDr dh t krh gSA fl jds rFkk fl Mkj rsydk ç; ksx ?kkoksa vkfn ds Bhd djus esa çkphu dky l s gksrk vk jgk gSA vkèkqfud ,UVhl sfIVd vkS"kfèk; ka rS; kjdjus esa l sfeyohl ] fyLVj o dksp ds uke mYys[ kuh; gSA vk; ksMhu] , fFky ,Ydksgy] fi QukWy] gkbMªkst ui jkDl kbM vkfn jksxk.kq o dhVk.kq uk' kd ds #i esa ç; ksx fd; s t krs gSA

3- , UVhi k; j sfVDl ( Antipyretics) µ , UVhi k; jsfVDl dk ç; ksx ' kjhj nnZ o cq[ kkj mrkjus esa fd; k t krk gSA, Lçhu] Øksl hu] fi Qusfl fVu] i k; jksfeMhu vkfn çeq[ k , UVhi k; jsfVDl vkS"kfèk; ka gSA

4- fu' psrd ( Anaesthetic) µ l aosnuk dks de djus ds fy; s ç; qDr fd; s t krs gSA fu' prd dk ç; ksx l cl si gys fofy; e eksjVu us 1846 esa MkbZ , fFky bZFkj ds #i esa fd; kA bl ds i ” pkr~ 1847 esa t sEl l sEi l u usDyksjksi QkeZ dks fu' psrd ds #i esa ç; ksx fd; kA Dyksjksi QkeZ] i sUVksFky l ksfM; e] gsyksFksu] bZFkjukbVªl vkDl kbM]VªkbZDyksjks , fFkyhu] Mk; t hi ke vkfn fu' psrd ds #i esa ç; ksx fd; s t krs gSA

5- l Yi Qk MªXl ( Sulpha Drugs) µ l Yi Qk vkS"kfèk; ksa esa eq[ ; #i esa l Yi Qj o ukbVªkst u i k; h t krh gSA l cl si gyh l Yi Qk vkS"kfèk l Yi QkfuyekbM] 1908 esa cuk; h xbZ FkhA ; s nok; sa dqN t hok.kqvksa ds çfr vR; Ur çHkkohgksrh gSA dqN l Yi Qk vkS"kfèk; ksa dk ç; ksx i ” kqvksa ds fy; s Hkh fd; k t krk gSA

bZaèkuog i nkFkZ] ft Ugsa t ykdj Å"ek mRi Uu dh t krh gS] mu i nkFkksZa dks bZaèku dgrs gSA bZaèkuksa dk l cl s egRRoi w.kZ

oxhZdj.k mudh HkSfrd voLFkk ds vkèkkj i j gksrk gSA HkkSfrd voLFkk ds vkèkkj i j rhu çdkj ds bZaèku gksrs gSaµBkslbZaèku] nzo] bZaèku rFkk xSl h; bZèkuA buds mnkgj.k fuEufyf[ kr gSa µ1- Bksl bZaèku ( Soil Fuel) µ ydMh] dks; yk] dksd] pkjdksy (dk"B dks; yk ; k ydM+h dk dks; yk) rFkk

i Sjkfi QuµoSDl (ekse) ] Bksl bZaèku gSA2- nzo bZaèku ( r j y bZaèku) ( Liquid Fuel) µ dkSjksl hu ( feV~Vh dk rsy) ] i sVªksy] Mht y] , sYdksgy rFkk nzfor

gkbMªkst u] nzo bZaèku gS ; k rjy bZaaèku gSA3- xSl h; bZaèku ( Gaseous Fuel) µ çkÑfrd xSl ] rjy i sVªksfy; e xSl ] dksy xSl ] t y xSl ] çksM~; wl j xSl ] ck; ks

xSl (xkscj xSl ) ] , sfLVyhu rFkk gkbMªkst u xSl ] xSl h; bZaèku gSAnzfor i SVªksfy; e xSl

?kjksa esa bZaèku ds #i esa ç; qDr dh t kus okyh nzfor çkÑfrd xSl dks , y-i h-t h- dgrs gSA ; g C; wVsu rFkk çksi suxSl ksa dk feJ.k gksrh gS] ft l s mPp nkc i j nzfor dj fl ys.Mjksa esa Hkj ysrs gSAxkscj xSl

xhys xkscj ds l M+us i j Toyu' khy ehFksu xSl curh gS] t ks ok; q dh mi fLFkfr esa l qxerk l s t yrh gSA xkscjxSl l a; a=k esa xkscj l s xSl cukus ds i ' pkr~ ' ks"k jgs i nkFkZ (Lyjh) dk mi ; ksx dkcZfud [ kkn ds #i esa fd; k t krk gSAçksM~; wl j xSl

; g xSl yky rIr dksd i j ok; q çokfgr djds cukbZ t krh gSA bl esa eq[ ; r% dkcZu eksuksvkWDl kbM bZaèku dkdke djrh gSA



27

SCIECNE

j kWdsV bZèkujkWdsV esa mi ; ksx fd; s t kus okys bZaèku dks eksnd dgrs gSA ; g uksnd vkWDl hMkbt j ds l a; ksx l s curk gSA

t Sl sµrjyh; vkWDl ht u] rjyh; Ýyksjhu] gkbMªkst u i sjkDl kbM vkSj ukbfVªd , fl M vkfn l Hkh uksndksa dks rhu oxksZa esaj[ kk t krk gSA1- r j yh; uksnd ( Liquid Propellant) µ , Ydksgy] rjyh; gkbMªkst u] rjyh; veksfu; k] dsjksl hu rsy]

gkbMªkt hu vkSj cksjksu ds gkbMªkbM dk mi ; ksx rjyh; uksnd l s vfèkd ' kfDr çnku djrk gS vkSj bl dkfu; U=k.k çokg dks fu; af=kr djds fd; k t krk gSA feFkkby ukbVªsM] ukbVªksehFksu] gkbMªkst u i sjksDl kbM vkfn Hkhmi ; ksxh rjyh; uksnd gSA

2- Bksl uksnd ( Soild Propellant) µ Bksl bZaèku] t Sl s µ i kWyh C; wVkMhu vkSj ,Økbfyd vEy dk mi ; ksxvkWDl hMkbt j ds l kFk gksrk gSA t Sl s µ , Y; qehfu; e i jDyksjsVk] ukbVªsV ; k DyksjsV mPp ngu rki Øe gksus dsdkj.k eSXuhf” k; e ; k ,Y; qehfu; e dks Hkh Bksl bZaèku ds #i esa mi ; ksx fd; k t krk gSA bl rjg ds uksnd dksl a; qDr uksnd Hkh dgk t krk gSA

3- fefJ r uksnd ( Mixed Propellant) µ fefJr jkWdsV uksnd esa Bksl bZaèku , oa rjyh; vkWDl hMkbt j dkmi ; ksx fd; k t krk gSA bl esa N2O4 , d l kekU; l a?kVd gSA fofHkUu jk"Vªksa }kjk dqN egRRoi w.kZ uksnd dk mi ; ksxfd; k t krk gS] t ks fuEu gS µ#l }kjk çksVksu ( Proton) uksnd dk mi ; ksx fd; k t krk gS] t ks fdjksl hu , oa rjyh; vkWDl ht u l s cuk gksrkgSA l SVuZ cqLVj (vesfjdu jkWdsV) esa Hkh fdjksl hu , oa vkWDl ht u ds l a; ksx l s cuk bZaèku mi ; ksx fd; k t krkgSA , l -, y-oh-µ3 vkSj , -, l -, y-oh- uked Hkkjrh; jkWdsV }kjk çFke voLFkk esa Bksl uksnd dk mi ; ksx fd; kx; k vkSj r rh; voLFkk esa rjyh; uksnd dk mi ; ksx fd; k x; k gSA

i sVªksfy; e; g , d xgjsa jax dk xk<+k rsyh; nzo gS] ft l dh t Sfod mRi fÙk gqbZ gSA ; g ekuk t krk gS fd l eqnzh t hoksa ds

mPp nkc rFkk mPp rki i j v i ?kVu l s bl dh mRi fÙk gqbZA i sVªksfy; e t ehu dh fupyh l rg esa i RFkjksa ds chp vFkokl eqnzh l rg ds cgqr uhps i k; k t krk gSA i sVªksfy; e vFkok ØwM rsy] l Yi Qj rFkk ukbVªkst u dh dkcZfud v ' kqf¼; ksa dsl kFk i k; k t krk gSAr sy dk ' kksèku

i sVªksfy; e dks fofHkUu çHkkt ksa esa ft udk Do; kad fHkUuµfHkUu gksrk gS] esa ck¡Vus dh çfØ; k dks ' kksèku dgrsgSA l oZçFke rsy dks vEyh; vFkok {kkjh; foy; ksa l s èkks; k t krk gS] t ks buesa mi fLFkr vEyh; vFkok {kkjh; v' kqf¼; ksai j fuHkZj djrk gSa èkqys gq, rsy dks 723 K rki i j xeZ djds ml dk çHkkt h vkl ou djkrs gSa rFkk Hkki dks çHkkt hLrEHk l s Hkst rs gSA bl fofèk l s Crude Oil dbZ Hkkxksa esa foHkDr gks t krk gSA

i sVªksfy; e ds çHkktçHkkt DoFku i fj l j mi ; ksx

1- xSl h; gkbMªksdkcZu 303 rd nzohdj.k ds i ” pkr~ bZa/ ku dh rjg2- ØwM usIFkk· i sVªksfy; e bZa/ u · i sVªksy vFkok xSl ksyhu · osat hu

303&423303&363363&393393&423dkcZu CySdokfuZ”k rFkkjcj mn~; ksx esa foyk; d ds #i esa] eksVj bZaèku ds #i esa]

3- dsjksl hu rsy 423µ513 LVkso bZaèku] rsy] xSl ds fuekZ.k esa]4- bZaèku rsy · xSl rsy · Mht y rsy· 513µ623

Mht y] bUt u esa bZaèku ds #i esa VSªDVj xSl ksyhu5- yqczksdsUV rsy 543 ds Åi j i saV rsy] VªUl i QkeZj rsy] yqczhds”ku



28

SCIECNE

v i Li QksVu, d vkUrfjd ngu bat u esa mRi Uu gksus okyh rst èofu dks v i Li QksVu dgrs gSA vi Li QksVu dks i sVªksfy; e

esa v i Li QksVujksèkh ; kSfxd feykdj de fd; k t k l drk gS] t Sl s µ VsVªk, fFky ysMAysM ds t gjhys rFkk vU; i ; kZojk l Ecaèkh l eL; kvksa ds dkj.k VsVªk, fFky ysM dk ç; ksx çfrcfUèkr dj fn; k

x; k gSA i sVªksfy; e dh DokfyVh dks c<+kus ds fy, vU; fofèk; ksa t Sl s µ , jksesaVhdj.k rFkk l ekD; ohdj.k dk çksx fd; kt krk gS rFkk vkbl ks ; kSfxdksa dks t ksM+uk Hkh ykHknk; d fl ¼ gqvk gSAi sVªksy dh DokfyVhvkDVsu l a[ ; k ( Octane Number) µ vkDVsu l a[ ; k og i Sekuk gS] t ks fdl h vkUrfjd ngu bat u esa mi fLFkr bZaèkudh v i Li QksVu {kerk dk eki u djrk gSA nks' kq (gkbMªksdkcZu gsIVsu rFkk vkbl ks, DVsu l cl s vfèkd ekU; rk çkIr gSA

^vkDVsu l a[ ; k fdl h vkbl ksvkDVsu rFkk gsIVsu ds feJ.k esa mi fLFkr vkbl ks vkDVsu dk çfr” kr crkrk gSA**l Hkh bZaaèkuksa dh mÙkerk dks ml dh vkDVsu l a[ ; k l s eki k t krk gS] t ks 0 l s 10 rd gksrh gSA fdl h bZaèku dh

vkDVsu l a[ ; k ft ruh vfèkd gksxh og mruk vPNk bZaèku gksxkA t Sl sµxSl ksyhu dh vkDVsu l a[ ; k 80 gS] t cfd gokbZt gkt esa mi ; ksx vkus okys bZaèku dh {kerk 100 ; k ml l s vfèkd gksrh gSAl hVsu l a[ ; k

fdl h Mht y dh mÙkerk l hVsu l a[ ; k i j fuHkZj djrh gSA gsDl kMsdsu C16H34 dks l hVsu Hkh dgrs gSA ; g ' kh?kzt yrk gS rFkk bl dh Cetane dh l a[ ; k 100 gksrh gS] t cfd 1µesfFky usIFkyhu t ks èkhjsµèkhjs t yrk gS] dh Cetane

l a[ ; k 0 gksrh gSALPG and CNG

LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas) esa rhu ; k pkj dkcZu i jek.kqvksa okys gkbMªksdkcZu gksrs gSA t Sl s µ çksi su]çksi hu] vkbl ksC; wVsu rFkk dbZ C; wVhu] ft uesa dqN ek=kk esa bZFksu feyk gksrk gSA LPG dk eq[ ; l zksr okLrfod xSl s gS]t ks i sVªksfy; e ds ' kksèku rFkk foLi QksVu l s feyrh gSA

CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) okLrfod xSl dk l a?kuu djds cukbZ t krh gSA vkt dy T; knkrj okguksaesa CNG dk ç; ksx fd; k t k jgk gSA okLrfod xSl dh vkDVsu l a[ ; k 130 gSAmoZjd

Ñf"k esa i Ql yksa ds vfèkd mRi knu o i kSèkksa dh of¼ ds fy; s] ukbVªkst u] i QkLi Qksjl ] i ksVsf' k; e] dSfYl ; e vkfnrRoksa dh vko' ; drk gksrh gSA i kSèks bu rRoksa dks Hkwfe l s xzg.k djrs gSA ysfdu èkhjsµèkhjs Hkwfe esa bu rRoksa dh dehgks t krh gSA bl deh dks i wjk djus ds fy; s Ñf=ke #i l s cuk; s x; s bu rRoksa ds ; kSfxd mfpr ek=kk esa Hkwfe esa feyk; st krs gSA Ñf=ke #i l s cuk; sa x; s bu ; kSfxdksa dks gh moZjd dgrs gSA ; fn rRoksa ds bu ; kSfxdksa dks Hkwfe esa u feyk; kt k; rks ml dh mRi kndrk de gks t k; sxhA moZjd dbZ çdkj ds gksrs gSA budk fooj.k fuEu gS µ1- ukbVªkst u ds moZjd ( Nitrogenous Fertilisers) µ bu moZjdksa esa eq[ ; r% ukbVªkst u rRo i k; k t krk gSA dqN

çeq[ k ukbVªkst u ; kSfxd fuEu gS µ ; wfj ; k ( Urea) µ ; wfj ; k esa 46 çfr' kr ukbVªkst u dh ek=kk i k; h t krh gSA veksfu; e l Yi QsV ( Ammonium Sulphate) µ bl esa ukbVªkst u veksfu; k ds #i esa mi fLFkr jgrh gS

rFkk yxHkx 25 çfr' kr veksfu; k i k; h t krh gSA ; g vkywvksa ds fy; s vPNk moZjd gSA bl dk ç; ksx pwukjfgr Hkwfe esa ugha fd; k t krk gSA

dSfYl ; e ukbVªsM ( Calcium Nitrate) µ ; g ukbVªkst u dk l cl s vPNk moZjd gSA ckt kj esa ; gukosZft ; u l kYVi hVj* ds uke l s t kuk t krk gSA

dSfYl ; e l k; ukekbM ( Calcium cyanamide) µ bl moZjd dk cqvkbZ djus l s i gys Hkwfe esa



29

SCIECNE

fNM+dko fd; k t krk gSA i kSèkksa dh of¼ ds l e; bl moZjd dk ç; ksx i kSèkksa ds fy; s ykHkçn ugha gksrk gSA2- i ksVsf' k; e ds moZj d ( Potassium Fertilisers) µ i ksVsf' k; e DyksjkbM] i ksVsf' k; e ukbVªsV] i ksVsf' k; e l Yi QsV

vkfn i ksVsf' k; e ds dqN çeq[ k moZjd gSA3- i QkLi Qksj l ds moZj d ( Phosphorus Fertilisers) µ l qi j i QkWLi QsV vkWi Q ykbe] i QkLi QsVh èkkrqey] i QkLi Qksjl

ds çeq[ k moZjd gSA l qi j i QkLi QsV dks gfM~M; ksa dks i hl dj cuk; k t krk gSA4- fefJ r moZjd ( Mixed Fertilisers) µ bl çdkj ds moZjdksa esa , d l s vfèkd rRo i k; s t krs gSa t Sl s µ

veksfu; e i QkLi QsV] veksfu; e l qi j i QkLi QsV vkfnAukbVªkst u

ukbVªkst u xSl dh [ kkst jnj i QksMZ us 1773 esa dh FkhA ; g , d jaxghu xSl gSA ok; q esa 79 çfr' kr Hkkx ukbVªkst ui kbZ t krh gSA ; g xSl t yus esa l gk; d ugha gSA t hoµt Urqvksa o ouLi fr; ksa esa ; g çksVhu ds #i esa l afpr jgrh gSA; g xSl ' ol u fØ; k esa l gk; d ugha gSa ft l l s ukbVªkst u ds ok; qe.My esa çkf.k; ksa dh eR; q gks l drh gSA m| ksxksa esabl dk ç; ksx ukbfVªd vEy o veksfu; k cukus esa fd; k t krk gSAukbVªkst u pØ

ukbVªkst u dk l cl s cM+k l zksr ok; qe.Myh; ukbVªkst u gS ysfdu t hoèkkjh o ouLi fr; ka l hèks ok; qe.My l sukbVªkst u çkIr ugha dj i krsA t hoèkkjh ukbVªkst u dks i sM+µi kSèkksa }kjk çksVhu ds #i esa çkIr djrs gSa rFkk i sM+ i kSèks bl sfeV~Vh esa feys gq; s fofHkUu ukbVªkst u yo.kksa l s çkIr djrs gSA t hoèkkfj ; ksa o i sM+µi kSèkks dks çkIr ; g ukbVªkst uok; qe.Myh; ukbVªkst u l s gh fofHkUu ; kSfxdksa] yo.kksa] veksfu; k] ukbfVªd vEy vkfn ds #i esa çkIr gksrh gS] ysfduok; qe.My esa ukbVªkst u dh ek=kk fi Qj Hkh fLFkj cuh jgrh gSA bl dk dkj.k ukbVªkst u pØ gSA ft l ds }kjk ok; qe.Mydh ukbVªkst u fofHkUu ; kSfxdksa o yo.kksa ds #i esa t hoèkkfj ; ksa rFkk i sM+µi kSèkksa }kjk çkIr dj yh t krh gSA ; g ukbVªkst ufofHkUu fØ; kvksa }kjk i qu% ok; qe.My esa i gq¡p t krh gS] ft l l s ok; qe.My esa dqy ukbVªkst u dh ek=kk fLFkj jgrh gSAouLi fr foKku

Botany ' kCn dh mRi fÙk xzhd Hkk"kk ds Boskein ' kCn l s gqbZ gSa ft l dk vFkZ gS pajukA bl h çdkj Boskein ' kCndh mRi fÙk xzhd Hkk"kk ds , d vU; ' kCn Bous l s gqbZ ft l dk vFkZ gS i ' kqA bl çdkj ouLi fr foKku og foKku gSft l ds }kjk i ' kqvksa ds pjus l s l EcfUèkr t hoèkkfj; ksa dk vè; ; u fd; k t krk gSA fFk; ksÝsLV~l us (370µ287 BC) 500i kSèkksa dh , d l wph l oZçFke cukbZ Fkh bUgsa ouLi fr foKku dk t ud ( Father of Botany) dgk t krk gSA

ouLi fr foKku esa i kSèkksa ds vkdkj] okg~; , oa vkUrfjd jpuk] ' kkjhfjd fØ; k] çdk”k l a' ys"k.k] vkuqokaf' kdrk]çt uu vkfn dk vè; ; u fd; k t krk gSAdksf' kdk

l eLr t hoèkkfj ; ksa ( i kni o t Urq) dk fuekZ.k vfr l w{e dksf” kdkvksa l s gqvkA fdl h Hkh t ho esa gksus okyhl Hkh fØ; k, a ml dh ?kVd dksf' kdkvksa esa gksus okyh fofHkUu t So fØ; kvksa ds dkj.k gksrhA dksf' kdk, a vkuqokaf' kd bdkbZHkh gS rFkk buesa vkuqokaf' kdrk ds xq.k mi fLFkr gksrs gSA t ho foKku esa dksf' kdk dk l af{kIr i fjp; fn; k t k pqdk gSAvr% ; gka t Urq o i kni dksf' kdkvksa esa l ekurk o v l ekurk gh ek=k fn; k t k; sxkAi kni rFkk t Urq dksf' kdkvksa dk rqyukRed vè; ; u

i kni o t Urq dksf' kdkvksa esa l ekurk, a ( Similarities Between Plant and Animal Cells) %1- t Urq dksf' kdk rFkk i kni dksf” kdk nksuksa esa i ryh] v¼Zi kjxE; rFkk t hfor IykTek f>Yyh i kbZ t krh gSA2- t Urq ; k i kni nksuksa dksf' kdkvksa esa ekbVksdkWfUMª; k mi fLFkr gksrs gS] t ks ' ol u ds dsUnzz gksrs gSA3- nksuksa dksf' kdkvksa esa çksVhu] ol k] dkcksZgkbMªsM rFkk foVkfeu vkfn dkcZfud i nkFkZ rFkk [ kfut yo.k] t y vkfn

ds #i esa vdkcZfud i nkFkZ mi fLFkr jgrs gSA



30

SCIECNE

4- t Urq rFkk i kni nksuksa dksf' kdkvksa esa dsUnzd i k; k t krk gS] t ks l Hkh t Sfod dk; ksZa dks fu; af=kr djrk gSA5- nksuksa çdkj dh dksf' kdkvksa esa dksf' kdknzO; i k; k t krk gSA

i kni rFkk t Urq dksf' kdk esa v ar jt Urq dksf' kdk ( Animal Cell) i kni dksf' kd ( Plant Cell)

1- t Urq dksf” kdk esa dksf' kdkµfHkfÙk ugha gksrhA bl ds pkjksa 1- i kni dksf' kdk ds pkjksa vksj dksf' kdkµfHkfÙk gksrh gS] t ks t honzO;dyk vksj ds #i esa , d t hfor f>Yyh gksrh gSA vt hfor i nkFkZ dSfY' k; e i SDVsV rFkk l SY; wykst l s

curh gSA2- t Urq dksf' kdkvksa esa rkjddk; mi fLFkr gksrh gS t ks 2- i kni dksf' kdkvksa esa rkjddk; mi fLFkr ugha gksrk gSA

dksf' kdk foHkkt u esa l gk; rk çnku djrk gSA3- ; fn t Urq dksf' kdkvksa esa / kuh mi fLFkr gksrh gS rks 3- i kni dksf” kdkvksa esa O; ki d fjfDrdk, a gksrh gS] t ks dksf' kdk og

vR; f/ d NksVh gksrh gSA jl l s Hkjh gksrh gSA4- t Urq dksf' kdkvksa esa Xykbdkst u ds #i esa l aj f{kr 4- i kni dksf' kdkvksa esa yod i k; k t krk gS] t ks i kni ksa dks

Hkkst u gksrk gSA fofHkUu jax çnku djrk gSA

5- t Urq dksf' kdkvksa esa çdk' k l a' ys"k.k dh fØ; k ugha gksrh gSA 5- gfjr dksf' kdkvksa esa çdk” k l a' ys"k.k dh fØ; k gksrh gSA

dksf' kdh; çt uu ; k dksf' kdk foHkkt ufdl h , d dksf” kdk l s nks dksf' kdkvksa dk cuuk gh dksf” kdk foHkkt u ( Cell Division) dgykrk gSa dksf' kdk

fl ¼kar ds vuql kj] i qjkuh dksf' kdkvksa ds foHkkt u l s u; h dksf' kdk; sa curh gSA dksf' kdk foHkkt u gh dksf' kdh; çt uugSA dksf' kdh; çt uu , d vko' ; d çfØ; k gS] t ks t hoksa dh of¼ , oa fodkl rFkk çt uu , oa ml dh fujarjrk( Continutiy) dks cuk; s j [ kus ds fy; s vko' ; d gSA l Hkh u; h dksf' kdk,a i qjkuh ; k i Srd dksf' kdkvksa ds foHkkt u l scurh gS] bl rF; dk l cl s i gys çfri knu uxsyh ( Naegeli) uked oSKkfud us fd; k FkkAdksf' kdk foHkkt u ds çdkjdksf' kdh; çt uu ; k dksf' kdk foHkkt u fuEu rhu çdkj dk gksrk gS %1- l el w=kh dksf' kdk foHkkt u2- v¼Zl w=kh dksf' kdk foHkkt u3- v l w=kh dksf' kdk foHkkt ul el w=kh dksf' kdk foHkkt u

bl s dkf; d dksf' kdk foHkkt u ( Somatic Cell Division) Hkh dgrs gSA bl foHkkt u dh [ kkst MCY; w Ýysfeaxus 1882 esa dh FkhA bl foHkkt u esa ekr dksf' kdk (Mother Cell) ; k ewy dksf' kdk nks l eku dksf' kdkvksa esa foHkkft rgks t krh gS] ft l esa xq.kl w=kksa dh l a[ ; k ekrµdksf' kdk ds l eku gh gksrh gS] bl hfy; s bl s l el w=kh dksf' kdk foHkkt u dgrsgSA ; g dksf' kdk foHkkt u dkf; d ; k nSfgd dksf' kdkvksa esa gksrk gSa dqN fuEu Js.kh ds t ho] ft uesa fu” kspu( Fertilisation) ugha gksrk bl h fofèk ds }kjk vySafxd çt uu djrs gSa mnkgj.k µ dod] ' kSoky] çksVkst ksvk bR; kfnAl el w=kh foHkkt u dk egÙo1- l el w=kh foHkkt u ds dkj.k gh t hoksa esa of¼ , oa fodkl gksrk gSA2- bl foHkkt u ds }kjk ekr dksf' kdkvksa ds l eku gh nks l arfr dksf' kdk; sa ( Daughter Cells) curh gSA3- dqN l w{e t ho bl foHkkt u ds }kjk gh vySafxd çt uu ( Asexual Reproducation) djrs gSA4- bl foHkkt u ds }kjk ' kjhj dh ejEer gksrh gS rFkk ' kjhj ds ?kko Hkjrs gSA



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v¼Zl w=kh dksf' kdk foHkkt ubl s U; wudkjh dksf' kdk foHkkt u ( Reduction Cell Division) Hkh dgrs gSA bl foHkkt u esa , d ekr' dksf' kdk

foHkkft r gksdj pkj l arfr dksf' kdk; sa cukrh gS] ft uesa xq.kl w=kksa dh l a[ ; k ekr dksf' kdk dh vkèkh jg t krh gS bl fy; sbl s v¼Zl w=kh ; k U; wudkjh dksf' kdk foHkkt u dgrs gSA

l el w=kh rFkk v ¼Zl w=kh foHkkt u esa v ar jl el w=kh foHkkt u v¼Zl wph foHkkt u

1- ; g foHkkt u dkf; d dksf' kdkvksa esa gksrk gSA 1- ; g foHkkt u t uu dksf' kdkvksa esa gksrk gSA2- bl foHkkt u esa de l e; yxrk gSA 2- bl foHkkt u esa v f/ d l e; yxrk gSA3- bl foHkkt u }kjk , d dksf' kdk l s nks 3- bl foHkkt u }kjk , d dksf' kdk l s pkj dksf' kdk; sa curh gSA

dksf’kdk; sa curh gSA4- bl foHkkt u l s t hoksa esa of¼ , oa fodkl 4- bl foHkkt u l s i kS/ ksa esa uj , oa eknk ; qXed rFkk t arqvksa esa gksrk gSA

' kqØk.kq , oa v .Mkxq curs gSA5- çksi Qst esa Økafl ax vksoj ugha gksrhA 5- çksi Qsl esa Økafl ax vksoj uked çfØ; k i k; h t krh gSA6- l sUVªksfe; j dk foHkkt u gksrk gSA 6- l sUVªksfe; j foHkkft r ugha gksrk gSA7- l Urfr dksf' kdkvksa ds xq.kl w=k t ud 7- l Urfr dksf' kdkvksa esa xq.kl w=kksa dh l a[ ; k t ud dksf' kdkvksa dh

dksf' kdkvksa ds l eku gksrs gSA rqyuk esa vk/ h gksrh gSA

v¼Zl w=kh foHkkt u dk egÙo1- bl foHkkt u ds dkj.k gh i h<+h nj i h<+h t hoksa dh dksf' kdkvksa esa xq.kl w=kksa dh l a[ ; k l eku cuh jgrh gSA2- bl foHkkt u ds }kjk t hoksa esa u; s xq.k i Snk gksus dh l aHkkouk gksrh gSA3- ; g foHkkt u t So fodkl ( Organic Evolution) esa l gk; rk djrk gSAv l w=kh foHkkt u

; g foHkkt u de fodfl r , ddksf' kdh; t hoksa esa i k; k t krk gSA t Sl s µ dod] ' kSoky] bR; kfnA bl foHkkt uesa i gys dsUnzd foHkkft r gksrk gS] fi Qj dksf' kdk nzO; A var esa nks dksf' kdk; sa cu t krh gSAfo"kk. kq

okbjl ' kCn dh mRi fÙk Virum ' kCn l s gq; h gSA 1898 esa yksi Qyj , oa ÚksLp us t kuojksa esa fo"kk.kq t fur jksxksads l acaèk esa egÙoi w.kZ l i Qyrk çkIr dhA rc bUgsa fo"kk.kq dgk x; kA fo” kk.kq t hfor dksf' kdkvksa esa i j t hoh ds #i esai k; s t krs gSa rFkk vusd çdkj dh chekfj; ka i QSykrs gSAfo"kk. kqvksa ds y{k. k1- ; s dsoy t hfor dksf' kdk esa gh of¼ , oa t uu dj l drs gSA2- ; s v i us pkjksa vksj ds okrkoj.k ds çfr l aosnu' khy gksrs gSA3- i ks"kd dksf' kdk ds ckgj buesa çt uu dh {kerk ugha i k; h t krh gSA4- i kSèkksa esa budk foLrkj Ýyks, e ds ekè; e l s , oa t arqvksa ds ' kjhj esa jDr ds ekè; e l s gksrk gSA5- , d fo"kk.kq dsoy , d fuf' pr t kfr dks gh l aØfer djrk gSA

fo"kk. kq l t ho , oa fut hZo ds chp dh dM+ha- l t hoksa ds xq. k1- l ajpukRed fofoèkrkA



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SCIECNE

2- vkj-, u-, - , oa Mh-, u-, - dh mi fLFkfrA3- t hoksa esa chekjh i QSykukA4- vkuqoaf' kdrk , oa i j t hforkA5- l aosnu' khyrk , oa mRi fjorZuAb- fut hZoks ds xq. k1- fØLVyhdj.kA2- dksf' kdk dk vHkkoA3- t honzO; dk vuqi fLFkr gksukA4- i ks"kd ds ckgj çt uu , oa of¼ ughaA5- i ks"kd o mi ki p; h fØ; kvksa dk vHkkoAbl hfy; s fo"kk.kqvksa dks l t hoksa , oa fut hZoks ds cht ks dh dM+h Hkh dgk t krk gSAfo"kk. kq dh l ajpukfo"kk.kq eq[ ; r; k xksykdkj ; k NM+ ds l eku gksrs gSA bl dh jpuk esa eq[ ; rhu Hkkx gksrs gS µ1- çksVhu dSfIl M2- U; wfDyd vEy3- vkoj.kfo"kk. kqvksa ds çdkjfo"kk.kq ; k ok; j l pkj çdkj ds gksrs gS µ1- i kni ok; j l i kS/ ksa esa i k; s t krs gSA2- t Urq ok; j l t Urqvksa esa i k; s t krs gSA3- uhys&gjs ' kSoky ok; j l uhy&gfjr ' kSokyksa dh dksf' kdkvksa esa i k; s t krs gSA4- t hok.kqHkkst h ; s t hok.kq dksf' kdkvksa esa i k; s t krs gSAfo"kk. kqvksa l s ykHknk; d fØ; k; sa1- buesa l t ho , oa fut hZo nksuksa ds xq.k i k; s t kus ds dkj.k budk mi ; ksx t So fodkl ds vè; ; u esa fd; k t kk

gSA2- ; s uhysµgjs ' kSokyksa dh l i QkbZ djus esa l gk; d gksrs gSA3- budh l gk; rk l s i kuh dks [ kjkc gksus l s cpk; k t krk gSA t hok.kqHkkst h i kuh dks l M+us l s jksdrk gSAfo"kk. kqvksa l s gkfufo"kk.kq i kSèkksa] t kuojksa , oa euq"; ksa esa vusd çdkj ds jksx mRi Uu djrs gS µa. i kSèkksa ds j ksx

i Ql y dk uke jksx dk uke1. pqdUnj ( Beet) , saBk gqvk fl f' kjksHkkx (Twisted Apex)2. fHk.Mh (Lady Finger) i hyh ukM+h ekst sd ( Yellow Vein Mosaic)3. xUuk (Sugercane) r ' .k l eku ojksg ( Grass Shoot Disease)



33

SCIECNE

4. i i hrk ( Papaya) ekst sd ( Mosaic)5. dsyk ( Banana) ekst sd ( Mosaic)6. fry ( Seasamum) fi QYyksMh (Phyllody)7. l j l ksa ( Mustard) ekst sd ( Mosaic)8. cknke (Almond) js[ kk i SVuZ ( Streak Pattern)9. uhacw (Lemon) ukM+h dk Ård {k; u ( Yellowing of Veins)10. VekVj (Tomato) i fÙk; ksa dh , saBu ( Twisted Leaf Disesase)b. i ' kqv ksa ds j ksx

i ' kq dk uke ok; j l dk uke j ksx dk uke1. xk; oSfj; ksyk oSDl hfu; k pspd2. HkSal i kWDl fofjMh vkFkksZi kWDl pspd3. pkSi k; sa jSCMksfofjMh oSl ksD; wyks ok; j l Toj4. xk; Cyw Vax ok; j l Cyw Vax5. xk; gi hZt ok; j l gi hZt6. xk; , oa HkSal i SjkfeDl ksfojhMh eksjfoyh ok; j l fj .Mi sLV fMt ht7. xk; , oa HkSal fi dksjukfojhMh , i QFkks ok; j l eqagi dk , oa [ kqj i dk8. pkSi k; s ( fo' ks"kr; k% dqÙkk) LVªhV ok; j l jSchtt hok. kq

t hok.kq Dykjskfi Qy foghu] çksdSfj; ksfVd dksf' kdk okys l jy dksf' kdh; l w{e t ho gSA t hoèkkfj ; ksa ds oxhZdj.kesa bUgsa t xrµeksusjk (Kingdom Monera) ds varxZr j [ kk t krk gSA

t hok.kqvksa dh [ kkst l oZçFke 1683 esa gkyS.M ds oSKkfud , .Vksuhoku Y; wosugkWd us dh FkhA bUgksusa v i us }kjkvkfo"dkj dh x; h l w{en' khZ ( Microscope) esa l oZçFke t hok.kqvksa dks ns[ kk rFkk mUgsa , uheSyhD; wy (Animalecule)dgkA , jsucxZ (1829) us bu l w{et hfo; ksa dks l oZçFke cSDVhfj; k uke fn; kA t hok.kqvksa ds vè; ; u ds {ks=k esa, .Vksuhoku Y; wosugkWd ds ; ksxnku ds dkj.k bUgsa t hok.kq foKku dk fi rk ( Father of Bacteriology) dgrs gSAv kokl , oa fo' ks"krk; savkokl

t hok.kq l Hkh LFkkuksa i j i k; s t krs gSA t gka dgha Hkh t hou l aHko gS] ogka t hok.kq i k; s t krs gSa ; s t ehu] t y]t M+] i kSèks] ' kjhj] l eqnz] ci QZ] pV~Vku bR; kfn l Hkh t xg i k; s t krs gSAvkdkj ( Shape)t hok.kq fuEu pkj #i ksa esa i k; sa t krs gS µ1- NM+kdkj NM+ ds vkdkj dsA2- xksykdkj xksy vkdkj dsA3- dksekdkjvYi fojke ds fpUg ds vkdkj dsA4- l fi Zykdkj fLçax ; k LØw ds vkdkj dsA



34

SCIECNE

t hok. kqvksa esa i ks"k. kt hok.kqvksa esa nks çdkj dk i ks” k.k i k; k t krk gSAa. Loi ks” kh t hok. kq µ ; s v i uk Hkkst u Lo; a cukrs gSA bl ds varxZr nks rjg ds t hok.kq vkrs gS µ1- çdk' k l a' ys"kh t hok.kq2- j l k; u l a' ys"kh t hok.kqb. fo” kei ks” kh t hok. kq µ ; s v i uk Hkkst u nwl js t hoksa l s çkIr djrs gSA ; s rhu çdkj ds gksrs gS µ3- i j t hoh4- erksi t hoh5- l gt hoht hok. kqvksa esa çt uut hok.kqvksa esa çt uu fuEu rhu fofèk; ksa }kjk gksrk gSµ1- ySfxd çt uu2- vySfxd çt uu3- oèkhZ çt uut hok. kqvksa l s mRi Uu gksus okyh chekfj ; kat hok.kqvksa ds dkj.k i kSèkksa] euq” ; ksa , oa t arqvksa esa vusd çdkj dh chekfj; ka mRi Uu gksrh gSA budk o.kZu fuEukuql kj gS

µ1- i kSèkksa dh chekfj ; ka µ t hok.kq i kSèkksa esa vusd çdkj dh chekfj; ka i QSykrs gS µchekj h dk uke dkjd t hok. kq1. vkyw dk ' kSfFky jksx ( Patato Wilt) L; wMkseksukl l ksyssusl hje (Pseudomonas Solanacearum)2. èkku dk CykbV ( Blight of Rice) t SUFkkseksukl vksjkbt h (Xanthomonas Oryzea)3. uhcw dk dSadj jksx ( Citrus Canker) t SUFkkseksukl fl Vªh (Xanthomonas Citri)4. chu CykbV (Bean Blight) t SUFkksekukl i Qsft ; ksyh (Xanthomonas Phaseoli)5. i ksVSVks LdSc ( Potato Scab) LVªSIVksekbfl l LdScht (Streptomyces Scabies)6. di kl dk CySd vkeZ jksx t SUFkkseksukl ekYosl hje

( Black Arm of Cotton) ( Xanthomonas Malvacearum)t hok. kqvksa dk v kfFkZd egÙot hok.kq gkfudkjd rFkk ykHknk; d nksuksa gksrs gSA budk o.kZu fuEukuql kj gS µa. t hok. kqvksa dh gkfudkj d fØ; k; sa1- chekfj ; ka µ t hok.kq i kSèksa] t arqvksa , oa euq” ; ksa esa vusd çdkj dh chekfj; ka mRi Uu djrs gSA budk o.kZu i gys

gh fd; k t k pqdk gSA2- Hkkst u dks fo” kSyk cukuk µ dqN t hok.kq [ kk| i nkFkksZ dks fo"kSyk cuk nss gSA bl l s [ kkus okys dh eR; q rd

gks t krh gSA3- foukbVªhd j . k µ dqN t hok.kq Hkwfe dh mi ; ksxh ukbVªkst u dks veksfu; k , oa N2 esa i fjofrZr dj nsrs gSA bl l s



35

SCIECNE

Hkwfe dh moZjk ' kfDr de gks t krh gSA4- Hkwfexr i kbi ksa esa l M+u i Snk d j uk µ dqN t hok.kq Hkwfe esa i k; s t kus okys l Yi QsV~l dks v i pf; r dj nsrs

gS] bl l s cncw i Snk gksrh gSA ; g çfØ; k t c Hkwfexr i kni ksa esa gksrh gS rks mul s nqxZèk vkus yxrh gSAb. t hok. kqvksa dh ykHknk; d fØ; k; sa1- peM+k m| ksx µ t hok.kqvksa dk mi ; ksx bl m| ksx esa fd; k t krk gSA t hok.kq peM+s dh ol k dk fo?kVu dj

nsrs gSA2- vkS” kfèk m| ksx µ vkS” kfèk; ka cukus ds fy; s çfrt Sfod , oa dqN ,Ut kbEl mi ; ksx esa yk; s t krs gS] ft Ugsa

t hok.kqvksa l s çkIr fd; k t krk gSA çfrt Sfod ( Antibiotics) os i nkFk gS] t ks l w{et hoksa ( Micro-Organism)}kjk mRi Uu fd; s t krs gSa rFkk l w{et hoksa dks fou”V djrs gSA t hok.kqvksa }kjk mRi kfnr dqN çeq[ k çfrt SfodfuEukuql kj gS µ

çfr t Sfod t hok. kq1. Vsjkekbfl u LVsªIVksekbfl l jseksl e2. LVsªIVksekbfl u LVsªsIVksekbfl l fxzfl ; l3. Dyksjksekbfl fVu LVsªIVksekbfl l osust q, yh4. fuvksekbfl u LVsªIVksekbfl l ÝksMh3- fl j dk m| ksx µ bl m| ksx esa , l hVkscSDVj , fl Vh uked t hok.kq }kjk fl jdk cuk; k t krk gSA fl jdk] [ kk|

çl aLdj.k m| ksx dk egRoi w.kZ j l k; u gSA4- j s' ks fudkyuk µ js' ks çnku djus okys fofHkUu i kSèkksa t Sl s µ l u] i Vl u] t wV bR; kfn l s DykLVªhfM; e

C; wVhfj; e uked t hok.kq dh l gk; rk l s js' ks fudkys t krs gSA ; g fØ; k jsfVax dgykrh gSA5- Ms; jh m| ksx µ nwèk esa mi fLFkr ySfDVd , fl M t hok.kq nwèk dh ySDVkst ' kdZjk dks ngh ; k ySfDVd , fl M esa

cnyrs gSA ft l l s eD[ ku çkIr fd; k t krk gSAnwèk l s cuus okys mRi kn , oa ml esa Hkkx ysusa okys t hok. kq

nqXèk mRi kn t hok. kq1. eD[ ku ( Butter) LVsªIVksdkWdl ySfDVl2. NkN ; k eV~Bk (Buttermilk) LVsªIVksdkWdl ySfDVl3. ngh (Curd) ySDVkscSfl yl , oa LVsª- ySfDVl4. i uhj ( Cheese) ySDVkscSfl yl ySfDVl5. ; ksxgVZ (Yoghurt) LVSª- FkeksZfi Qyl , oa ySDVks- cYxsfj l4- Ñf"k ds {ks=k esa µ t hok.kq] Ñf"k dh mi t kÅ ' kfDr dks fuEu nks çdkj l s c<+krs gSAa. ukbVªhdkj d t hok. kq % ; s t hok.kq veksfu; k dks ukbVªkbV , oa ukbVªkbV dks ukbVªsV esa i fjofrZr dj nsrs gSA bl esa

Hkwfe dh moZjk ' kfDr esa of¼ gksrh gSAb- ukbVªkst u LFkjhd j . k % dqN t hok.kq t Sl s , t ksVkscSDVj ; k DykWLVªhfM; e Hkwfe esa ukbVªkst u LFkjhdj.k (Nitrogen

Fixation) djrs gSA bl l s Hkh Hkwfe dh moZjk ' kfDr c<+rh gSAdod ( Fungi)1 t hoksa ds vkèkqfud oxhZdj.k ds vuql kj] t hoe.My ds l Hkh cgqdksf' kdh; ] Dyksjksfi Qyjfgr] dksf' kdkfHkfÙk; qDr

rFkk l wdk; ' kjhj okys t hoksa dks dod t xr~ ds varxZr l fEefyr fd; k x; k gSA



36

SCIECNE

çeq[ k y{k. k1- ; s cgqdksf' kdh; ; wdSfj; ksfVd t ho gSA2- i j t hoh ; k erksi t hoh gksrs gSA3- cht k.kqvksa ds }kjk t uu djrs gSA4- ; s l oZO; ki h gksrs gSa rFkk budh dksf' kdk fHkfÙk dkbfVu dh cuh gksrh gSA5- budk ' kjhj vusd i rys rarqvksa dk cuk gksrk gS] ft Ugsa dod rarq dgrs gSA ; s vki l es feydj dod t ky

cukrs gSA6- ; s v i uk Hkkst u vo' kksf” kr djrs gSA7- vySafxd rFkk ySafxd nksuksa fofèk; ksa }kjk t uu djrs gSA8- buesa i w.kZ fodfl r dksf' kdkax i k; s t krs gSAvkokl

dod t y] Fky , oa ok; q gj t xg i k; s t krs gSA ; s l gt hoh] i jt hoh , oa e' rksi t hoh ds #i esa i k; s t krs gSA; s l kekU; r; k% ue , oa de çdk' k okys LFkku esa i k; s t krs gSA

l ajpuk µ dodksa dh dksf' dkvksa esa l Hkh fodfl r dksf' kdkax i k; s t krs gSA t Sl sµekbVksdkWfUMª; k] jkbcksl kse]xkYxhdk; bR; kfnA dodksa esa Dyksjksfi Qy dk i w.kZr; k vHkko i k; k t krk gS] bl fy; sa ; s v i uk Hkskt u ugha cuk i krs gSAdod dksf' kdk ds pkjksa vksj dksf' kdk fHkfÙk i k; h t krh gS] t k dkbfVu dh cuh gksrh gSA

i ks"k. k µ Dyksjksfi Qy dh vuqi fLFkfr ds dkj.k dod v i uk Hkkst u ugha cuk i krsA vr% ; s fo” kei ks” kh gksrsgSA ; s v i uk Hkkst u pwl dj çkIr djrs gSA os dod t ks nwl js t hoksa l s v i uk Hkkst u çkIr djrs gS mUgsa i j t hoksa dgrsgSA dqN dod , sl s gksrs gS] t ks nwl js t hoksa l s Hkkst u rks çkIr djrs gS i jarq mUgsa fdl h çdkj l s gkfu ugha i gapkrs] , sl sdodksa dks l gt hoh dgrs gSA dqN dod , sl s gksrs gS] t ks l M+sµxys , oa er dkcZfud i nkFkksZa l s v i uk Hkkst u çkIr djrsgS] erksi t hoh dgrs gSAdodksa dk vkfFkZd egRRoykHknk; d dod % dod fuEu #i ksa esa ykHknk; d gksrs gS µ1 dodksa l s vusd çdkj ds , .Vhck; ksfVDl çkIr fd; s t krs gS] t ks dbZ çfl ¼ vkS"kfèk; ka gSA

dod dk uke çkIr gksus okyk , .Vhck; ksfVd1- i suhl hfy; e ukWVsVe i sful hfyu2- i sful hfy; e Dysohi QksehZ DySfofl u3- i s- fl fVªue l kbfVªfuu4- i s- xzhfl ; ksÝ; wfYou xzhfl ; ksQyfcu5- i s- I; wcs#ye I; wcsfjd , fl M6- VªkbdksMekZ fXyvksVkWfDl u1 dod Hkwfe esa i M+s gq; s l M+s&xys i nkFkksZa dks v i ?kfVr djds vU; i nkFkksZa esa i fjofrZr dj nsrs gSA ; s i nkFkZ moZjd

ds l eku dk; Z djrs gSa rFkk Hkwfe dh moZjrk c<+krs gSA2 dqN dod [ kkus esa ç; qDr fd; s t krs gSA jksesfj ; k] Dysosfl ; k] , xSfjdl ykbdksi jxu dks e' k#e ds #i esa [ kk; k

t krk gSA e' k#e esa cgqr vfèkd çksVhu gksrk gSA ekjpsyk] ft l s xqPNh dgrs gS] Hkh [ kkus esa ç; ksx fd; k t krkgSA



37

SCIECNE

3 dbZ dod t Sl s µ jksMksVq#yk ukbVªkst u LFkjhdj.k djrs gS rFkk Hkwfe dk mi t kÅi u c<+krs gSA4 ; hLV rFkk dqN vU; dodksa dk ç; ksx fd.ou }kj ' kjkc cukus esa fd; k t krk gSA ; s dod ,Ut kbEl dh

l gk; rk l s dkcksZgkbMªsV ; qDr i nkFkksZa dk fd.ou djds ml s ' kjkc esa i fjofrZr dj nsrs gSA5 ; hLV rFkk dqN dodksa dk mi ; ksx csdjh m| ksx esa fd; k t krk gSA vkVs dks xwaFkdj muesa bu dodksa dks feyk

nsus l s McyjksVh i Qwydj Li at h gks t krh gSA6 i Suhl hfy; e jksD; wi QVkZbZ bR; kfn dodksa dk ç; ksx nwèk l s i uhj cukus esa fd; k t krk gSA7 dodksa ds }kjk dbZ çdkj ds vEyksa , oa jkl k; fud i nkFkksZa dk fuekZ.k fd; k t krk gSA t Sl s µ E; wdj rFkk

jkbt ksi l dh l gk; rk l s Ý; wesfjd vEy] , Li j ft yl ukbxj l s l kbfVªd vEy rFkk i suhl hfy; e i j I; wjkst suel s Xywdksfud vEy cuk; k t krk gSA

8 dqN dodksa }kjk cuk; s x; s i nkFkZ dhVksa dks u” V dj nsrs gSA og çfØ; k] ft l esa , d t ho ds i nkFkZ l s nwl jst ho dks u” V dj fn; k t krk gS t Sfod fu; a=k.k dgykrh gSA

i kSèkks ds j ksxj ksx dk uke mRi Uu d j us okyk dod

1. èkku dk i kni foxyu ( Foot rot of paddy) Ý; wl sfj ; e eksuhyhi QkWjes2. ewaxi Qyh dk fVDdk jksx (Tikka disease of groundnut) l jdksLi ksjk i j l ksusVk , oa l - , jkphMhdksyk3. vkyw dk foyafcr vaxekjh ( Late blight of potato) i QkbVksIFksjk bUi QsLVsUl4. ewyh] ' kyxe] xksHkh vkSj l j l ksa enqjksfey vkfl rk i sjksuksLi ksjk i Sjkl kbfVdk5. vkyw dk i woZ vaxekjh ( Early blight of potato) vkYVjusfj ; k l ksysukbZ6. xsgw¡ dk pw.kZ vkfl rk ( Powdery mildew of wheat) bjhl kbi Qh xzsfeuh7. i i hrk dk i Qy foxyu ( Foot rot of papaya) i kbfFk; e , i QkbuhMjesVl8. ckt jk dk e' nqjksfey vkfl rk ( Downy mildew of bajra) LDysjksLi ksjk xzsfeuhdksyk9. vaxwj dk enqjksfey vkfl rk ( Downy mildew of grape) Iykl eksi Qksjk foVhdksyk10. èkku dk caV ( Bunt of paddy) fVYysfV; k bfUMdk11. l se dk fdV~V ( Rust of beans) ; wjksekbl sl , i sUMhdqysVl12. vjgj dh Eykuh ( Wilt of arhar) Ý; wl sfj ; e vkDl hLi ksje13. xUus dk yky foxyu ( Red rot of sugarcane) dksysVksVªkbde i QkydsVeLej . kh; rF;1 fo' o dk l cl s cM+k i kSèkk Seouoia Dendron gS] ft l dh ÅapkbZ 90 ehVj rFkk O; kl 13 ehVj gksrk gSA2 l cl s yack vkorcht h i kSèkk ; wdsfyfIVl ( Eucalyptus) gSA3 fo' o dk l cl s NksVk i q"i h; oksfYi Q; k ( Wolfia) gksrk gSA4 l cl s cM+k i Qwy jSÝyhfl ; k ( Rafflesia) gksrk gSA5 l cl s NksVk cht vkfdZM~l ds gksrs gSA6 l cl s cM+h i Ùkh foDVksfj; k jsft ; k (Victoria Regia) dh gksrh gSA7 vehck dHkh ejrk ugha gSA ; g l nSo vej jgrk gSA8 fo' o dk l cl s vfèkd mez okyk t ho fl dksvk i kSèkk gS bl dh mez 3000 l s 4000 o"kZ gksrh gsA



38

SCIECNE

9 dksf' kdk ds #i esa t hoksa dk fodkl bl çdkj l s gqvk( l cl s i gys eksusjkµfi Qj çksfVLVkµfi QjµIYkk.Vh], uhesfy; k , oa i Qat kbZA

10 i Foh i j cuus okys çFke çdk' k l a' ys” kh t ho l k; ukst hok.kq FksA11 t hoksa ds oxhZdj.k dk l cl s i gys O; ofLFkr ç; kl fgIi ksØsV~l , oa v jLrw us fd; k FkkA12 pjd* dks vk; qosZn dk t ud ekuk t krk gSA13 Li h' kht ( Species) ' kCn dk l cl s i gys ç; ksx t kWu js* us fd; k FkkA14 vkfLVªp i {kh dk vaMk l cl s cM+h t arq dksf' kdk gksrh gSA15 [ kfut i nkFkZ gekjs ' kjhj dh mi ki p; h fØ; kvksa dk fu; a=k.k djrs gSA16 eSXuhf' k; e vkSj dSfYl ; e ds yo.k Lrjhdj.k }kjk nkarksa , oa gfM~M; ksa dks et cwr cukrs gSA17 çkÑfrd #i l s i k; h t kus okyh ' kdZjkvksa esa ÝDVkst l cl s ehBh ' kdZjk gksrh gSA18 rsyh; , oa ol k t Sl s i nkFkksZa dks fyfi M dgrs gSA19 vehuks vEy çksVhu dk l a' ys"k.k djrs gSA20 i Qyksa ds j l esa ÝDVkst ' kdZjk gksrh gSA21 Ård l aoèkZu ( Tissue Culture) og rduhdh gS] ft l esa dksf' kdk , oa dksf' kdkvksa ds l ewg dks ' kjhj ds ckgj

Ñf=ke HkksT; i nkFkksZa ds ekè; e l s ft Unk j[ kk t krk gSA22 l Hkh Loi ks"kh] çdk' k l a' ys"k.k djus okys cgqdksf' kdh; t hoksa dks i kni ksa ( i kSèkksa) dh Js.kh esa j[ kk t krk gSA23 ft u i kSèkksa esa i q” i curs gS] mUgsa i q"i h; i kni dgrs gSA24 jSÝysf' k; k i kSèks dk i Qwy l al kj dk l cl s cM+k i Qwy gksrk gSA25 Li ft Zyl uked dod l s Mk; LVst uked , Ut kbe çkIr gksrk gSA26 i sful hfy; e dh dqN t kfr; ka i uhj cukus ds dke vkrh gSAi kni t xr

t hoksa ds vkèkqfud oxhZdj.k ds vuql kj] t hoe.My ( Biosphere) ds l Hkh cgqdksf' kdh; ] ; wdSfj; ksfVddksf' kdk okys] gfjryo.k ; qDr] çdk' k l a' ys"kh , oa Loi ks"kh ( Autotrophs) t hoksa dks bl t xr esa j[ kk x; k gSAvkèkqfud oxhZdj.k ds vkèkkj i j i kni t xr dks fuEu çdkj l s oxhZÑr fd; k x; k gS µ

i kni t xr ( Plant Kingdom)' kSoky VSªfd; ksi QkbVk VSfjMksi QkbVk vuko' rcht h vko' rcht h l kbyksi QkbVk l kbdsMksi QkbVk

, d cht i =kh ykbdksi QkbVkvkFkksZi QkbVk fi Qfydksi QkbVk dksuhi Qsjki QkbVk f}cht i =kh

' kSoky ( Algae)' kSoky i .kZgfje; qDr] l aogu Ård j fgr] FkSyksi QkbV~l gS ft uds FkSayl esa okLrfod t M+sa] ruk rFkk i fÙk; ka vkfn

ugha gksrsA buesa l w{e , ddks' kh; i kSèkksa l s ysdj fo' kkydk; cgqdks' kh; i kSèks i k; s t krs gSA buesa t uukax çk; % , ddks' kh;gksrs gS] ; | fi dqN Hkwjs jax ds ' kSokyksa esa ; s cgqdks' kh; Hkh gksrs gSA ouLi frµfoKku dh og ' kk[ kk ft l esa ' kSoky dkvè; ; u djrs gS] i QkbdksykWt h ( Phycology) dgykrh gSA' kSokyksa dk vkfFkZd egÙofuEufyf[ kr dkj.kksa l s ' kSoky euq” ; t kfr ds fy, mi ; ksxh fl ¼ gksrs gS µ1 ' kSoky [ kk| ds #i esaµ ' kSokyksa esa dkcksZgkbMªsV~l ] vdkcZfud i nkFkZ rFkk foVkfeUl çpqj ek=kk esa i k; s t krs



39

SCIECNE

gSA foVkfeu , ] l h] Mh vkSj b buesa eq[ ; #i l s gksrs gSA fi Q; ksi Qk; l h oxZ dk ' kSoky i ksji Qkbjk (Porphyra) l kekU;#i l s t ki ku esa [ kk; k t krk gSA t ki ku rFkk fudVorhZ ns' kksa esa , ysfj ; k ( Alaria) ] vyok ( Ulva) ] l kjxkl e( Sargassum) ] ysfeusfj ; k (Laminaria) vkfn ' kSoky ' kkd ds #i esa ç; ksx fd; s t krs gSA ysfeusfj ; k ( Laminaria)uked ' kSoky l s vk; ksMhu ( Iodine) mRi Uu gksrh gSA vyok ( Ulva) dks çk; % l eqnzh l ykn dgrs gSA

dqN ' kSokyksa t Sl s t syhfM; e ( Gelidium) ] xzsl hysfj ; k ( Gracilaria) vkfn l s vxkjµvxkj ( Agar-Agar)uked i nkFkZ i nkFkZ çkIr gksrk gS t ks fd t Syh rFkk vkbl Øhe cukus ds dke vkrk gSA1 ' kSoky O; ol k; esa µ Mkb, VEl ] Mkb, Vksesf' k; l enk dk fuekZ.k djrh gS t ks fuEufyf[ kr #i l s mi ; ksxh gS

µ1. phuh feyksa esa t hok.kq NUuksa ds #i ksa esaA2. dkap rFkk i ksfl Zysu ds fuekZ.k esaA3. ckW; yj rFkk okr HkV~Vh esa jksèkh ds #i esaA4. èkkrq çysi ] okfuZ' k] i kfy' k rFkk VwFki sLV ds fuekZ.k ds fy, v i ?k"kZd ds #i esaA5. nzo ukbVªksfXyl jhu ds vo' kks” kd ds #i esaA2 t ki ku esa l kjxkl e l s Ñf=ke Åu dk fuekZ.k fd; k t krk gSA dsjkMªl uked ' kSoky l s ' ysf"ed uked i nkFkZ

fudkyk t krk gS ft l dk ç; ksx Ükaxkjµçl kèkuksa] t wrksa dh i kfy' k rFkk ' ksEi w vkfn cukus esa gksrk gSA3 ukbVªkst u fLFkj hd j . k µ feDl ksi Qkbl h oxZ ds i kSèksa t Sl s uksLVksd] , ukchuk vkfn ok; qe.Myh; rkfRod

ukbVªkst u dks i kSèkksa ds dke esa vkus ; ksX; ; kSfxdksa esa i fjofrZr djrs gSA4 ' kSoky dk vkS"kèkh; egÙo µ Dyksjsyk l s , d çfrt Sfod Dyksjsyhu rS; kj dh t krh gSA dkjk rFkk ukbVsyk

uked ' kSoky t yk' k; ksa esa mi fLFkr ePNjksa dks ekjdj eysfj ; k mUewyu esa l gk; d gksrs gSAykbdsu ( Lichens)

ykbdsu , d Loi ks” kh] l a; qDr] l gt hoh , oa l wdk; or t ho gS] ft uesa dod rFkk ' kSoky l kFkµl kFk l a; qDr #il s jgrs gSA bl s i kni t xr dk gh l nL; ekuk t krk gS D; ksafd ; g gjk] Loi ks” kh , oa cgqdksf' kdh; gksrk gSA ykbdsuesa dod , oa ' kSoky nksuksa , dµnwl js dks l gk; rk i gqapkrs gSA , sl s l acaèk dks l gt hoh l acaèk dgrs gSA ykbdsu esa dodrFkk ' kSoky vki l esa bruh ?kfu"Vrk ds l kFk jgrs gSA fd ; s , d gh i kSèks ds l eku fn[ kkbZ nsrs gSA ; s ue Hkwfe] i sM+dh Nky] pV~Vkuksa] ydM+h ds yV~Bs] i sM+ks dh Nky rFkk fo' ks"k #i l s ueh okys LFkkuksa esa mxrs gSAykbdsu l s ykHk1 i sYVht sjk l s gkbMªksi Qksfc; k ds fy, ] bokfuZ; k l s di Q ds fy, rFkk DySMksfu; k l s Toj ds fy, vkS"kfèk cuk; h

t krh gSA2 dqN ykbdsUl l qxafèkr Hkh gksrs gS] ft udk mi ; ksx l qxafèkr l kcqu] vxjcÙkh] gou l kexzh bR; kfn ds cukusa esa

ç; ksx fd; s t krs gSA t Sl s µ jSesykbuk bR; kfnA3 ykbdsu euq” ; rFkk vU; t hoksa }kjk Hkkst u ds #i esa Hkh ç; ksx fd; k t krk gSA t Sl s µ yhdsuksjk] i kesZfy; k]

DySMksfu; k bR; kfnA4 dqN ykbdsuksa dk ç; ksx pV~Vkuksa l s [ kfut yo.kksa dks çkIr djus esa fd; k t krk gSA5 dqN ykbdsu di M+k rFkk peM+sa dh oLrqvksa dks jaxus ds dke esa ç; qDr fd; s t krs gSAykbdsu l s gkfu1 xfeZ; ksa esa ykbdsu l w[ k t krs gSa rFkk t axyksa esa vkx yxus i j ml s rst h l s i QSyk nsrs gSA



40

SCIECNE

2 ykbdsu ydfM; ksa] dkapksa , oa nhokjksa dks Hkh u” V dj nsrs gSAczk; ksi QkbVk

czk; ksi QkbVk ds l nL; t y , oa Fky nksuksa esa i k; s t krs gSA bl fy; s bl çHkkx dks i kni t xr dk mHk; pj dgrsgSA bUgsa çFke LFkyh; i kSèkk Hkh ekuk t krk gSA ; s ue {ks=kksa t Sl sµ >hyksa] >juksa] ufn; ksa ds fdukjs rFkk i qjkuh ue nhokjksabR; kfn esa i k; s t krs gSA o”kkZ ds fnuksa esa bUgsa nhokjksa i j gjh pknj ds #i ns[ kk t k l drk gSA

buesa gfjryod gksrs gSA fu”kspu ds fy; s t y vko' ; d gksrk gSA vkSj ' kjhj FksSyl uqek gksrk gSA buds t uuvax cgqdksf' kdh; gksrs gSA ekdSZfU' k; k] fj fDl ; k] uksVksFkk; yl ] , UFksfl jkWl , oa ekWl bl ds mnkgj.k gSAegÙo1 ekWl ds i kSèks esa t y vo' kks"k.k dh {kerk ds dkj.k ' kk[ kkvksa ds jksi .k esa ç; ksx fd; k t krk gSA2 budk mi ; ksx ?kkoksa dh Msªfl ax , oa xn~nksa dks Hkjus esa fd; k t krk gSA3 ; s Hkwfe ds dVko dks jksdus esa l gk; rk djrs gSAVSªfd ; ksi QkbVk

VSªfd; ksi QkbVk çHkkx dh vc rd yxHkx 2 yk[ k 75 gt kj t kfr; ksa dh [ kkst dh t k pqdh gSA ; s t hoe.MyrFkk euq"; ds fy; s l cl s vfèkd mi ; ksxh , oa ykHknk; d i kSèks gksr gSAVSªfd; ksi QkbVk rhu mi µçHkkxka esa ckaVk x; k gSA1- VSfjMksi QkbVk2- ft EuksLi EeZ ( i jh{kk ds egÙoi w.kZ)3- , aft ; ksLi eZ ( i jh{kk ds egÙoi w.kZ)vuko' Ùkcht h

mu i kSèkksa dks bl esa j[ krs gSA ft uds cht esa vkoj.k ugha i k; k t krk gSA ; s i kSèks eq[ ; #i l s l nkcgkj ouksa , oai gkM+h {ks=kksa esa i k; s t krs gSAy{k. k1 cht ks esa vkoj.k ugha i k; k t krk gSA2 t kbye , oa Ýyks,e i k; s t krs gSA3 bl oxZ ds i kSèks cgqo"khZ rFkk dk"Bh; gksrs gSA4 i jkx.k ok; q }kjk gksrk gSAegÙo1 bu i kSèkksa l s t ykÅ , oa bekjrh ydM+h çkIr gksrh gSA2 i kbul dh i fÙk; ksa l s rkj i hu dk rsy fudkyk t krk gS] ft l dk mi ; ksx vkS"kfèk; ksa ds fuekZ.k rFkk jaxµjksxu

bR; kfn cukus esa fd; k t krk gSA3 l kbdl ds rus l s l kcwnkuk cuk; k t krk gSA4 i kbul t sjkjfM; kuk ds cht dks l q[ kkdj fpyxkst k ds uke l s [ kk; k t krk gSA5 bi QsMªk l s bi QsMªhu uked nek dh vkS” kfèk cuk; h t krh gSA6 nSonkj l s l hMj vk; y çkIr gksrk gS] ft l l s b=k] l kcqu o jax cukus esa ç; ksx fd; k t krk gSA7 l kbdl dh i fÙk; ksa l s jLl h o >kMw cuk; h t krh gSA



41

SCIECNE

8 dqN dksfui Ql Z ds js' kksa l s dkxt cuk; k t krk gSAvko' r cht h

mu i kSèkksa dks j [ kk t krk gS] ft uds cht ksa esa vkoj.k i k; k t krk gSA bl l eqnk; ds i kSèkksa ds i kSèkksa i q” i h; i kniHkh dgrs gSa D; ksafd buesa i w.kZ fodfl r i q” i i k; s t krs gSA vc rd , aft ; ksi eZ dh yxHkx 2 yk[ k 50 gt kj t kfr; ksadks [ kkst k t k pqdk gSA ; s i Foh ds l cl s vfèkd fodfl r i kni gSAy{k. k1 l kekU; r; k i kSèks LFkyh; gksrs gSa fdarq dqN t y esa Hkh i k; s t krs gSA2 budk l aogu ra=k cgqr vfèkd fodfl r gksrk gSA3 buds çt uu vax i q” i gksrs gSA4 buesa nksgjs fu” kspu dh fØ; k i k; h t krh gSA5 ; s okrkoj.k ds çfr cgqr vfèkd vuqdwfyr gksrs gSA6 ; s erksi t hoh] i j t hoh] l gt hoh] dhVHk{kh rFkk Loi ks” kh ds #i esa i k; s t krs gSA7 vko' rcht h i kSèkksa , dcht i =kh , oa f}cht i =kh oxksZa esa ckaVs t krs gSA eDdk] xsgwa] pkoy] nwc ?kkl ] Tokj] ckt jk]

ukfj ; y vkfn , dcht i =kh rFkk ewyh] xksHkh] l jl ksa] v jgj] puk] mM+n] el wj] ykSdh] fepZ] VekVj] cSxu] dkt w]vke l w; Zeq[ kh xsank vkfn f}cht i =kh i kSèks gSA

i kni ÅÙkdÅÙkd , d ; k , d l s vfèkd çdkj dh dksf' kdkvksa ds l axBu gksrs gSA dksf' kdkvksa dk , sl k l ewg] ft l l sa

dksf' kdk,a mn~xe ( Origin) ] vkÑfr i fjo¼Zu rFkk dk; z dh nf"V l s l eku gksrh gSa] ÅÙkd dgykrh gSAÅÙkdksa dh dksf' kdkvksa ds foHkkft r gksus rFkk ubZ dksf' kdkvksa ds fuekZ.k ds vkèkkj i j i kni ÅÙkd dks eq[ ; r%

nks oxksZa esa ckaVk x; k gS µ foHkT; ksÙkd ÅÙkd rFkk LFkk; h ÅÙkdA1 foHkT; ksÙkd ÅÙkd µ foHkT; ksÙkd ÅÙkd dk fuekZ.k] i kSèkksa dh of¼ ds fy, mÙkjnk; h dksf' kdkvksa }kjk gksrk

gSA , sl s ÅÙkdksa dh dksf' kdkvksa esa ges' kk rhoz xfr l s foHkkft r gksrs jgus dk xq.k ekSt wn jgrk gSA ; g ÅÙkdi kSèkksa ds oèkhZ Hkkxksa t Sl s µ rus rFkk t M+ksa ds vxz fl js esa i k; s t krs gSA foHkT; ksÙkd ÅÙkd eq[ ; r% rhu çdkjds gksrs gSA

t Mksa ds çdkjt M+ ds çdkj l acafèkr i kSèkk

A. ewl yk t M+1. Hkkst u l axzg ds fy; s ' kaDokdkj ( Conical) t M+ xkt j2. Hkkst u l axzg ds fy; s rdqZ#i ( Fusiform) t M+ ewyh3. Hkkst u l axzg ds fy; s daqHkh#i (Napiform) t M+pqdUnj] ' kyxe4. ' ol u ds fy; s jkbt ksi Qksjk] i kni l aqnjhB. v i LFkkfud t M+1. Hkkst u l axzg ds fy; s i qyfdr ; k xqPNh ewy ( Fasciculated Root) l rkoj] Mgsfy; k2. Hkkst u l axzg ds fy; s dan ewy (Tuberous Root) ' kdjdan3. Hkkst u l axzg ds fy; s xzafFky ewy (Nodulous Root) gYnh



42

SCIECNE

4. Hkkst u l axzg ds fy; s ef.kdke; ewy (Moniliform Root) vaxwj] Mk; ksLdksfj ; k , ykVk5. vk/ kj çnku djus ds fy, LrEHk ewy (Prop Root) cjxn6. vk/ kj çnku djus ds fy, voLraHk ewy ( Stilt Root) dsoM+k] eDdk] xUuk7. vk/ kj çnku djus ds fy, i q"r ewy (Root Buttresses) l sey8. vk/ kj çnku djus ds fy, vkjksgh ewy (Climbing Root) dkyh fepZ] euhIyk.V] i ku9. vkèkkj çnku djus ds fy; s fpi dus okyh t M+sa ( Clinging Root) oS.Mk10. fof' k"V dk; Z djus ds fy; s çpw"kh ewy ( Absorbing Root) vkfdZM11. fof' k"V dk; Z djus ds fy; s i fj i kph ewy (Assimilatory Root) fl a?kkMk] VhuksLi ksjk12. fof' k"V dk; Z ds fy; s t uu ewy (Reproductive Root) i FkjpV~Vk] csxksfu; k13. fof' k"V dk; ksZa ds fy; s pw' kdh ewy (Sucking Root) vejcsy (dLdqVk)14. fof' k"V dk; ksZa ds fy; s dod ewy (Mycorrhizal Root) Hkkst i =k] phM+ ( i kbu)15. fof' k"V dk; ksZ ds fy; s Iykoh ewy (Floating Root) t wfl ; k16. fof' k"V dk; ksZa ds fy; s l adqpu' khy t M+sa (Contractile Root) I; kt ] dSuk] ft ehdan17. fof' k"V dk; ksZa ds fy; s ewy xzafFkdk (Root Nodules) eVj

, dcht i =kh rFkk f}cht i =kh t M+ dh vkar fjd l ajpuk esa v ar j, dcht i =kh t M+ f}cht i =kh t M+

1. ; g dsoy i k' ; Z dk fuekZ.k djrh gSA 1- ; g i k' oZ ewysa rFkk f}rh; d foHkT; ksrd(Secondary Meristem) nksuksa dk fuekZ.kdjrh gSA

2. buds l aogu i wy dh l a[ ; k l kekU; r; k 6 l s v fèkd gksrh gSA 2- buds l aogu i wy dh l a[ ; k l kekU; r; k 6 l s degksrh gSA

3. bl esa dSfEc; e dk vHkko gksrk gSA 3- bl esa dSfEc; e i k; k t krk gSA4. bl esa f}rh; d of¼ (Secondary Growth) 4- bl esa f}rh; d of¼ i k; h t krh gSA

ugha i k; h t krh gSA5. bl esa fi Fk i w.kZ fodfl r gksrk gSA 5- bl esa fi Fk vYi fodfl r ; k vuqi fLFkr gksrk gSA

, dcht i =kh rFkk f}cht i =kh rus dh v kar fjd l ajpuk esa v ar j, dcht i =kh ruk f}cht i =kh ruk

1. bl dh , i hMfeZl i j jkse (Hairs) ugha i k; s t krsA 1- bl dh , i hMfeZl i j jkse (Hairs) i k; s t krs gSA2. bl dh gkbi ksMfeZl LDysjsUdkbek dh cuh gksrh gSA 2- bl dh gkbi ksMfeZl LoysjsUdkbek dh cuh gksrh gSA3. bl esa oLdqyj caMy can çdkj ds gksrs gSA 3- bl esa oLdqyj caMy [ kqys çdkj ds gksrs gSA4. bl esa eTt k fdj.ksa ugha i k; h t krh gSA 4- bl esa eTt k fdj.ksa i k; h t krh gSA5. bl esa dSfEc; e ugha i k; k t krkA i Qyr% f}rh; d 5- bl esa dSfEc; e i k; k t krk gS] bl fy; s f¼rh; d of¼ Hkh

of¼ dk vHkko gksrk gSA i k; h t krh gSA6. fi Fk (eTt k) vuqi fLFkr gksrk gSA 6- fi Fk (eTt k) mi fLFkr gksrk gSA



43

SCIECNE

1 ysokf' k; j (Lavoisier) dks j l k; u foKku dk t Uenkrk dgk t krk gSA2 jl k; u foKku dk fodkl l oZçFke feJ ns' k l s gqvkA3 jl k; u foKku ds vUrxZr nzO; (Matter) ds l aèkVu vkSj ml ds vfr l w{e d.kksa dh l japuk dk vè; ; u fd; k

gSA bl ds vUrxZr nzO; ds xq.k] nzO; ksa esa i jLi j l a; ksx ds fu; e] Å"ek vkfn Åt kZvksa dk nzO; i j çHkko] ; kSfxdksadk l a' ys”k.k] t fVy o fefJr i nkFkksZ l s l jy o ' kq¼ i nkFkZ vyx djuk vkfn vkrk gSA (Scratch)

4 nzO; dks dBksjrk ml esa [ kjksap (Scratch) dh çfrjksèkd {kerk i j fuHkZj djrh gS] ft l dk eki u ekWgl dsdBksj r k eki akd (Moh’s Hardness Scale) i j fuHkZj djrk gSA ekWgl Ldsy i j dqN çeq[ k nzO; ksa dh dBksjrkfuEuor gS µ nzO; (dBksjrk) % ghjk (10)] dksj.Me (9) ] Vksi kt (8) ] DokV~t Z (7) ] xzsi QkbV (0-7)A

5 nzO; (Matter) dk oxhZdj.k nks çdkj dk Lkekaxh nzO; (Homogeneous Matter) fo"kekaxh nzO; (Heterogeneous

Matter) nks çdkj ds ' kq¼ nzO; (Puer Matter) Solution foy; u ; k l ekaxh feJ.k6 rRo (Element)] nzO; dk og Hkkx t ks fdl h Hkh Kkr HkkSfrd o jkl k; fud fofèk l s] u rks] nks l s vfèkd nzO; ksa

esa foHkkft r fd; k t k l drk gS vkSj u gh cuk; k t k l drk gSA t Sl s µ yksgk] rk¡ck] l ksuk ; k xSl h; rRo(vkDl ht u) vkfnA

7 i Foh i j i k; s t kus okys çeq[ k rRoksa dk çfr' kr vkjksgh Øe esa gS % vkDl ht u (49-9%) ] fl fydku (26%) ], Y; qehfu; e (7-3%) vkfnA

8 l kekU; ekuo ' kjhj esa rRoksa dh vkSl r ek=kk % vkDl ht u (65%) ] dkcZu (18%) ] gkbMªkst u (10%) vkfnA9 nks ; k nks l s vfèkd rRoksa ds fuf' pr vuqi kr esa feykus l s ; kSfxd çkIr gksrs gS] t ks l kèkkj.k fofèk l s i qu%

rRoksa esa foHkkft r fd; s t k l drs gSA ; kSfxd ds xq.k bl ds l a?kVd rRoksa ds xq.kksa l s i w.kZr% fHkUu gksrs gSA ; kSfxdesa mi fLFkfr rRoksa dk vuqi kr l nSo ,dl eku jgrk gSAt Sl s µ t y esa H2 o O2, 2%1 ds vuqi kr esa i k; s t krs gSA Eg. i kuh] ued] phuh] , Ydksgy vkfnA

10 nks ; k nks l s vfèkd rRoksa dks vfuf' pr vuqi kr esa feykus l s feJ . k (Mixture) çkIr gksrs gSA feJ.k esami fLFkr fofHkUu ?kVdksa ds xq.k ugh cnyrsA Eg. nwèk] ckyw] phuh] dk t yh; foy; uA

11 feJ . k esa mi fLFkr ?kVdksa dks i ' Fkd djus ds fy; s ç; qDr fofèk; k¡ µ 1- fØLVyu 2- vkl ou (Distillation)3- mèoZi kru (Sublimation) 4- çHkkoh vkl ou 5- o.kZys[ ku (Chromatography) rFkk Hkki vkl ou (Steam

Distillation)

12 fØLVyu fofèk] vdkcZfud Bksl ksa ds i Fkddj.k o ' kqf¼dj.k ds fy; s ç; qDr gksrh gSA13 vkl ou fofèk esa mu nzoksa ds feJ.k dks i Fkd fd; k t krk gS ft uds Do; ukadks (Boiling Points) esa vUrj

vfèkd gksrk gSA t cfd çHkkt h vkl ou (Fractional Distillation) ds }kjk mu fefJr nzoksa dks i Fkd djrs gSft uds DoFkukadks esa vUrj cgqr de gksrk gSA dPps rsy l s i sVªksy] Mht y vkfn bl h fofèk }kjk i ' Fkd fd; st krs gSA

14 mèoZi kru fofèk ds }kjk nks , sl s Bksl ks ds feJ.k dks i ' Fkd djrs gS ft l esa , d Bksl ] ÅèoZi kru (Sublimate)gksrk gS] nwl jk ughA bl fofèk ds }kjk di wj] usÝFkyhu] veksfu; e DyksjkbM+] csUt ksbd vEy vkfn i nkFkZ ' kq¼fd; s t krs gSA

15 dqN Bksl i nkFkZ xeZ fd; s t kus i j ] nzo voLFkk esa vkus dh ct k; l hèks ok"i esa cny t krs gS vkSj ok"i dksB.Mk fd; s t kus i j i qu% l hèks Bksl voLFkk esa vk t krs gSA , sl s i nkFkZ ÅèoZi kru (Sublimate) dgykrs gSA

ÀÔãã¾ã¶ã ãäÌã—ãã¶ã : ½ãÖ¦Ìã¹ãî¥ãÃ ¦ã©¾ã



44

SCIECNE

t Sl s µ di wj] usÝFkyhu vkfnA16 Hkki v kl ou ds }kjk , sl s dkcZfud i nkFkkZs dks ' kq¼ djrs gS t ks t y esa vèkqyu' khy gksrs gSA i jUrq Hkki ds

l kFk ok' i ' khy gksrs gSA t Sl s µ , sl hVksu] esfFky ,Ydksgy vkfn dk ' kqf¼dj.k bl h fofèk ds }kjk fd; k t krk gSA17 dksykbMh foy; u , d fo” kekax rU=k gksrk gSA t c dksbZ Bksl i nkFkZ nzo esa i fj{ksfi r gksdj dksykbM foy; u

cukrk gS rks og l ky (Sol) dgykrk gSA18 , sl s foy; u t ks peZ i =k vFkok t Sfod f>Yyh esa l s gksdj xeu ugh dj l drs] t Sl s µ LVkFkZ] xksn] ft ysfVu

vkfn dksykbM foy; u dgrs gSA19 èkqavk (Smoke) ok; q esa dkcZu vkSj vU; d.kksa dk dksykbMh foy; u gksrk gSA20 dksykbMh foy; u esa foys; ds d.kksa dk vkdkj 10µ 4 l s0eh0 l s 10µ18 l s0eh0 rd gksrk gS] bl l s NksVs vkdkj

ds d.kksa okys foy; u] okLr fod foy; u vkSj bl l s cM+s vkdkj ds d.kksa okys foy; u] fuyEcu dgykrsgSA

21 t c fdl h dksykbMh foy; u esa fdl h foèkqr v i ?kV~; dk foy; u FkksM+h ek=kk esa feyk; k t krk gSA rks dksykbMhd.k i jLi j l a; qDr gksdj vo{ksi cuk dgrs gSA bl fØ; k dks LdUnu (Coagulation) dgrs gSA

22 ufn; ksa ds t y esa feV~Vh o jsr dk èkksy dksykbMh gksrk gSA t c unh l eqnz ds [ kkjs i kuh l s feyrh gS rks [ kkjki kuh ft l esa NaCl gksrk gS] bl dk LdUnu dj nsrk gSA vkSj MsYVk (Delta) dk fuekZ.k gks t krk gSA

23 t c dksbZ nzo fdl h Bksl esa i fj i sf{kr gksdj dksykbMh foy; u cukrk gS rks og t sy (Gel) dgykrk gSA t Sl sµ t syh] i uhj] eD[ ku vkfnA

24 t c , d nzo nwl js vfeJ.kh; nzo esa i fj{ksfi r gksdj dksykbMh foy; u cukrk gS rks og i k; l (Emulsion)dgykrk gSA t Sl s µ nwèk] dkMyhoj vk; yA

25 dksykbMh foy; uksa esa çdk' k ds çdhZ.ku dks fV.My çHkko (Thndal Effect) dgrs gSA26 dksgj k] ckny] xSl o nzo dk dksykbMh foy; u gSA27 nzO; ds xfrt vk.kfod fl ¼kUr ds vuql kj nzO; (Bksl ] nzo] xSl ) NksVsµNksVs d.kksa l s feydj cuk gksrk gS]

bUgsa v . kq (Molecule) dgrs gSA28 i j ek. kq (Atom)] rRo dk og NksVk l s NksVk d.k gS t ks fdl h Hkh jkl k; fud vfHkfØ; k esa Hkkx ys l drk gSA

i jUrq LorU=k voLFkk esa ugh jg l drkA29 bysDVªku dh [ kkst t s0t s0 Vkel u us 1897 esa dhA30 bysDVªku ds vkos' k dk vfo"dkj fefydu us fd; k FkkA31 , uksM+ fdj.kksa ds ç; ksx ds l e; çksVªku dh [ kkst gqbZ [ kkst djus okys oSKkfud b0 xksYMLVhu FksA vkSj

j nj i QksMZ us i jek.kq ukfHkd dh [ kkst dh FkhA32 dSFkksM+ fdj.kksa ds ç; ksx ds l e; bysDVªku dh [ kkst gqbZA33 U; wVªku dh [ kkst pSfMfod us l u~ 1932 esa dh FkhA34 Ikjek.kq eq[ ; r% rhu d.kksa l s feydj cus gksrs gS µ çksVªku] U; wVªku vkSj bysDVªkuA çksVªkWu dk vkos' k $ 1 gksrk

gS] U; wVªku vkos' k j fgr t cfd bysDVªku dk vkos' k µ 1 gksrk gSA35 i jek.kq es mi fLFkr l Hkh d.kksa esa U; wVªku i k; k t krk gSA ukfHkd ds ckgj U; wVªku jsfM; ksèkehZ gks t krk gSA36 foèkqr èkkj k dk fuekZ.k xfr' khy bysDVªku djrs gSA



45

SCIECNE

37 bysDVªku dk v fuf' pr r k fl ¼kUr] gkbt su oxZ us çfri kfnr fd; k FkkA38 l eku i jek.kq l a[ ; k i jUrq fHkUu fHkUu i jek.kq Hkkj ds rRo] l eLFkkfud (Isotopes) dgykrs gSA t Sl s µ

gkbMªkst u (1H1)] M~; wVsfj; e (1H2) o VªkbfV; e (1H3)A39 rRo ft uds i jek.kq nzO; eku l eku] i jUrq i jek.kq Øekad fHkUu gksrs gS l eHkkfjd (Isobars) dgykrs gSA t Sl s

µ vkxZu (18Ar40)] i ksVSf' k; e (19K40) o dSfY' k; e (20Ca40)A40 rRo ft uds ukfHkd esa U; wVªkuksa dh l a[ ; k l eku i jUrq çksVªkuksa dh l a[ ; k fHkUu gks] l eU; qVªkfud ( Isot ones)

dgykrs gSA t Sl s µ 6C13 o 7M14 l eU; qVªkfud gS D; ksfd U; wVªkuksa dh l a[ ; k l eku gSA41 i jek.kq v.kq ; k vk; u ft l esa bysDVªkuksa dh l a[ ; k l eku gks] l ebysDVªkfud (Isoelectronics) dgykrs gSA t Sl s

µ N2 (7+7 = 14e-), Co (6+8 = 14 e-), Cn- (6+8 = 14 e-)

42 i kÅyh ds v i ot Zu ds fu; e ds vuql kj fn, x; s i jek.kq esa fdUgh Hkh nks bysDVªkuksa ds fy, pkjksa Dok.Vel a[ ; kvksa dk eku l eku ugh gks l drk gSA

43 gq.M dk v fèkdre cgqyrk dk fu; e ds vuql kj] bysDVªkUl rc rd ; qfXer ugh gksrs t c rd fjDr d{kdçkI; (Available) gS vFkkZr~ t c rd l EHko gS bysDVªkUl v; qfXer jgrs gSA

44 bysDVªkUl dk çfrdj.k i kft Vªku gSA45 dsoy gkbMªkst u i jek.kq gh , sl k i jek.kq gS ft l ds ukfHkd esa U; qVªku ugh gksrk gSA46 dsoy gkbMªkst u , d , sl k rRo gS ft l ds l Hkh l eLFkkfudksa dks vyx vyx uke fn, x; s gSA (çksfV; e]

M; wVhfj; e o VªkbfV; e)A47 vYi Qk (±) d. k ghfy; e ukfHkd ds l ed{k gksrk gSA48 chVk d . k (²) bysDVªku ds l ed{k gksrk gSA49 i ksyksfu; e (Po) ds l okZfèkd l eLFkkfud (27) gksrs gSaA50 nzO; eku l a[ ; k (Mass Number) fdl h rRo ds i jek.kq ds ukfHkd esa mi fLFkr çksVªkuksa o U; wVªkuksa dh l a[ ; kvksa

d ; ksx nzO; eku l a[ ; k dgykrh gSA bl s ‘A’ l s çnf' kZr djrs gSA51 fdl h rRo dk i j ek. kq Hkkj og l a[ ; k gS t ks çnf' kZr djrh gS fd rRo dk , d i jek.kq ( At omi c Jei ght )

dkcZu i jek.kq ds nzO; eku ds 1/12 Hkkx l s fdruk xquk Hkkjh gSAi jek.kq Hkkj ¾ rRo ds i jek.kq dk nzO; eku

dkcZu i jek.kq ds nzO; eku dk ckjgok¡ Hkkx52 i j ek. kq Øekad dh [ kkst ekst ys* us dh Fkh] t ks fdl h rRo ds i jek.kq esa mi fLFkr çksVªkuksa rFkk bysDVªkuksa dh

l a[ ; k ds cjkcj gksrh gSA53 i jek.kq dh f=kT; k dk ek=kd i QehZ (Fermi) gksrk gSA54 bysDVªku] rajx rFkk d.k nksuks ds xq.k çnf' kZr djrk gSA55 bysDVªku i j vkos' k 1.6x10-19 dykWe gksrk gSA56 i kft Vªku (Positron) [ kkst 1932 esa , . Mj l u us dh ; g , d èkukosf' kr ewy d.k gS ft l dk nzO; eku o

vkos' k bysDVªku ds cjkcj gksrk gSA bl s bysDVªku dk , .Vhd.k (Antiparticle) Hkh dgrs gSA57 U; qfVªuks (Nutrino) [ kkst 1930 esa i kmyh (Pauli) us dh ; s nzO; eku o vkos' k j fgr ewy d.k gSA58 i kbZ esal ku (p Meso)] [ kkst 1935 esa ; qdkok (Yuksua) us dhA ; s d.k nks çdkj ds gksrs gSA èkukRed i kbZ



46

SCIECNE

esl ku o Í .kkRed i kbZ eSl kuA ; s vLFkk; h d.k gS ft udk t hou dky 10µ8 l sd.M o nzO; eku bysDVªku dsnzO; eku dk 274 xquk gksrk gSA

59 i QksVku (Photon)] ; s Åt kZ ds c.My gS t ks çdk' k dh pky l s pyrs gSA l Hkh çdkj dh fo| qr pqEcdh;fdj.kksa dk fuekZ.k bUgh ewy d.kksa l s gksrk gSA budk fojke nzO; eku (Rest Mass) ' kwU; gksrk gSA

60 ; kSfxd ft uds v.kql w=k l eku gksrs gSa] i jUrq l ajpukRed l w=k fHkUuµfHkUu gksrs gS] l eko; oh (Isomeristics)dgykrs gSaA t Sl s%µ , fFky ,Ydksgy o MkbesfFky bZFkj , d nwl js ds l eko; oh gSaA

61 t c , d gh rRo fHkUuµfHkUu #i ksa esa i k; k t krk gS rks ; s #i ml rRo ds v i #i dgykrs gSa rFkk bl xq.k dksv i #i r k (Allotropy) dgrs gSaA t Sl s%µ ghjk o xzsi QkbV dkcZu ds nks v i #i gSaA

62 fdl h i nkFkZ dh og ekyk] ft l esa ml i nkFkZ ds 6.023 X 1023 d.k gksrs gSa] i nkFkZ dk , d eksy ( Mol e) ]dgykrk gSA

63 fdl h rRo ds , d eksy es fLFkr i jek.kqvksa dh l a[ ; k 6.023 X 1023 gksrh gSA bl l a[ ; k dks vkoksxknzks(Avogadro’s No) l a[ ; k dgrs gSA

64 fdl h Hkh i jek.kq dh ckâ; re d{kk ds bysDVªku l a; kst h bysDVªku (Ualence Electron) vkSj Hkhrjh d{kkvksads bysDVªku] dksj bysDVªku (Core Electron) dgykrs gSaA t Sl s%µ l ksfM; e (Na11) esa] Na11 µ 2] 8] 1] ft l esa1 l a; kst h o ckdh nl (2] 8) dksj bysDVªku gSaAl a; kst h bysDVªkuksa esa vfèkd Åt kZ gksus ds dkj.k ; s jkl k; fud vfHkfØ; k esa Hkkx ysrs gSaA ; s bysDVªku gh mlrRo dh l a; kst drk dks çnf' kZr djrs gSA

65 t c i jek.kq vki l esa l a; ksx djds v.kq cukrs gSa rks bl çfØ; k esa , d l s vfèkd bysDVªkuksa dk LFkkuUrj.k , di jek.kq l s nwl js i jek.kq esa gksrk gS ft l ds i fj .kke Lo#i i jek.kq v i us l ehi LFk fuf"Ø; xSl ksa (Inert Gases)ds bysDVªfud foU; kl dks çkIr dj ysrs gSaA bysDVªku R; kxus okys i jek.kq i j èkukos' k rFkk bysDVªku xzg.k djusokys i jek.kq i j Í .kkos' k mRi Uu gks t krk gSA bl çdkj vkosf"kr i jek.kqvksa dks vk; u (Ion) dgk t krk gSAfoi jhr vkos' k okys vk; u vki l esa oS| qr vkd"kZ.k cy }kjk , d nwl js l s c¡èks jgrs gSA i jek.kqvksa ds bl çdkjl a; ksx djus dh fofèk dks oS| qr l a; kst drk dk fl ¼kUr dgrs gSa rFkk muds chp LFkkfi r cUèk dks oS| qrl a; kst h cUèk vFkok vk; fud cUèk dgk t krk gSA

66 ; kSfxd ft udk l a; kst u , d i jek.kq l s nwl js i jek.kq esa bysDVªkuksa ds LFkkukUrj.k ds i QyLo#i gksrk gS oS| qrl a; kst h ; kSfxd (Electrovalent Compound) ; k vk; fud ; kSfxd (Ionic Compounds) dgs t krs gSaA t Sl s%µNacl.

67 nks i jek.kqvksa ds l a; qDr gksus dk og çØe] ft l esa bysDVªkuksa dh i kjLi fjd l k>snkjh gksrh gS] l g l a; kst drk(Co-Ualency) dgykrh gSA i jek.kqvksa ds chp esa ft rus bysDVªku ; qXe gksrs gaSa] muesa mrus gh cUèk LFkkfi r gksrsgSA t Sl s%µ Dyksjhj ds i jek.kqvksa ds eè; , dkdh cUèk (Single Bond)] vkDl ht u ds i jek.kqvksa ds eè;f}cUèk (Double Bond) vkfn] l gl a; kst d ; kSfxd esa fdl h rRo dh l gl a; kst drk dk l a[ ; kRed eku rRods i jek.kqvksa }kjk l k>hÑr bysDVªku ; qXeksa dh l a[ ; k gSA bl çdkj Dyksjhu o vkDl ht u dh l gl a; kst drkØe' k% 2 rFkk 3 gSA

68 l gl a; kst drk esa l gHkkft r bysDVªku ; qXe dh jpuk ds fy; s çR; sd l a; kst h i jek.kq dk , dµ,d bysDVªku Hkkxysrk gSA i jUrq dqN v.kq , sl s gS ft l esa l gHkkft r bysDVªku ; qXe dk l gHkkt u nksuksa i jek.kqvksa esa l s fdl h , dgh i jek.kq }kjk fn; k t krk gS] i j bysDVªku ; qXe dk l gHkkt u nksuksa i jek.kqvksa ds chp gksrk gSA bl çdkj dscUèk dks mi l g l a; kst d (Co-Ordinate Bond) dgrs gSAbl cUèk jpuk esa bysDVªku ; qXe çnku djus okys i jek.kq dks nkrk (Donar) rFkk xzg.k djus okys i jek.kq dks



47

SCIECNE

xzkgh (Acceptor) dgk t krk gSA mngj.k%µ veksfu; e vk; u (NH4+) dk cuukA

69- l a; kst drk dk bysDVªkfud fl ¼kUr (Electronic Theory of Ualency) ds vuql kj çR; sd rRo ds i jek.kq dh; g çofÙk gksrh gS fd og vi uh ckâ; d{kk esa vkB bysDVªku i wjk djds LFkk; h voLFkk çkIr dj ysA ; fni jek.kq dh ckgjh d{kk esa bysDVªkuksa dh l a[ ; k 8 l s de gksrh gS rks ; g mrus gh bysDVªkuksa dks çkIr dj vi ukv ' Vd i w.kZ djuk pkgrk gS vkSj , sl s rRoks dh l a; kst drk Í . kkRed gksrh gS vkSj ; fn rRo ds ckgjh d{kkesa bysDVªkuksa dh l a[ ; k 8 l s vfèkd gS rks ; g i jek.kq vfèkd bysDVªkuksa dks R; kx dj v i uk v ' Vd i w.kZ djrkgS] , sl s rRoksa dh l a; kst drk èkukRed gksrh gSAft u rRoksa ds i jek.kqvksa dh ckâ; d{kk esa vkB bysDVªku ugh gksrs] muds i jek.kq gh jkl k; fud fØ; k esa Hkkxysrs gS rFkk fØ; k' khy gksrs gSA bl ds foi jhr ft u rRoksa ds i jek.kqvksa dh ckâ; d{kk esa vkB bysDVªku gksrsgS] muds i jek.kq vfØ; gksrs gS rFkk jkl k; fud fØ; k esa Hkkx ugh ysrsA

70 çÑfr esa 6 xSl ksa ds i jek.kq vfØ; gksrs gS buesa ghfy; e dks NksMdj l Hkh ds i jek.kqvksa dh ckâ; d{kk esavkB bysDVªku gksrs gSA ; s xSl s v fØ; xSl s (Inert Gases) dgyrh gSA

71 vfØ; xSl sa vkorZ l kj.kh ds ' kwU; oxZ esa vofLFkr gSaµ ghfy; e] fuvku] vkxZu] fØIVku] t hukWu rFkk jsMkuA72 ghfy; e vkSj vkxZu t y esa foys; gSa vr% vYi ek=kk esa ; s ufn; ksa] l eqnzks rFkk o' kkZ ds t y esa Hkh i k; h t krh gSA73 j sMku çÑfr esa ugh i k; h t krhA ; g mPp j sfM; ksa, fDVo xSl gS] ft l dk mi ; ksx jsfM; ksaèkehZ vuql aèkkuksa rFkk

dSal j dh ' kY; fØ; k j fgr mi pkj esa gksrk gSA74 ghfy; e dh [ kkst ÝsdyS. M o ykfd; j us dh] ; g gkbMªkst u dks NksM+dj vU; l eLr xSl ksa l s gYdh gSA

v' oye' khy gksus ds dkj.k ghfy; e ok; q; ku ds Vk; jksa , oe~ xqCckjksa ds Hkjus esa ç; qDr gksrh gSA75 l eqnzh xksrk[ kksjksa dks vkSj vLFkek (Asthma) ds mi pkj esa ghfy; e rFkk vkDl ht u dk feJ.k ' okl ysus

ds fy, fn; k t krk gSA76 ghfy; e rki eki h] fuEu rki fefr esa mi ; ksx esa yk; s t krs gSA77 ghfy; e dk mi ; ksx [ kk| µi nkFkksZ dh l qj{kk gsrq Hkh fd; k t krk gSA78 fuvku (Neon)fuvku dk mi ; ksx foKki uksa] fo| qr l adsrksa] l kbucksMksZ rFkk l eqnzh çdk' k LrEHk esa gksrk gSA

fuvku dk rh{.k çdk' k dksgjs , oe~ rqi Qkuksa esa Hkh nwj l s fn[ krk gSA79 Ýyksj sl sUV V~; wc esa ejD; qfjd vkDl kbM o fuvku xSal dk feJ.k Hkjk t krk gSA80 vkxZu dh [ kkst j Set s us dh] ; g de rki pkydrk] fuf"Ø; çÑfr ds dkj.k çdk' k cYcksa o rki nhfIr

ySi ksa esa Hkjus ds dke esa vkrh gSA81 fØIVkWu dk mi ; ksx çfrnhfIr fol t Zu ySEi ksa esa rFkk dkfLed fdj.kksa ds eki u gsrq vk; uhÑr pSEcj esa fd; k

t krk gSA82 rRoksa dks oxhZÑr djus dk çFke ç; kl #l h oSKkfud esUMyhi Q (Mendeleeff) }kjk 1869 esa fd; k x; kA t ks

fd i jek.kq Hkkj i j vkèkkfjr vkorZ l kj.kh FkhA buds vuql kj] rRoksa ds HkkSfrd , oe~ jkl k; fud xq.k mudsi jek.kq Hkkjksa ds vkorZdky gksrs gSA

83 vkèkqfud vkorZl kj.kh i jek.kq Øekad ds vkèkkj i j eksLys (Moseley) }kjk çLrqr dh x; h] ft l esa rRo i jek.kqØekad ds vkèkkj i j vofLFkr fd; s x; sA buds vuql kj ^rRoksa ds HkkSfrd , oe~ jkl k; fud xq.k muds i jek.kqØekad ds vkoZri Qy gksrs gSA

84 vkorZ l kj.kh dh {kSfrt i kfDr; k¡ (Horizontal Rows) dks vkorZ (Periods) rFkk [ kM+h i fDr; k¡ (UerticalRows)] oxZ (Group) dgykrh gSA



48

SCIECNE

85 vkorZ dh l a[ ; k rRo ds l cl s ckgjh d{kk dh bysDVªku l a[ ; k dks çnf' kZr djrh gSA vkorZ mu rRoksa ds l kFk' kq# gksrk gS ft uds i jek.kq ds ckgjh d{kk esa , d bysDVªku gksrk gSA vkSj vkorZ ' kwU; oxZ ds rRoksa ds l kFkl ekIr gksrs gS ft uds i jek.kqvksa dh ckâ; d{kk i q.kZr; k Hkjh gqbZ gksrh gSA

86 çFke vkorZ l s vfUre vkorZ rd èkkrq l s vèkkrq i kjxeu (Transition) gksrk fn[ kk; h nsrk gSA87 çR; sd oxZ ds rRoksa dk ckâ; bysDVªfud foU; kl (Outer Electronic Configuration) l eku gksrk gS vFkkZr , d

oxZ ds l Hkh rRoksa dh fo' ks"krk; sa l eku gksrh gSA88 18 oxZ (Groups) xzqi l a0 1] 2] 3] 4] 5] 6] 7] 8 vkSj t hjks oxZ ds }kjk fufeZ=k gksrs gSA buesa xzqi 1 l s xzqi

7] A vkSj B mi oxksZ (Subgroups) esa foHkkft r gksrs gSA89 oxZ 1A, 7A esa l kekU; @çfr fufèk (Normal/Reprsentative) rRo gksrs gSA90 oxZ 1 B, 7B v kSj 8 esa l aØked rRo (Transition Elements) j [ kss x; s gSA91 oxZ µt hj ksa] t ks fd vkoZr l kj.kh esa l cl s nkfguh fdukjs i j gksrk gS] esa mPp ; k v fØ; xSl sa (Noble or

inert gases) j [ kh x; h gSA92 vkorZ l kj.kh esa vkorZ , oe~ oxksZ dh rqyukRed fo' kss"krk; s µ( l kj.kh)93 vkoÙkZ l kj.kh esa i gys] nwl js vkSj rhl js vkorZ dks y?kq vkorZ (Short Period)] pkSFks] i k¡posa o NBs vkorZ dks

nh?kZ vkorZ (Long Prriod) dgrs gSa t cfd l krok¡ vkorZ vèkwj k gSaA94 vkèkqfud vkorZ l kj.kh esa rRoksa dh l a[ ; k 115 ( , d l kS i Unzg) gSA95 l Hkh l Øked rRo èkkrq (Metals) gksrs gSA ; s vkorZ l kj.kh esa eè; esa fLFkr gSA96 vkUr fj d l aØked rRo] ft l esa ySUFksukbM o , DVhukbM (Lanthanide & Actinide) Ja[ kyk ds rRo vkrs gSaA

; s vkorZ l kj.kh ds uhps i ' Fkd #i l s nks {kSfrt i fDr; ksa esa fLFkfr gksrs gSA97 Lanthanide (Pare Earth Metals) vkSj Actinide (Radioactive Metals) nksuksa gh Ja[ kyk esa 14] 14 rRo gksrs

gSA98 vkorZ l kj.kh ds l srq rRo (Bridge Elements) f}rh; vkorZ ds dqN rRo r' rh; vkorZ ds vxys xzqi ds rRoksa

ds l kFk dqN l ekurk; sa çdV djrs gSa] l srq rRo dgykrs gSaA99 l ksfM; e (Na)] eSXuhf' k; e (Mg)] i ksVSf' k; e (K)] dSfY' k; e (Ca) vkSj csfj; e (Ba) ds vfo' dkjd

, p0Msoh0 (H.Deuy) gSaA100 vkxZu (Ar)] fØIVku (Cr) vkSj ft uku (Xn) dh [ kkst ] j Set s vkSj Vªsol Z us dhA101 ft jdksfu; e (Zr) rFkk ; wjsfu; e (U) dh [ kkst DySçksFk ( t eZuh) us dhA102 fl fydku (Si) rFkk Fkksfj ; e (Th) dh [ kkst t s0t s0 ct hZfy; l us dhA103 gkbMªkst u dh [ kkst , p- dSosf. Ml us dhA104 vkDl ht u dh [ kkst ' khys o çhLVys us dhA105 ukbVªkst u dh [ kkst j nj i QksZM us dhA106 , sl s rRo ft uesa èkkrq , oe~ vèkkrq nksuksa ds xq.k i k; s t krs gSa mi èkkrq (Semi metals / Metalloids) dgykrs gSaA107 mi èkkrq; sa (Metalloids) gSA %µ fl fydk¡u] t esSfu; eA108 èkkrq; sa Å"ek , oe~ fo| qr dh l qpkyd] vkèkkrè; Z o rU; vkSj Bksl (v i oknµi kjk) gksrh gSA èkkrq, a {kkjh;

vkDl kbM cukrh gSA



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