“australia - a country between asia, american and its ...2. australia’s history 2.2 the...

“Australia - a country between Asia, American and its European roots”

Freiherr vom Stein-Schule Fach: Englisch

Hessisch Lichtenau Lehrer: Herr Wieders

Verfasser: Ellen Singer

“Australia - a country between Asia, American and its European roots”

List of contents

1. Preface – Why I chose the topic ''Australia'' p. 1

2. Australia’s history

2.1 The excellent idea of the existence of the fifth continent p. 2

2.2 The “discovery” of the fifth continent p. 3 - 5

2.3 Aims and problems during the period of the British settlement p. 6 - 10

3. Australia’s culture

3.1 Australia - a former country of convicts p. 11

3.2 Different cultures and their contrasts/similarities p. 12 - 14

4. Australia’s problems

4.1 The white policy p. 15 - 16

4.2 An attempt to integrate Aborigines into the white society p. 17 - 19

4.3 Different proprietors of Australia p. 20 - 21

4.4 The compensations for Aborigines p. 22 - 23

5. Australia’s international role

5.1 Australia between Asia, America and Europe p. 24 - 25

5.2 Further away from Europe and America – closer to Asia p. 26 - 27

6. Epilog p. 28

7. Annotations

7.1 Quotations p. 29 - 33

7.2 References p. 33

8. Appendix

8.1. Lists and overall view

8.1.1 Webpages p. 34 - 38

8.1.2 Maps p. 39 - 41

8.1.3 Unused pictures p. 42 - 44

9. Declaration

10. Documentation of the working process

1. Preface – Why I chose the topic “Australia”

Australia is a big continent and a huge isle. Many different cultures, peoples and interests can

be observed there. Its origin goes back to several roots - Europe, Asia, and America. The main

root which still remains is “Aborigines” - the oldest tribe in the world that is still alive.

The indigenous people 1

I found this aspect extraordinary and for several times I was fascinated and at the same time

frustrated after watching some reports on Aborigines on TV. That is why I want to get more

knowledge about the tribe, its living conditions and problems with the white society. So, on

the one hand I would like to inform you about the social, cultural, historical and political

background of Aborigines and how they developed up to date.

Australia itself was always a continent full of secrets - just before Christ’s birth they could

imagine that there could already exist a continent like Australia - an unknown land,

nevertheless it lasted centuries until Australia was first seen by whites. Just all the names

given to Australia have their own history and message, so I can imagine how fascinating its

history, culture and problems “down under” are like. So on the other hand my topic also deals

with Australia and its general advantages and disadvantages in its historical, political and

international surroundings.

-1-

1 http://www.lacher.li/australien/Aborigines/Grafiken/Aborigines1.gif


2.1 The excellent idea of the existence of the fifth continent

100 million years ago Gondwanaland separated into Australia, Africa and South America.

Still in the sixth century before Christ’s birth philosopher Pythagoras of Samos spoke about a

round earth that included five continents: “Two cold zones in the North and South, one hot

zone in the middle and two tempered ones” (1) , they could only live in the last ones. The

southern one of the two zones was “terra australis nondum cognita” - “noch nicht entdecktes

Südland” (2) and was named “Australis” (3) (“southern” in Latin).

Although in the Middle Ages they claimed, “Was nicht in der Bibel steht, existiert nicht”, (4)

the amount of people who strived for research grew. In the 15th century the Azores, the

Canaries, the Caribbean were seen by a European, Columbus, for the first time. In 1500

Vespucci entered a mainland – coast - the “New World”. (5) Since such new discoveries for

the Europeans, the people believed in the existence of the fifth continent again.

When in 1520 Magellan passed through the “Magellan – Sea route”, he saw in the South of

the route the “Southern land”. “In 1596 de Bry drew the “Australis” of a large size - “Terra

Australis Magallanica”!” (6) In 1616 Schouten and Le Maire sailed around Kap Hoorn - the

southern peak of South America - and announced the real, actual size of Australia.

Terra australis 2

Nevertheless there were competitions between Portuguese and Spaniards, later between Dutch

and British. “No one could stop speculating about a large Southern land any more.” (7)

-2- 2 Longman; Dictionary of Contemporary English; Langenscheidt


2.2 The “discovery” of the fifth continent

With the contract of Tordesillas that was made in 1494 by a pope, the world in its whole was

divided between Portugal and Spain. In the 16th century they - both were big competitors -

strived for power over the world. In 1521 Magellan - a Spaniard - landed on the Philippines.

A half – century later the city Manila was founded there. In spite of the strongest Spanish

Armada, in 1512/15 the Portuguese arrived on the isle Timor - a part of Indonesia. The

Portuguese are reported to have sailed around from the east – coast to the south – coast. A

ship – wreck that was found between Warrnambool and Port Fairy in 1836, is according to the

scientists the “Mahagony Ship” from 1522 and belonged to the Portuguese. Consequently the

Portuguese are said to have been the first Europeans who sighted and explored Australia.

In 1529 the agreement of Zaragoza was made in which Spain and Portugal decided about the

boundary along the eastern 133rd degree of longitude in the Asiatic area. According to this

contract Australia belonged to the Spain. Ever since, the Portuguese have kept their

expeditions secret. So, in 1605 Pedro Fernando – a Spaniard – arrived on the Hebrides and

was assured to have “discovered” the “southern land”. He named the nine isles “La Australia

del Espirito Santo”. (8)

Not until the 17th century Australia was officially found by the Dutch and Spaniards and still

they did not settle there.

When the Spanish Armada was defeated, the British and the Dutch came to power.

The Dutch reached Java. In 1616 a Dutch named Brouwer used the west wind drift to arrive at

the East – Indian Isles, but on his voyage he sailed too far to the east and reached only by

chance the Australian west – coast. This area was named “New Holland”; “Zeeland” and

“Landt van d’Eendracht” (the ship from 1616). (9) On a voyage 1721/23 a Dutch - Roggeveen

- found out that Antarctica and New Holland were two independent continents and in 1820

Roggeveen’s guess was proved by the Russian Antarctica expedition.

In 1600 the British founded the “British East India Company”. (10) In 1688 the Brit William

pursued piracy and reached the north – west of Australia. In 1699 he arrived on the Shark Bay

and later on the Roebuck Bay. There he observed “sand, flies, several traces of animals and

some wild indigenous people with thick lips and “bottle noses”.” (11)

-3-

In 1769 Captain Cook and his friend called Joseph Banks sailed along the New Zealand and

found out that New Zealand was not a part of the “southern land”. In April 1770 they sighted

the southern peak of Australia – the Point Hicks and ten days later they reached the “Botany

Bay”. (12) “On Cape York Cook took possession of the whole eastern coast by the name of

New South Wales”. (13)

At his first encounter with Aborigines, the captain described them as “a people which is far

happier than we Europeans. They live in a tranquility which is not disturbed by inequality of

conditions. The earth and sea of their own accord furnish them with all things necessary for

life”. (14)

A traditional dance of Aborigines 3

“Botany Bay” was established by the First Fleet in 1788. On January 26th, 1788 Sydney Cove

was founded by Captain Phillip at the Paramatta – river, ever since it has been annually

celebrated as the “Australia Day”. The roof design of the Opera House, opened in 1973, is a

new landmark of Sydney - it symbolizes the sails of the First Fleet.

The Opera House 4

-4-

3 Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, S. 26

4 Geographie der Erde; neue Enzyklopädie; Serges Medien, S 168

Since 1788 the continent has been settled by “whites”. In the same year New South Wales

was founded. Another five colonies followed from 1803 to 1859 including Tasmania, Western

Australia, Victoria, South Australia and Queensland.

Australia 5

Since 1901 they all form the Commonwealth of Australia, in 1911 Northern Territory and the

Australian Capital Territory were added.

-5-

5 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Australia_map.svg/650px-Australia_map.svg.png


2.3 Aims and problems during the period of the British settlement

The British were convinced to be able to develop Australia and to civilize the continent.

As the French ships “Le Naturaliste” and “Le Géographe” explored “Van Diemen’s Land”

and the “Bass – Straße” - France was a big competitor of Great Britain - the British feared of

loosing their possessive claims on Australia and occupied the southern as well as the northern

coast, in 1804.

“In 1801/03 Captain Mathew Flinders sailed around the continent. Thus the British admiralty

wanted to prove that “New Holland” and New South Wales shared a common continent.

Great Britain laid claim to the whole Australia.” (15)

After the British had climbed over the Blue Mountains - the Appalachians were an obstacle to

the settlers in the North America, too - the settlements expanded fast, so that in 1825 the

concept of “19 counties” was introduced. In these counties it was forbidden to settle - similar

to the Proclamation Line in the USA in 1763 - otherwise, the illegal settlers there were called

Squatters. In 1850 the government tried to isolate Squatters by denser settlements and more

intensive agriculture. It was called the “denser settlement policy”, which led to worse armed

conflicts between the Squatters, who were stockbreeders, and the coming farmers.

In the same year the “Australian Colonies Government Act” was introduced. According to

this act each colony could have its own constitution - to become a “responsible government” -

if the British Parliament consented.

In spite of a wide independence of Australia, there were still enough internal problems like

different criteria of the right to vote: In New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania – was property

one of the criteria - the poor were not allowed to vote; on the contrary in South Australia the

sentence “one man - one vote” (16) became famous – in this colony freedom of religion was

effective. Since 1908 all men as well as women have been allowed to vote.

In 1870s the trade unions strived for federation – to found a welfare state and to nationalize

the resources. According to the report of the “Bulletin”, from 1880, “Nationalism began to

expand through Australia.” (17)

After the economic depression from 1890/94 the enterprises also decided to work in a closer

cooperation.

-6-

Another big problem that lasts until today remains between Western Australia and Tasmania

despite the TFES (Tasmania Freight Equalization Scheme) - a subvention program, which

neutralizes transport coasts from the isle to the continent. Some failure occurred in this

system, so that Tasmania sometimes wants to separate; Western Australia also feels isolated

from the Australian core.

A considerable discussion deals with the Northern Territory, where the biggest subventions

were spent. In 1863 South Australia administered the colony, but the Northern Territory

turned out to be a “losing deal”.

Since 1911 the Northern Territory has belonged to the Commonwealth of Australia and has

owned an autonomous status since 1978. In order to found Canberra New South Wales was

forced to give up a part of its territory to the ACT (Australian Capital Territory).

The policy structure in its whole is also dubious, the federation enjoys more regulation rights

than its individual states and owns an income tax monopoly. In addition the federation

Australia imposes 80% of all the taxes.

The individual states have regulation rights only about 60% of all public expenses. And since

1933, the “Commonwealth Grant Commission” has made decisions in which way and amount

the individual states get the federal taxes. The intention is to cause equal living standards

nationwide.

A lot of people aimed at moving to Australia. Although the government did not want to accept

any refugees (Displaced Persons), Poles, Hungarians and “Displaced Persons” from the east –

European and the south – European countries were allowed to immigrate.

“For instance, in 1956 because of the “Ungarnaufstand” 14000 “Displaced Persons” were

accepted and in 1968, during the “Prager Frühling” 5500 “Displaced Persons” could

immigrate.” (18)

On the one hand the increase in immigration was needed, especially from 1950 to 1983, when

the birth rates as well as the death rates declined rapidly.

But on the other hand immigration is still not welcome by everyone because the illegal

immigration increases. Only across the “Torres – Straße” narcotics and arms are transported.

The worst problem during the period of the British settlement was the Aboriginal people.

-7-

The holy Aboriginal snake 6

Aborigines namely believed that Australia was crossed by a tremendous amount of spiritual

paths, so a white population was not allowed to settle on the continent. Consequently there

were fights between the indigenous people and the “whites”.

“Nowadays 25% of Aborigines live in big cities in “ghettos”. It is true that their houses are

built by the government, but they all have to live in hope to reach the subsistence level.

Traditional infant homicides and abortions decimate the 50000 “full Aborigines” even more.

Nowadays only a few hundreds Aborigines live in the traditional way.” (19)

Animals as well as insects, which were brought in by the British, created problems, too - for

instance as “The Great Drought” (20) (1898 - 1902) lasted for four years. During that period

millions of sheep had to be slaughtered and an uncountable amount of rabbit – carcasses

contaminated water places. To decline rabbit numbers, “Kaninchenzaun” (21) in Western

Australia was built. Against the “Myxomatose – Virus” (22) they became resistant; since

1996 the “RHD – Virus” (23) has been tested.

Earlier than 10000 years ago “Dingo” (24), which likes to kill sheep, was brought in by the

Aborigines. As fence from South Australia to Queensland did not help to decrease the amount

of dogs, the “doggers” (25) from the “Agricultural Protection Board” (26) shot these animals

down.

-8- 6 Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, S. 53

Because of extreme weather conditions like strong rain or drought a crop failure often

occurred. In addition swarms of locusts, which were brought in by the Europeans, led to crop

damage.

The Australian desert 7

Anyway, the agriculture was the poorest factor to help the economy flourishing, because

thousands of years ago, on Australia there were hardly volcanoes and glaciers, so it is hard to

find any fertile ground. Nevertheless, in hinterland of Brisbane, there is lots of fertile land.

Later the Germans settled there - in the Darling Downs - and pursued agriculture.

Queensland was a rich colony, too. There the fertile ground could also be used for agriculture

and its “Mount – Isa – Becken” (27) was full of “Greenstones” (28) - gold, silver, lead, zinc,

uranium and many other raw materials. No wonder that Queensland always strived for

secession. Its disadvantage was that especially in this colony the settlers often had to fight

against natural disasters like flooding or bush fire, too - for example there was “a flooding in

Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, in 1990.” (29)

-9-

7 Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, S. 183

“Der Australische Schild” (30) and the “Great Barrier Reef” (31) also had important sources

of raw materials like gold, silver, lime, phosphate and oil. Since 1975 the “Great Barrier

Reef” cannot be used in any economic way any more - because of fishing, chemicals and

tourism the “Crown of thorns starfish” (32) multiplies and endangers it.

The Great Barrier Reef 8

In many aspects the British managed their plans: They founded colonies, introduced a

structured policy and economy - the British industrialized the country, and finally they even

tried to integrate the Aborigines as Australia’s indigenous people into the British culture.

Unfortunately, in their euphoria to save Australia, the British did not pay enough attention to

the problems during and the consequences because of their settlement.

-10- 8 Geographie der Erde; neue Enzyklopädie; Serges Medien, S 169


3.1 Australia - a former country of convicts

During the Industrial Revolution, when agriculture was replaced by industry, the

unemployment rates increased fast. That is why families stole food and clothes to survive.

Consequently the legislation was made stricter so that lots of people were condemned for

several years in prison.

In 1776 the USA made the “Declaration of Independence” so that prisoners could not be sent

there any more. As the prisons in Great Britain became overcrowded with convicts, Australia

suddenly began to play an important role for its “mother country”.

On January 26th, 1788 the First Fleet with 775 convicts arrived at the Australian coast. 24

convicts of them died on the voyage, which lasted six months. In the following 80 years more

convicts were transported to the continent. Sentences like “Australia’s population was picked

up by the judges” (33) or like “Sträflingskolonien sind Urheber der australischen

Bevölkerung” (34) were often used.

Nevertheless Australia was no country of convicts. Right from the beginning of the settlement

convict and penal settlements existed. The second ones were settlements where only convicts

settled, for example Norfolk or Port Arthur. In the convict settlements also lived settlers who

were free of penalty. For instance “in 1820 39% of people who were free of penalty and 23%

of released convicts got plots of land for free in Sydney.” (35)

Nowadays the children of the former convicts have even founded the “First Fleeter Club”

because they are proud that their parents built up their continent: the convicts built public

buildings, bridges, they made road constructions and helped to facilitate agriculture. The

penal settlements were especially founded near the coal mines and the convicts were treated

as if they were slaves. Thanks to “Wakefield’s theory of colonization” (36) according to

which the Crown should sell plots of Australia to prosperous people who were allowed to

choose their workforce themselves, in 1850 Great Britain stopped transporting the convicts to

the eastern colonies.

In the past Australians were embarrassed of their convict past. After a period of time they

recognized that Australia was a colony of settlements and not a colony of convicts. This

changed attitude of Australians proves that Australia redefined itself.

-11-


3.2 Different cultures and their contrasts/similarities

Apart from convicts and settlers who were free of penalty there were also indigenous people

that emigrated from the Islands of Indonesia (just a theory with no prove) to Australia at least

about 60,000 years ago: “Das älteste Skelett in Australien wurde am Lake Mungo (New South

Wales) gefunden. Die Universität von Canberra geht davon aus, dass es sich dabei um die

älteste DNS eines Menschen handelt - ca. 60.000 Jahre alt. Sie enthalten Spuren von

aufgetragenen Ockerfarben, die höchstwahrscheinlich für Zeremonien genutzt wurden. Sicher

nachweisbar ist eine vollständige Besiedlung des Kontinents seit 32.000 Jahren.” (37)

Right from the first encounter of “whites” and Aborigines conflicts occurred because their

cultures are very different. The Aborigines consider themselves a part of nature. Durable

settlements and economy do not play such an important role in Aboriginal life as in the

European one. The white settlers need land property to survive and so do the Aborigines, but

rather because they believe to be a natural part of Australia and are able to walk on spiritual

paths that cross the continent, so that the “whites” were not allowed to settle there.

The spiritual world 9

-12- 9 Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, Rückseite des Buchumschlages

Because of these claims several regions were declared holy places (for example Uluru –

Ayers Rock in English), in some of them dead Aborigines are buried.

Uluru 10

However when the Aborigines did not want to adapt to innovations made by the “whites”

because of their traditions, the white settlers did not make any more compromises. As the

“whites” were used to fix dates and always to keep to them they could not understand the

Aboriginal culture. They called Aborigines “strangers”, but did not try to get more knowledge

about their traditions which led to a wrong treatment of the indigenous people.

“When in the1850s gold was discovered in New South Wales and Victoria and more than

40,000 Chinese immigrated to the country as golddiggers, they were likewise regarded with

suspicion by the white settlers. Although the ethnic culture is different from the Aboriginal

one, the “whites” feared either: In both cases they used violence.

In addition the Chinese endangered the Australian employment market, so that in 1885 a

legislation was introduced that “made impossible for them to enter Australia”.” (38)

Pacific islanders who were kidnapped and brought to Australia served “as cheap labour in the

sugar cane fields of Queensland”. (39)

Every non - European that lived in Australia that entered this country or that was brought in

there by force lived in conflicts with the British settlers and remained underprivileged only

because the white settlers did not want to try to understand their culture.

-13-

10 Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, Vorderseite des Buchumschlages

Even the European settlers were not always welcomed. In the middle of the 1860s a ban on

immigration for Germans was introduced. The official reason was an economic crisis, but the

real reason was the British immigration which was always privileged towards the other

nationalities. In spite of the Irish immigration since 1840 and despite the overwhelming

Chinese and German immigration since 1901, the British one dominated until the Second

World War. “Afterwards immigration agreements were made with Malta (1948), with Italy

and Netherlands (1951), with Austria, Belgium and Greece (1952) and with Germany and

Spain (1953). Since 1970 the Australians have stopped the ban to the Asian immigration. So

in 1996/97 there were 15.2 % of immigrants from New Zeeland, only 11.3 % from the Great

Britain and 73.5 % from Asia.” (40)

Nowadays Australia is a multicultural country. An indicator for Australian changes is for

instance Bondi beach. It is overwhelmed with shops, restaurants and tourists of Lebanese,

Italian and Greek immigrants; Japanese students abandon their studies to surf in the sea and

women sit on their chairs ready to save a life. In spite of easy going style and despite more

free time there are still tensions between the racist British people and the other cultures. (41)

Another example is the Lidcombe Primary school: “600 pupils from more than 37 different

language backgrounds” (42) learn at this school and tolerate other cultures and religions:

There are hardly violent incidents between different nations at school. Translators were even

organized for parent meetings.

After all, the Australians learned the definition of tolerance by heart. Their motto is “A fair go

for everyone!” (43)

-14-


4.1 The white policy

Already before 1900 the immigration for non – Europeans was full of complications.

Shortly after the foundation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, the Immigration

Restriction Act was introduced by the government. Its motto was “Two wongs don’t make a

white” (44).

Chinese 11

A dictation test in which a European language was demanded from potential immigrants was

introduced to isolate the overwhelming ethnic groups with their bothering cultures. “Hat man

einst die Menschen zwangsweise hineingeschickt, so hat man sie später zwangsweise

ferngehalten” (45), commented Jessen in 1948.

Not till after the Second World War the Immigration Policy changed. The Australian

government feared that the Japanese could continue to attack the continent with bombs; it also

did not like the raising population rates in Asian countries. By way of contrast the birth rates

as well as death rates in Australia declined, so their labor market needed a lot of work force so

that industrialization of the country did not stop. Consequently the slogan of the Immigration

Policy was transformed to “populate or perish” and the numbers of immigrants as well as the

compensation after their nationalities were changed. Although according to the issue from the

year 1981 there were “58.2% of immigrants who were not British” (46), the Asians remained

isolated. The South – Europeans like Italians, Greeks and Yugoslavs dominated the

immigration during the period from 1953 to 1970.

-15-

11 Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, S 136

In 1966 the “famous” dictation test, the hardest barrier for Asian immigrants, had been

abolished. The abolishment of the “White Australia Policy” followed in 1973. Immediately

amounts of peoples flocked from Asia to Australia. Only 18 years later 49% of all immigrants

who entered Australia were Asian, whereas the immigration from Europe declined within ten

years (1981 - 1991) from 50.1% to 25.9%. (47)

The Immigration Policy improved. For instance because of questions about immigration the

Ethnic Affairs Commissions were founded in Australia. Nevertheless a restriction on

admissions of immigrants is still annually discussed. A problem is that with illegal

immigration drugs as well as arms were brought in. Besides, too low population rates and a

hardly raising economic growth were also a discussion point. Consequently more women

were invited to immigrate to keep to status quo and Asians were also welcomed to stabilize

the economic growth by creating international connections. In fact in the 1990s the population

rates as well as the employment ones increased, but on the other hand the unemployment rates

rose, too.

Since July 1999 the Immigration Policy has changed again: The government pays attention

rather to skilled workers with a good knowledge of English and of the foreign languages. The

prosperity of the country seems yet to be more important to Australians than an immigration

freedom - “Welcome to the White Australia Policy again!”

-16-


4.2 An attempt to integrate Aborigines into the white society

About 60,000 years ago Aborigines entered Australia. They had their own culture, traditions

and their own style of life … until the First Fleet, their worst competitor, arrived. The

Europeans did not tolerate any other cultures because they were convinced that only their way

of life was the right one. Like Indians in America the Aborigines were treated awfully by the

white settlers: “Shooting parties were given in which Aborigines were hunted down like

animals.” (48) And according to the Observer, “Twenty years ago, it was hoped that the

Aborigines would melt away: that they would die out or somehow become integrated.” (49)

Integration of Aborigines 12

If the White Australia Policy had been in force for the Aborigines, they would have been

isolated forever. As it was impossible to get rid of the Aborigines in this way and the

Aborigines did not want to get used to the European culture, the government founded

missions:

-17-


From 1860 to 1940 Aborigines were captured and locked up in reservations. There missions

tried to force their culture on them. When this way of reeducation showed hardly a success,

the whites did not want to give up.

In the 1890s the government introduced a brutal program according to which young

Aborigines (half – caste children) should be taken away from their parents and trials should be

made to teach them the white style of living. These trials based on the theory which said that

“half – caste Aborigines could be more easily assimilated into white society than Aborigines

of full descent.” (50) They strived for extermination of the Aboriginal race.

A 68 – year – old contemporary named Mr. Kruger told his story from the time when he was a

small boy: Half – castle children were wound up in “the government – run Khalin

Compound.” (51) He compares it to “a concentration camp, surrounded by a wire fence.

There were just blankets on the floor and because there was not enough to eat the children

were forced to steal food and clothes. But when they were caught attendants flogged them.”

(52)

Only a few of these children could see their mother again.

“Altogether about 100,000 young Aborigines were dislocated by such policies up until the

1960s – in the name of “assimilation”.” (53)

Still a cruel attempt to “save” the indigenous people took place in 1953. The Aborigines that

lived in South Australia were taken to Yalata because in their colony Great Britain carried out

nuclear tests up to 1957. Hans Gaden, a missionary worker, commented, “Although we did

not blow them [the Aborigines] up, we ruined them.” (54) But “Yalata was a settlement where

the Aborigines were corrupted by alcohol and other trappings of white society.” (55)

The “famous” crime – ridden Redfern (a part of Sydney) is similar to a ghetto: “Many homes

there are burned – out or vandalized and the drone of sirens is always heard.” (56)

In this government – supported district the Aborigines traffic with drugs and alcohol; “lots of

girls have damaged their brains with drugs and alcohol, and can’t look after their children.

Actually indigenous women have one of the worst life expectancies in the world, with high

rates of death from diabetes and cervical cancer” (57) which had been brought in by the

European settlers.

Altogether the number of the indigenous people was between 300,000 and 1,000000 when the

first European settlers arrived in Australia. The more aboriginal people lived on the continent

from the beginning of the settlement the worse are the negative effects on the indigenous

population.

-18-

Nowadays there live about 380,000 Aborigines in Australia which is only a tiny minority

among 18 million Australians.

Although the Australian government recognized the historic injustice and “investigated 98%

of recent deaths in prisons and police lock – ups” (58) of aboriginal people, natural resources,

fine climate and the most important thing - health - are not returnable.

-19-


4.3 Different proprietors of Australia

With the arrival of the First Fleet not only the culture of the indigenous people was

endangered, but also their property. “When the first colony was founded at Sydney Cove, the

land the British inhabited was terra nullius. The Aborigines resisted to the invasion and were

killed indiscriminately.” (59) As the indigenous people had done nothing to develop the place,

they were not accepted as the first nation in Australia - never! “Even in 1999 a preface of the

Constitution that included the acceptance of the Aborigines as the first Australian nation was

refused.” (60) Not until the 1960s their “status improved, although poverty and

unemployment remain.” (61) Freedom Rides, influenced by the American civil rights

movement, took place: “Charles Pekins, an Aborigine, hired a bus and traveled together with

white students through some of the most racist towns in the country.” (62)

With protests the Aborigines began to fight for their rights.

Aborigines struggle for their rights 13

“In 1961 the right to vote was given to the Aborigines and in 1967 the Aboriginal Affairs

Commissions were founded, where embezzlements of the financial means that are in the true

sense of the word to be spent on Aborigines, still occur.” (63)

In 1971 the climax was reached: Mr. Justice Blackburn declared, “On the foundation of New

South Wales… and of South Australia, every square inch of territory in the colony became the

property of the Crown.” (64) Mr. Henry Reynolds examined this statement to see if Mr.

Blackburn was right. He found out that “the British Government in the first half of the

nineteenth century recognised that the Aborigines owned the land.” (65) Consequently the

colonists as well as the courts behaved unconstitutional.

-20-

13 http://www.planet-wissen.de/pics/IEPics/intro_outback_aborig_g.jpg

In 1993 the theory of terra nullius was dropped and “native titles” which were given in 1998

were limited again: the Aborigines can only reclaim “unoccupied outback and woodland” (66)

whereas “miners and farmers won the validation of all leases” (67).

On the other hand the government builds houses where Aborigines can live, but they use the

houses just as storerooms and they themselves live outside. Many of them return to their tribe

because they do not want to give up their culture. Such well – meant attempts to integrate the

Aborigines drive the indigenous people to consumption of drugs, depressions and to apathy.

Although the government agrees that the Aborigines were uprooted, they are still not ready to

return them their land again.

-21-


4.4 The compensations for Aborigines

At the time when Mr. Henry Reynolds found out that the Australian land belonged to the

Aborigines and that it had been recognized by the Crown itself, he demanded compensations

for the indigenous people because of their “prior ownership”. He intended to prompt the High

Court to such a decision to change the attitudes of the white settlers concerning money that

was spent on the Aborigines.

With “native titles” only a part of Reynolds demand was realized and nevertheless discussions

about compensations for Aborigines remain: for instance in 1996 “Ms Hanson, a member of

the Liberal Party, attacked Aborigines and Asians in her election campaign and called for an

end of immigration”. (68) Mr. Howard, the leader of the Liberal Party, had ditched her. But

she spoke for the National Party. Among other things she claimed, “Along with millions of

Australians, I am fed up to the back teeth with the inequalities that are being promoted by the

government and paid for by the taxpayer under the assumption that Aboriginals are the most

disadvantaged people in Australia” (69) and was supported by 48% of respondents, opposed

by 38%. As a result the Aborigines as well as immigrants were frightened of “racial abuse”.

In the same year Peter Costello, the finance minister, announced that among other things the

financial means of “11 per cent of Australia’s poor minority and Aboriginals should be cut to

balance the budget by 1999” (70).

The British Government also refuses to pay the full compensation for their atom bomb trials

in the period from 1953 to 1957. It claims that in Australia it was cleaned up in 1967,

although the scientists found out a 100 – fold increase of contamination with plutonium.

About 300 sq km of land had to be isolated which again violates the Aboriginal “native titles”,

as “it takes 240,000 years for plutonium’s radioactivity to decay”. (71)

The Outback - Aborigines’ property 14

-22- 14 Burkhard Hofmeister & Wilhelm Lutz: Australien und Neuseeland; fotografiert von Christian Heeb, S 107

With regard to the Olympic Games in 2000 the government wanted to relocate the Aborigines

and then to demolish and to redevelop the “black ghetto” in Redfern. But the indigenous

people resisted it which shows that they do not trust the government. They believe to be an

embarrassment for the Australians and still fear that the government wants to wipe out the

Aboriginal culture.

-23-


5.1 Australia between Asia, America and Europe

At the beginning of the settlement Australia was influenced by Great Britain. In the Australian

history and politics Great Britain is irreplaceable. Still today Queen Elizabeth is head of the

federal Australia.

The Australian Flag 15

Nevertheless the British former colony has changed. In military and cultural aspects the

Australians were rather influenced by the USA whereas “geographically, Australia sits on the

fringes of Asia”. (72) These facts show that Australia suffered from self – deprecation,

although the continent is far away from other parts of the world. And yet Australia got over its

dependence especially on Great Britain - its mother country: Australians began shooting their

own films which were spoken in English dialects; they exported Aboriginal music and art.

Such exportations revealed that Australia had created its self – definition. Communication and

transportation increased, tourists became interested in the native culture and with the help of

good economic connections that resulted Australia became internationally involved.

During both World Wars Australia fought in the interests of Great Britain. But as in the

Second World War it was endangered by the Japanese and the British did not help, Australia

depended on protection of the USA. As a result in 1951 the “ANZUS – Pakt” between New

Zeeland, Australia and the USA was signed in order to protect the Pacific area. In 1954 Great

Britain, France, Pakistan, the Philippines and Thailand joined the “ANZUS – Pakt” that was

later renamed “SEATO”.

-24- 15 http://www.familienarchiv-papsdorf.de/images/australia.jpg

In 1965 Australia changed from the British currency to the American one – the Australian

dollar. Already a year later Australia supported the USA in the Vietnam conflict and still in

the same year, after the dictation test had been abolished, Australia strived for a multicultural

community as it is found in the USA.

Similar to the American Dream in the USA Asians were able to rise from the lowest point of

poverty to fame and fortune. For instance Joseph Assaf came from Lebanon to Australia. He

spoke Arabic and French, and no English at all. In addition he was an unskilled, poor man;

but after working hard Mr. Assaf “set up marketing, public relations and research agency,

Ethnic Communications”. (73) As Australia is mainly dependent on commodity exports, it

sounds quite logical that such Asian immigrants like Mr. Assaf are welcome in the country

because of their roots and contacts.

Slowly but surely Australia drifted away from Great Britain, but towards Asia!

-25-


5.2 Further away from Europe and America - closer to Asia

With the Commonwealth of Australia Great Britain gave a large degree of independence as a

present to Australia. The British queen lost her full sovereignty - separation of powers was

introduced. Thus absolutism has been replaced by the constitutional monarchy that still

remains, although more and more people vote for a republic and want to separate from Great

Britain. For instance Marcus Lee – Steere, a campaign spokesman said, “Monarchy is totally

inappropriate for us. It is undemocratic, sexist and unrepresentative of a multi – cultural

society.” (74)

Especially in 1973 the British power over Australia was over. A multicultural society of

Aborigines, Asians, British and Europeans has been created. Asian immigrants and about

160,000 convicts founded the modern nation of Australia, which after all redefined itself.

Although the USA protected Australia when in the Second World War Great Britain turned its

back on Australia and turned to Europe (it joined the EC in 1973), the military and politic

connections did not last long. When the USA began to sanction Japan and interfered with

human rights in China, on the one hand Australia was worried about the American policy in

Asia and on the other hand the country feared that Japan might open up its markets to

American exports. These incidents made the USA one of Australia’s competitors rather than a

friend so that Australia all the more made an effort to improve connections towards Asia. For

example school systems have been introduced that encourage pupils “to learn Asian

languages to help promote business, cultural and diplomatic ties in the region”. (75) “Unlike

the “guest workers” in European countries, immigrants are given full rights.” (76) And Prime

Minister Keating (1991 – 1996) even founded a department for Pacific affairs.

Nowadays the Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) - similar to the EC and NAFTA -

strives for a large free trade Asian – Pacific area: “Japan is Australia’s largest trading partner,

taking $15.6 billion worth of exports in 1993, followed by the countries of the Association of

Southeast Asian Nations and China. Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade

estimates that eight of the country’s top 12 export markets between now and 2012 will be in

East Asia.” (77)

-26-

Australia also supports central offices of companies that offer the Europeans as well as the

Americans to engage in the Asian markets. In addition the eastern and the south – eastern

Asian markets have been reorganized since the economic depression in 1997 which shows

that Asia is the most important partner of Australia.

But where does Australia belong – is it a European country because of its mother country or is

it rather an Asian one because of its multicultural population and trade connections? An

inaugural summit of Asian and European leaders that was held in Thailand could not be

joined by Australia because Malaysia was against participation of Australia and New Zealand

- the countries were neither Asian nor European ones. This way Australia became isolated.

“The Asian ministers eventually agreed to Australia and New Zealand joining the second Asia

– Europe summit in 1997.” (78) And still which hemisphere do the countries represent? So

much is certain - the East Asian Hemisphere was already completed.

-27-

6. Epilog

On the one hand Australia has been a continent full of problems right from the beginning. But

on the other hand it is noteworthy that despite the White Australian Policy and cruel

treatments of Aborigines a multicultural country has replaced British absolutism. It is also

important that Australians recognized that its mother country only wanted to exploit Australia

as a colony: for example “160,000 convicts were transported during 80 years to Australia”

(79); “the British carried out bomb trials between 1953 and 1957 in New South Wales” (80);

Australia fought “on Great Britain’s side in two world wars” (81) and the British Government

profited from “commodity exports” (82) from Australia. Australia drifted towards Asia

especially because of economy, but was it ever accepted as an Asian country?

For the first time I read historical sources with pleasure, since, as I already expected, Australia

is a very suspense – packed theme. I got by far more knowledge about this fascinating

continent than I could write down, as information about Australia seems to be unlimited. No

wonder that there were sometimes problems to shorten my treatise by less important facts.

I recommend the theme Australia to others since there will be no lack of information,

guaranteed!

I consider this treatise as a preparatory work for university and I am glad to have already

practiced.

Fascinating Australia16

-28-


Australia

7. Annotations

7.2 References

- Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien & Neuseeland; Harenberg Verlag

GmbH & Co. KG; Dortmund 2001

- http://www.australien-info.de/daten-politik.html; 07.04.2007

- Australia 1; Nation and society in search of a new identity; Eilers & Schünemann

Verlag, 2004

- Bilder auf dem Deckblatt und auf der Rückseite der Jahresarbeit aus Hofmeister,

Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien & Neuseeland; Harenberg Verlag GmbH &

Co. KG; Dortmund 2001, S. 277, Vorderseite des Umschlages

7. Annotations

7.1 Quotations

Quotation Source

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien & Neuseeland; Harenberg

Verlag GmbH & Co. KG; Dortmund 2001,

Das Südland von der Antike bis Magellan, p. 28 - 29

(8)



Portugiesen und Spanier, p. 29

(9)



Di Niederländer, p. 29

(10)

(11)



Britische Aktivitäten, p. 29 - 30

(12)



Cooks erste Weltreise, p. 30

(13) (14)

Australia 1; Nation and society in search of a new identity; Eilers &

Schünemann Verlag, 2004, p. 2

(15)



Erste Umseglung des Kontinents, p. 30

(16)



Gewährung von Wahlrechten, p. 47

(17)



Vorbereitung auf die Föderation, p. 48

(18)



Displaced Persons und Assisted Arrivals, p. 41

(19)



Bevölkerungsentwicklung und Verbreitung, p. 24

(20)



Buschbrände und Dürren, p. 10

(21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26)



Eingeschleppte Tiere, p. 19

(27) (28)



Bodenschätze, p. 21

(29)



Die Variabilität der Niederschläge, p. 12

(30)



Der Australische Schild, p. 20

(31) (32)



Das Grosse Barriereriff, p. 19

(33)

(34)



Die Sträflingsfrage, p. 32 (35) Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien & Neuseeland; Harenberg


Convict und Penal Settlements, p. 33

(36) Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien & Neuseeland; Harenberg


Veränderte Siedlungspolitik, p. 37

(37) http://www.australien-info.de/daten-politik.html; 07.04.2007,

Aborigines

(38) compare with Australia 1; Nation and society in search of a new identity; Eilers

& Schünemann Verlag, 2004, p. 3

(39) Australia 1; Nation and society in search of a new identity; Eilers &

Schünemann Verlag, 2004, p. 3

(40) compare with Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien &

Neuseeland; Harenberg Verlag GmbH & Co. KG; Dortmund 2001,

Veränderte Einwanderungspolitik nach 1945, p. 41

(41) compare the whole passage with Australia 1; Nation and society in search of a

new identity; Eilers & Schünemann Verlag; The New York Times 13.2.1988,

p. 24, p.25


Schünemann Verlag; The Weekend Australian 22.4.1995, p. 33



Gesetzgebung und Multikulturalismus, p. 42



Die White Australia Policy, p. 39 (45) Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien & Neuseeland; Harenberg


Die White Australia Policy, p. 40



Veränderte Einwanderungspolitik nach 1945, p. 41

(47) compare with Hofmeister, Burkhard & Lutz, Wilhelm: Australien &

Neuseeland; Harenberg Verlag GmbH & Co. KG; Dortmund 2001,

Öffnung nach Asien hin, p. 41


Schünemann Verlag; 2004, p. 3


Schünemann Verlag; The Observer 7.2.1988, p. 39


(51)

(52)

(53)

Schünemann Verlag; The Independent 13.4.1995, p. 43

(54)

(55)



(56)

(57)


Schünemann Verlag; The Guardian 6.3.1997, p. 47





(60) http://www.australien-info.de/daten-politik.html; 07.04.2007,

Aborigines

(61)

(62)



(63) compare with http://www.australien-info.de/daten-politik.html; 07.04.2007,

Aborigines

(64)

(65)



(66)

(67)



(68)

(69)




Schünemann Verlag; The Independent 21.8.1996, p. 44, p. 45






Schünemann Verlag; The Weekend Australian 8.4.1995, p. 29




Schünemann Verlag; Newsweek 4.4.1994, p. 20


Schünemann Verlag; The Christian Science Monitor 5.6.1992, p. 35


Schünemann Verlag; Newsweek 4.4.1994, p. 19




& Schünemann Verlag; The New York Times 13.2.1988, p. 6


& Schünemann Verlag; The Independent 3.12.1994, p. 42


Schünemann Verlag; The Independent Leader 25.1.1988, p. 7


Schünemann Verlag; The Christian Science Monitor 3.1.1988, p. 4

p. 29 - 33

8. Appendix


8.1.1 Webpages

Queen Australien ist eine unabhängige Nation mit Königin Elisabeth II. als

Staatsoberhaupt. Die Königin ernennt auf Vorschlag der gewählten australischen Regierung einen Generalgouverneur für Australien.

Generalgouverneur Der Generalgouverneur ist seit der Schaffung der Föderation vor hundert Jahren der Vertreter des eigentlichen Staatsoberhaupts, der Krone von England. Im Lande selbst gilt der Generalgouverneur als das faktische Staatsoberhaupt.

Seit 22. Juni 2003 ist Major General Michael Jeffery im Amt.

Die konstitutionelle Monarchie ist (noch) nicht Rep ublik Der Streit hatte tiefere Gründe. Er hat gezeigt, dass es um die Frage der Identität des Kontinents ging. Es schien ein schöner Traum zu sein: Australien sollte sich nach innen und nach aussen als eigenständige Gesellschaft präsentieren, als eine liberale, als eine offene, multikulturelle Gesellschaft, ja, als ein Modell für die Zukunft der Menschheit. Ausdruck dieser Eigenständigkeit wäre ein selbstständig gewähltes Staatsoberhaupt gewesen. Man hätte sich von den britischen Rockzipfeln gelöst. Nun ist Australien zwar multikulturell - Nachkommen fast aller europäischen Völker leben hier zusammen -, aber zwei Grundprobleme sind nach wie vor nicht geläst:

� Welche Rechte billigt der Staat den Ureinwohnern, den Aboriginal People, zu? � Wie gestaltet man das Verhältnis zu den asiatischen Nachbarn?

Die USA haben ihre Identität im Befreiungskampf gegen die britische Monarchie gewonnen. Der "Independent Day" ist Nationalfeiertag. Australien aber gewann seine Bedeutung für die britische Krone erst, als sich die USA von Großbritannien lösten. Da konnte man die Strafgefangenen nicht mehr nach Amerika schicken. Man verschiffte sie nach Australien. Als 1901 in einer Erklärung der Bundesstaat ausgerufen wurde, war dies alles andere als eine kühne Unabhängigkeitserklärung. John Pilger, der Korrespondent der liberalen britischen Zeitung "The Guardian", schrieb, die australische Führungsschicht sei immer mit einem verhüllten kolonialen Status glücklich gewesen. Die Erklärung von 1901 bezeichnet Pilger "als verzweifelten Schrei an Mutter England zu bleiben und ihre am weitesten entfernte Kolonie gegen die ,asiatischen Horden' zu verteidigen."

Heute wird diese Urangst nicht mehr offen ausgesprochen. Aber natürlich ging es bei der Abstimmung im Kern darüber, ob Australien eine neue Identität als Nachbar asiatischer Staaten findet, ob es womöglich selbst ein asiatischer Staat wird oder ob es ein "weißer Vorposten" der transatlantischen Welt bleibt. Australien hat sich dafür entschieden, britisch zu bleiben, sich scharf von den Nachbarn abzugrenzen. Die chaotischen Vorgänge in Indonesien haben im Sommer und Herbst 1999 auf viele Australier abschreckend gewirkt.

-34-

aborogones

Rund um dieses Thema existieren zahlreiche Mythen, die häufig publiziert werden, aber deswegen noch lange nicht korrekt sein müssen. Die Kulturen von weißen und "schwarzen" Australiern unterscheiden sich in vielen Punkten. Die Ureinwohner sehen sich als integrierten Bestandteil der Natur. Materielle Güterwirtschaft und Sesshaftigkeit haben in der Gesellschaft der Ureinwohner nicht den gleichen Stellenwert wie in der europäisch geprägten Einwanderer-Gesellschaft. Ein vorprogrammierter Konflikt: Die weißen Siedler brauchten für Ihr Verständnis von Existenz Landbesitz - gleichzeitig die Basis der eingeborenen Gesellschaft. Ein Konflikt, der bis heute andauert. Nicht vollkommen geklärt. Die meisten wissenschaftlichen Ansätze gehen von einem Siedlungsbeginn vor 40.000 bis 60.000 Jahren aus. Einzelne Studien sprechen sogar von 120.000 Jahren. Sicher nachweisbar ist eine vollständige Besiedlung des Kontinentes seit 32.000 Jahren. Dabei wurden Felszeichungen im Kakadu NP datiert. Das älteste Skelett in Australien wurde am Lake Mungo (New South Wales) gefunden. Die Universität von Canberra geht davon aus, dass es sich dabei umdie älteste DNS eines Menschen handelt - ca. 60.000 Jahre alt. Sie enthalten Spuren von aufgetragenen Ockerfarben, die höchstwahrscheinlich für Zeremonien genutzt wurden. Abstammung Es wird vermutet, dass die Besiedlung von Indonesien begonnen hat. Die

Landmasse Australiens und der indonesischen Inseln hatte zu dieser Zeit durch einen niedrigeren Meeresspiegel eine grössere Ausdehnung. Die schmalste Meeresenge hatte eine Breite von 90 km. Ein ansteigender Meeresspiegel trennte Australien später wieder weiter von der asiatischen Inseln.

� Unklar ist, ob die heutigen australischen Ureinwohner bei ihrer Einwanderung ausreichende Kenntnis in Navigation hatten oder entsprechend taugliche Schiffe oder Flöße.

� Bei Ankunft der Europäer (Tausende von Jahren später) konnten dafür keine Anzeichen festgestellt werden.

Landbesitz Im Gegensatz zu anderen Völkern bewirtschafteten die Aboriginal People das Land nicht, sondern lebten vom kontrolliertem Verbrennen des Landes, das sogenannte fire-stick farming. Diese Form wird mittlerweile als Urform der Landwirtschaft angesehen. Sie haben keinen Sinn für Landeigentum entwickelt, auch wenn die Kinder der Ureinwohner frühzeitig lernen, daß die Menschen dem Land gehören und die Gruppengrenzen respektieren zu haben. Die Gruppen kehrten zu bestimmten Stätten zurück, um Tote zu begraben. Einige Gebiete wurden aufgrund ihrer Verbindung mit der Traumzeit zu heiligen Stätten erklärt.

� � � � � -35-

Bevölkerung � Über die Bevölkerungszahl zur Zeit der Ankunft der weißen - europäischen - Siedler gehen die Schätzungen auseinander. Sie liegen zwischen 300.000 und 1.000.000.

� Heute leben noch etwa 380.000 Aboriginal People in Australien. Insgesamt leben zur Zeit 18 Millionen Menschen in Australien.

� Bei genauerer Betrachtung zählen nur rund 50.000 zu den "full blood Aboriginal People". Aufgrund von rassistischen Vorurteilen bezeichneten sich viele Mischlinge in vergangenen Volksumfragen als Weiße, wodurch eine hohe Dunkelziffer entstand. Diese Tendenz ist in den letzen Jahren rückläufig, was zu einem statistischen Anstieg der aboriginalen Bevölkerung führt. Dem Spektrum der unterschiedlichen Zugehörigkeit zur aboriginalen Bevölkerung (von full blood bis zu Mischlingen mit zB. "nur" aboriginalen Großeltern) trägt das Substantiv "Aboriginal" Rechnung, während "Aborigine" alle in eine Schublade steckt.

Selbstverständnis Nach ihrem Glauben sehen sich Aboriginal People als integrierten Teil ihrer natürlichen Umgebung. Sie befolg(t)en strikte Verhaltensregeln im Umgang mit der Natur. Diese Haltung ist Neuerungen gegenüber sehr zurückhaltend. Termine zu vereinbaren und einzuhalten ist dabei ebenfalls unwichtig - aufgrund völlig anderer kultureller Grundlagen und Notwendigkeiten. Die ersten Europäer empfanden folglich die Kultur als archaisch und fremd - vergleichbar mit den steinzeitlich lebenden Papua auf Neuguinea. Aus diesen Eindrücken resultierte die Behandlung aboriginaler Gruppen in der Folgezeit des Erstkontaktes. Sie entstand aus einer Mischung von völliger Unkenntnis der Kultur, falschen Interpretationen und der fehlenden Bereitschaft, sich dem Unbekannten zu öffnen.

Rechtlosigkeit Bei der Besiedlung wurde Australien als Terra Nullius (Niemandsland) gesehen. 1836 wurde den nomadisierenden Aboriginal People die Fähigkeit zur organisierten Landnutzung (und die Tatsache, dass sie das Land wirklich genutzt haben) abgesprochen und die Landrechte der Ureinwohner für nichtig erklärt.

Vetreibung Aboriginal People wurden als zum Aussterben verurteilte Rasse primitiver Nomaden gesehen, deklariert und so behandelt. Die Ureinwohner wurden aus ihren Siedlungsgebieten vertrieben. Die Europäer gingen teilweise mit äußerster Härte vor. Aboriginal People wurden gejagt, vergiftet und erschossen.

� Besonders drastisch ist das Schicksal der Ureinwohner Tasmaniens: 4.000 von ihnen setzten sich zur Wehr und wurden binnen 70 Jahren vollständig vernichtet.

� Noch in den Zwanzigerjahren wurden Aboriginal People auf sonntäglichen Treibjagden von Viehtreibern erschossen und «ihre Köpfe auf der Veranda zum Trocknen aufgestellt». Illegal – aber durchaus entsprechend dem Zeitgeist.

Krankheiten & Seuchen

Masern und Syphilis dezimierten die Anzahl der Aboriginal People weiter. 1789, 1829-32, 1865-70 wüteten Pockenepidemien, von denen die weißen Siedler verschont blieben, da sie gegen die von ihnen eingeschleppten Erreger weitgehend resistent waren. Übergewicht und Diabetes sind heute weit verbreitet.

-36-

Depression & Apathie Aus Sicht der Ureinwohner wurde und wird ihre Welt nach und nach zerstört. Viele sind physisch und geistig entwurzelt. Parallel dazu sinkt ihr Selbstrespekt sowie der Lebenswille. Dies führt oft zur Flucht in Apathie, Depression und Drogen. So entstand ihr Ruf faul und "unnütz" zu sein. Im Gegensatz zu den Schwarzen Südafrikas, die während der Apartheid-Politik mit Terror und Aufständen die Weltöffentlichkeit auf sich aufmerksam machten, blieben die australischen Ureinwohner eher lethargisch.

Drogen Alkohol ist heute die größte Geisel der Aboriginal People: Vielen trinken sich mit billigem, gepanschten Fusel um den Verstand - bis in den Tod. Junge Aboriginal People schnüffeln sich mit Benzin in den Wahnsinn. Unter diesen Drogen-Problemen leidet die ganze Familie - und damit das Herzstück der Ureinwohnergesellschaften.

Missionen Die Kolonialverwaltung versuchte nach eigener Definition dem Zerfall der Kulturen durch Errichtung von Reservaten und Entsendung von Missionaren gegenzuwirken. Der Erfolg war ausgesprochen mäßig: Von 1860 bis 1940 dauerte der Versuch eingefangene Aboriginal People in Reservaten zu halten und ihnen die weiße Lebensweise mit staatlicher Versorgung aufzuzwingen.

Hinter dem scheinbar hehren Ziel der Mission steckte ein handfestes politisches Interesse. Viele Geschichtsforscher sehen heute das Kernziel der Mission in der Zerstörung der Ureinwohnerkulturen: Die Menschen sollten als billige Arbeitskräfte dienstbar gemacht werden. Viele Missionen bzw. staatliche Einrichtungen (selbst Privatleute wie zB. Daisy Bates) sahen ihre Aufgabe im "smoothing of the pillow on the black man’s death bed", also darin, das Aussterben der Schwarzen in Australien wenn nicht zu beschleunigen, so zumindest "angenehm" zu machen.

Erfolgreiche und gescheiterte Schritte zur Eingliederung

Kinderraub Ein besonders brutaler Versuch der Assimilierung wird erst seit Ende der 90er Jahre von der autralischen Gesellschaft aufgearbeitet: Bis ca. 1970 trennten Regierung und Kirche Tausende von Kindern von ihren Eltern. Diese «gestohlene Generation» wurde bei Pflegefamilien und in Missionsstationen untergebracht.

Rechtslage Die weißen Australier taten sich schwer mit der Erteilung voller Bürgerrechte für die Ureinwohner. 1961 Aboriginal People erhalten Wahlrecht 1967 Gründung des Referates für Aboriginal-Angelegenheiten:

Die Effizienz der Institution ist ein Dauerstreitpunkt australischer Innenpolitik. Milliarden wurden u.a. in die medizinische Versorgung gesteckt um z.B. die dramatische Säuglingssterblichkeit (war 10-fach im Vgl. zu Weissen) zu reduzieren. Unterschlagungen und mangelhafte Buchführung sind häufige Probleme bei der Verteilung finanzieller Mittel bei Aboriginal-Projekten.

1980 ff.

Die Rassentrennung an Schulen und in manchen Stadtbezirken wird nach und nach aufgehoben.

1993 Mabo-Gesetz beendet Rechtslage von "Terra Nullius": Aboriginal People haben Recht auf "native titles" - Rückforderung von ureigenem Land. Voraussetzung: Nachweis einer jahrhundertelangen, konstant andauernden, Beziehung zu einem Land. Ureinwohnerstämme meldeten Ansprüche auf fast 40 Prozent der Fläche an. Dabei sollen die bisherigen Nutzer nicht vertrieben werden, aber Rechte zur Durchführung religiöser Handlungen und zur Jagd auf Wildtiere sowie Wegerechte eingeräumt werden.

-37-

1998 Wik-Gesetz schränkt Forderungen der Ureinwohner ein: Landrechts-Ansprüche auf Gebiete, die vom Staat an Bauern oder Bergbaugesellschaften verpachtet sind, können nicht erhoben werden. Lediglich finanzielle Entschädigung kann verlangt werden. Finanziert werden solen sie aus Steuermitteln. Es wird mit Kosten in Milliarden-Höhe gerechnet.

1999 Verfassungs-Präambel abgelehnt: Ein Vorwort zur Verfassung, dass u. a. die Aboriginal People als erstes Volk Australien anerkennen sollte, wurde abgelehnt.

2000 Mehrere Protestmärsche mit bis zu einer halben Million Teilnehmern für die Rechte der Aboriginal People spiegeln das geänderte Rechtsbewusstsein des weissen Australiens.

2004 Nach dem Tod eines 17-jährigen gibt es im Februar Krawalle in der Ureinwohnersiedlung in Sydneys Stadtteil Redfern.

Status Quo

Entwurzelung Es gibt nur noch wenige Gebiete, wo Aboriginal People traditionell leben bzw. leben wollen. Sie leben mit einem Kompromiss zwischen den beiden Lebensstilen und sind meist weder hier noch dort zu Hause. Etwa die Hälfte wohnt in und um ländliche Kleinstädte, ca. ein Viertel in den Grossstädten.

Soziale Situation

Arbeitslosigkeit ca. 38% Gefängnis-Insassen 14% aller Insassen sind Aboriginal People.

Versöhnung Für ihre Rolle bei den Zwangs-Adoptionen haben sich u.a. offiziell entschuldigt: Die Kirchen und der Generalgouverneur als Vertreter des australischen Staatsoberhauptes - der Königin Elizabeth II..

Radikalisten Während die städtische Bevölkerung eher für Versöhnungsmassnahmen plädiert, gibt es auf dem Land oft Stimmen zur Beibehaltung eines ausgrenzenden Kurses. Unumstritten sind insbesondere die Milliarden schweren Projekte zur Unterstützung der Aborigines. Eine Schlüsselfunktion nimmt hier die staatlich finanzierte Aborigines-Selbstverwaltungs-Organisation Atsic ein.

� Die Partei "One Nation" vom rechten Rand des Parteienspektrums versucht seit Mitte der 90er Jahre Profit aus einem latenten Rassismus zu ziehen.

� Nicht nur auf weißer Seite gibt es radikale Positionen. Auch manche Aboriginal-Aktivisten bringen die Sache der Ureinwohner in Misskredit.

Ureinwohner-Siedlungen

In Sydneys Stadtteil Redfern ist die grösste Ureinwohnersiedlung Australiens. Sie gilt seit Jahren als Ghetto der Ureinwohner der Olympiastadt und bietet wahrscheinlich das negativste Beispiel fьr eine Siedlung urbanisierter Aboriginal Pepole. Da sie nur wenige Kilometer von der Oper entfernt liegt, werden immer wieder populistische Rufe nach der Abrissbirne laut, so im Februar 2004 nach den Krawallen auch vom Oppositionsführer. In Redfern ist Drogenmissbrauch, Arbeitslosigkeit, Jugendkriminalitдt und Gewalt zuhause - häufig gepaart mit einer zutiefst empfundenen Entwurzlung und Perspektivlosigkeit. Konflikte zwischen der Polizei und den Aboriginal People sind in Redfern nahezu Alltag. Immer wieder werden Beamte von den Bewohnern des Rassismus beschuldigt.

http://www.australien-info.de/daten-politik.html; 07.04.2007

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8. Appendix


8.1.2 Maps

http://physiker.ch/media/img/australia/australia.png

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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Australia_map.svg/650px-Australia_map.svg.png

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Longman; Dictionary of Contemporary English; Langenschiedt

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8. Appendix


8.1.3 Unused pictures

http://www.sydney2006.com/media/gallery/Wallpaper%20Pack%2001/australia%20wallpaper%2013.jpg

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http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/de/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_the_Australian_Aborigines.svg/800px-Flag_of_the_Australian_Aborigines.svg.png

http://www.ingrids-welt.de/reise/aus/bilder2/kukabo0b.jpg

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http://www.arizonas-world.de/Australien/assets/images/Aborigine.jpg

http://www.museumonline.at/1999/schools/classic/grg21/Images/abor-familie.jpg

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9. Declaration

Ich versichere hiermit, dass ich diese Facharbeit selbstständig verfasst, keine anderen als die

angegebenen Hilfsmittel verwendet habe und dass sämtliche Stellen, die benutzten Werken im

Wortlaut oder dem Sinne nach entnommen worden sind, mit Quellenangaben kenntlich

gemacht wurden. Diese Versicherung gilt auch für Zeichnungen, Skizzen und bildliche

Darstellungen.

Heli, den 16.04.2007 Ellen Singer

“australia - a country between asia, american and its ...2. australia’s history 2.2 the...

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