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Whereas conditioning is about creating a desired behavior, itis often desirable to eradicate other behaviors. This is called'extinction'.

Natural extinction

Behavior that have been created may become extinct if they

are not fully maintained.

Gradual decay.At any time, a response has at best a

probabilistic correlation with stimuli. A loud noise that

has been associated with pain will very likely cause a

person anguish, but is not 100% certain in all cases.

If the stimulus is not applied and the response thus notgenerated over a long period of time, then probability ofconditioned behavior happening will decay in a given pattern.For example the person who has not heard the loud noise forsome time would not experience as much discomfort as theywould soon after conditioning.An important factor here isthat conditioning must be maintained, with sufficientlyfrequent rehearsals and re-stimulus-and-response, for the

pattern to continue over time. This implies that the

underlying persona is not changed at a fundamental level,and that conversion, for example, is not a one-shot activityand requires constant attention.

Predictability of stimulus

If the condition has been created with regular and predictablereward or punishment, then the absence of the reward or

punishment will quickly lead to extinction. If, however, thereward or punishment has been applied irregularly, then asecond condition has been created where, upon receiving thestimulus, the person forecasts and imagines the reward or

punishment being applied.This situation takes longer for thepattern to become extinct, as the person is now maintaining itthemselves, without external stimuli. Eventually, by accident

or trial the person will find that the reward or punishmentdoes not happen and thus the behavior gradually becomesextinct.This is one reason why gambling is so addictive. Theuncertainty as to whether the person will win or lose givesopportunity for prediction (and hope) of winning.

Extinction through accustomizing

Another way of making a behavior extinct is to help theperson become accustomed to the stimulus and hence notfind it frightening or stimulating in any way.

Desensitization

When a person receives a stimulus and experiences the

conditioned response a number of times, then the intensity ofthe emotion they feel may well become dulled withfamiliarity. This is used in therapy for example by startingwith a weak triggering, and increasing the stimulus at thespeed at which the person becomes desensitized.This is alsoapparent in the use of pornography. A person who isstimulated by a pornographic image will find that it soon hasless effect than it previously had. This leads them to seek tocapture the experience with further images, and sometimesyet more erotic (and even illegal) tendencies.

InoculationInoculation is a simple method, analogous to

medical inoculation, where you present a weakened form

of the experience such that the person finds it easy (and

even laughably so) to resist a simulated 'attack'. When

faced with the real situation, then they remember how

easily they defended against the weak attack and so are

better able to handle the real thing.

Extinction through extreme experience

A strange thing that happens sometimes is that a behaviormay become extinct not through ignoring the triggers thatcause it, but actually exacerbating it to the extreme.

Reversing breakdown

Pavlov found, with his discovery of the three stages ofbreakdown, a fourth stage, where dogs faced with near-deathexperiences 'forgot' all of their previous conditioning (and ittook Pavlov several months to reinstate them).

Flooding

This is used in therapy, where it is calledflooding. A stimulusis constantly applied and more extreme responses encourageduntil there is a sudden reversal and the stimulus no longer hasany effect.

Aversion therapy

Aversion therapy uses the methods of conditioning to break aconditioned experience. Thus a behavior that is not desirableis punished when it appears. In therapy, techniques such aselectric shocks have been used, and are understandablycontroversial (if you have seen Stanley Kubrick's 'ClockworkOrange' then you will appreciate the potential effects). It isnot clear the extent to which aversion therapy works at all.

So what?

If you want to eradicate a behavior, you can either ignore itand hope it goes away, or you can deliberately usedesensitation or flooding methods - be extremely careful withflooding (it is not recommended except by psychological

professionals), as done wrong it can simply worsen thesituation. Don't bother with aversion methods - they are notreliable and could cause moral backlashes.

Punishment Description

This is the dissonance felt when a person lack sufficientexternal justification for having resisted a desired activity or

object. This often results in the person devaluing theforbidden thing.

Research

Aronson and Carlsmith (1963) threatened children with eithermild or severe punishment if they played with favored toys.

None of them played with toys, even when left alone withthem. Afterwards the children who had only been mildlythreatened favored the toys less. Lacking a strong external

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justification, they had made internal attributions that theyactually did not like the toys so much.

Example

Company disciplinary systems often start with a weakdissuasion. This is all that most people need. Before long

they not only follow but believe the company line.

Using it

To stop someone doing something, dont threaten massivepunishment. Threaten only just enough (or use some otherminimal technique) to stop them for a while. Eventually, theywill give up voluntarily.

See also

Description

This is the feeling of uncomfortable tension which comes

from holding two conflicting thoughts in the mind at thesame time.

Dissonance increases with:

The importance of the subject to us.

How strongly the dissonant thoughts conflict.

Our inability to rationalize and explain away the

conflict.

Dissonance is often strong when we believe something aboutourselves and then do something against that belief. If I

believe I am good but do something bad, then the discomfortI feel as a result is cognitive dissonance.Cognitive dissonance

is a very powerful motivator which will often lead us tochange one or other of the conflicting belief or action. Thediscomfort often feels like a tension between the twoopposing thoughts. To release the tension we can take one ofthree actions:

Change our behavior.

Justify our behavior by changing the conflicting

cognition.

Justify our behavior by adding new cognitions.

Dissonance is most powerful when it is about our self-image.Feelings of foolishness, immorality and so on (includinginternal projections during decision-making) are dissonance

in action.

If an action has been completed and cannot be undone, thenthe after-the-fact dissonance compels us to change our

beliefs. If beliefs are moved, then the dissonance appearsduring decision-making, forcing us to take actions we wouldnot have taken before.

Cognitive dissonance appears in virtually all evaluations anddecisions and is the central mechanism by which weexperience new differences in the world. When we see other

people behave differently to our images of them, when wehold any conflicting thoughts, we experiencedissonance.Dissonance increases with the importance andimpact of the decision, along with the difficulty of reversingit. Discomfort about making the wrong choice of car is biggerthan when choosing a lamp.

Note: Self-Perception Theory gives an alternative view.

Research

Festinger first developed this theory in the 1950s to explainhow members of a cult who were persuaded by their leader, acertain Mrs Keech, that the earth was going to be destroyedon 21st December and that they alone were going to berescued by aliens, actually increasedtheir commitment to thecult when this did not happen (Festinger himself hadinfiltrated the cult, and would have been very surprised tomeet little green men). The dissonance of the thought of

being so stupid was so great that instead they revised theirbeliefs to meet with obvious facts: that the aliens had,through their concern for the cult, saved the world instead.

In a more mundane experiment, Festinger and Carlsmith gotstudents to lie about a boring task. Those who were paid $1felt uncomfortable lying.

Example

Smokers find all kinds of reasons to explain away theirunhealthy habit. The alternative is to feel a great deal ofdissonance.

Punishment

Punishment works when a behavior is weakened as a resultof experiencing a negative condition. The basic structure is as

follows:

Do X ==> Z happens ==> Feel bad ==> Do X less

Example

A cow grazes an electric fence. It feels discomfort. It learnsnot to go near the fence.

A child hits a sibling. It is made to stand in a corner. It hitssiblings less in the future.

Extinction

Extinction occurs when a behavior is weakened as a result ofnot experiencing an expected positive condition ora negativecondition is stopped.

Y expected ==> Anticipate feeling good ==> Do X ==> Ydoes not happen ==> Feel bad ==> Do X less

Z happens ==> Feel bad ==> Do X ==> Z does not happen==> Feel better ==> Do X less

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Example

A dog sniffs around, looking for food and finds none in theouthouse. It does not look for food in the outhouse next time.

A child screams and is ignored. They scream less in thefuture.

Name Behavior Condition

sitive reinforcement Strengthened Positive

gative reinforcement Strengthened Negative

nishment Weakened Negative

tinction WeakenedPositive

or negative

punish

Description

A behavior will increase if it is followed by positivereinforcement. It will decrease if it is followed by

punishment.Operant Conditioning is thus learning byconsequences.

Research

Skinner put rats and pigeons in a box where pressing a leverresulted in food being dispensed. From accidental knockingof the lever, they quickly learned to deliberately press it toget food.

Example

Parents often try to balance praise and punishment. To beeffective, they should punish only behaviors they wish toextinguish--they should not punish for not doing what should

be done.

So what?

Using it

If you want someone to work harder, do not punish themwhen they do not workreward them when they do. If youwant them to stop smoking, make it unpleasant when they dorather than pleasant when they refrain.

The principle of 'thought stopping' is first to stop peoplethinking about those things which will distract or dissuadethem from what they are supposed to be thinking.

Undesirable thoughts

Distraction

Undesirable thinking can come in two forms. First, theperson may be distracted by innocuous thoughts when theyshould be concentrating on a particular area. When I amreading or meditating, for example, someone talking nearbywould be a distraction and cause my mind to wander onto thesubjects about which they are talking. Distraction is thus justa block to conversion, slowing it down.People may also betaught thought-stopping methods as ways of blocking out

dissuasive arguments when they meet them. Just as a childputs their hands over their ears and makes 'da-da-da' noises toblock out what they do not want to hear, so a group membermay distract their conscious, for example by reciting someform of litany to themselves or otherwise avoiding having toexperience the tension of contradictory arguments.

Dissuasion

The second form of unwanted thoughts are when the personis thinking about something that will dissuade them and

persuade otherwise from the thoughts that they should behaving. This is far more serious that distraction as it cancause a reversal in the process of conversion, rather than atemporary pause.Dissuasion may occur accidentally ordeliberately. Accidental dissuasion occurs, when the person

reads, hears or sees something that is not targeted directly atthem, but causes them to think the wrong thoughts.

Preventing thoughts

Isolation

Isolation from distractions is commonly used at least at twolevels. First, when practices such as meditation and prayerare used, then individual isolation removes immediatedistractions. At the second level, individuals and groups may

be isolated from the world, either to avoid any dissuasion ofindividuals or to remove distractions.

Occupation

Another simple way of limiting undesirable thoughts is tokeep people busy with all kinds of physical and mentalactivities that gives them little time for any action, talk orreflection that may lead to wrong thoughts.

Carrot and stick

Operant Conditioning says that rewards causes behavior to berepeated, whilst punishment leads to extinction of behavior.Reward of right thinking and punishment of wrong thinkingmay thus be used to persuade and dissuade.

Kawalan ketat dan dendaan menyebabkan timbul

perasaan ragu-ragu dan tidak gemar mencubasesuatu yg baru dan mencabar.

Kritikan dan dendaan menyebabkan wujudperasaan bersalah dan tidak berinisiatif.

Tiga elemen perkembangan personaliti manusia;iii)Superegmenyerupai hati nurani, merupakan komponensosial dan moral.

bertanggungjawab menentukan sesuatu tingkah laku itubaik atau buruk berdasarkan kepada pendidikan yang

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diterimanya sejak awal dulu, ia bersifat idealistik. Dapatmelahirkan ganjaran yang berupa penghargaan diri dandendaan yang berupa rasa bersalah dan kritik diri.