Arab Spring 1

Arab Spring

Arab Spring

Clockwise from top left: Protesters in Tahrir Square in Cairo; Demonstrators marching through Habib Bourguiba Avenue in Tunis; Politicaldissidents in Sana'a; Protesters gathering in Pearl Roundabout in Manama; Mass demonstration in Douma; Demonstrators in Bayda.

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Date 18 December 2010 – present(2  and 6)

Location Arab world

Causes •• Authoritarianism•• Demographic structural factors•• Political corruption• Human rights violations•• Inflation•• Kleptocracy•• Sectarianism•• Unemployment• Self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi

Goals •• Democracy•• Free elections•• Human rights•• Regime change

Characteristics •• Civil disobedience•• Civil resistance•• Defection•• Demonstrations•• Internet activism• Protest camps•• Revolution• Riots•• Self-immolation• Sit-ins• Strike actions•• Urban warfare•• Uprising

Status Ongoing

• Tunisian President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali ousted, and government overthrown.• Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak ousted, and government overthrown.• Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi killed after a civil war with foreign military intervention, and government overthrown.• Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh ousted, and hands power to a national unity government.•• Syria experiences a full-scale civil war between the government and opposition forces.•• Civil uprising against the government of Bahrain, despite government changes.•• Kuwait, Lebanon and Oman implementing government changes in response to protests.•• Morocco, Jordan implementing constitutional reforms in response to protests.•• Ongoing protests in Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Mauritania and some other countries.

Casualties

Death(s) 60,000–70,000 (International estimate; see table below)

The Arab Spring (Arabic: الثورات العربية, al-Thawrāt al-ʻArabiyyah) is a revolutionary wave of demonstrations,protests, and wars occurring in the Arab world that began on 18 December 2010.To date, rulers have been forced from power in Tunisia,[1] Egypt,[2] Libya,[3] and Yemen;[4] civil uprisings haveerupted in Bahrain[5] and Syria;[6] major protests have broken out in Algeria,[7] Iraq,[8] Jordan,[9] Kuwait,[10]

Morocco,[11] and Sudan;[12] and minor protests have occurred in Lebanon,[13] Mauritania,[14] Oman,[15] SaudiArabia,[16] Djibouti,[17] and Western Sahara.[18] The major oil rich nations (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Kuwait andOman) have been able to keep their ruling families in power.

Arab Spring 3

There were border clashes in Israel in May 2011,[19] and the protests in Iranian Khuzestan by the Arab minorityerupted in 2011 as well.[20] Weapons and Tuareg fighters returning from the Libyan civil war stoked a simmeringconflict in Mali which has been described as "fallout" from the Arab Spring in North Africa.[21] The sectarianclashes in Lebanon were described as a spillover violence of the Syrian uprising and hence the regional ArabSpring.[22] In September 2012 a wave of social protests by Palestinians demanded lower consumer prices andresignation of the Palestinian Prime Minister Fayyad.The protests have shared techniques of mostly civil resistance in sustained campaigns involving strikes,demonstrations, marches, and rallies, as well as the effective use of social media[23][24] to organize, communicate,and raise awareness in the face of state attempts at repression and Internet censorship.[25][26]

Many Arab Spring demonstrations have met violent responses from authorities,[27][28][29] as well as frompro-government militias and counter-demonstrators. These attacks have been answered with violence from protestorsin some cases.[30][31][32] A major slogan of the demonstrators in the Arab world has been Ash-shab yurid isqatan-nizam ("the people want to bring down the regime").[33]

Some observers have drawn comparisons between the Arab Spring movements and the Revolutions of 1989 (alsoknown as the "Autumn of Nations") that swept through Eastern Europe and the Second World, in terms of their scaleand significance.[34][35][36] Others, however, have pointed out that there are several key differences between themovements, such as the desired outcomes and the organizational role of internet technology in the Arabrevolutions.[37][38][39]

EtymologyThe term Arab Spring as used to denote these events may have started with the American political journal ForeignPolicy.[40] Marc Lynch, referring to his article in Foreign Policy,[41] writes "Arab Spring—a term I may haveunintentionally coined in a January 6, 2011 article".[42] Joseph Massad on al-Jazeera said the term was "not simplyan arbitrary or even seasonal choice of nomenclature, but rather part of a US strategy of controlling the movementsaims and goals".[40] The name is an allusion to the 1848 Springtime of the Peoples and the 1968 Prague Spring. Dueto the electoral success of Islamist parties following the protests in many Arab countries, the events have come alsobe known as Islamist Spring or Islamist Winter.[43][44]

Background

CausesThe Arab spring is widely believed to have been instigated by dissatisfaction with the rule of local governments,though some have speculated that wide gaps in income levels may have had a hand as well . Numerous factors haveled to the protests, including issues such as dictatorship or absolute monarchy, human rights violations, governmentcorruption (demonstrated by Wikileaks diplomatic cables),[45] economic decline, unemployment, extreme poverty,and a number of demographic structural factors,[46] such as a large percentage of educated but dissatisfied youthwithin the population.[47] Also, some, like Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek attribute the 2009 Iranian protests asone of the reasons behind the Arab Spring.[48] The 2010 Kyrgyzstani revolution might also have been one of thefactors, which influenced the beginning of the Arab Spring.[49] The catalysts for the revolts in all Northern Africanand Persian Gulf countries have been the concentration of wealth in the hands of autocrats in power for decades,insufficient transparency of its redistribution, corruption, and especially the refusal of the youth to accept the statusquo.[50] Increasing food prices and global famine rates have also been a significant factor,[51][52] as they involvethreats to food security worldwide and prices that approach levels of the 2007–2008 world food price crisis.[53]

In recent decades rising living standards and literacy rates, as well as the increased availability of higher education, have resulted in an improved human development index in the affected countries. The tension between rising aspirations and a lack of government reform may have been a contributing factor in all of the protests.[50][54][55]

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Many of the Internet-savvy youth of these countries have, increasingly over the years , been viewing autocrats andabsolute monarchies as anachronisms. A university professor of Oman, Al-Najma Zidjaly referred to this upheaval asyouthquake.[50]

Tunisia and Egypt, the first to witness major uprisings, differ from other North African and Middle Eastern nationssuch as Algeria and Libya in that they lack significant oil revenue, and were thus unable to make concessions to calmthe masses.[50]

The relative success of the democratic Republic of Turkey, with its substantially free and vigorously contested butpeaceful elections, fast-growing but liberal economy, secular constitution but Islamist government, created a model(the Turkish model) if not a motivation for protestors in neighbouring states.[56]

Recent history

A commemorative logo for the Arab Springwhich began on 18 December 2010 (12-18-10).

The current wave of protests is not an entirely new phenomenon,resulting in part from the activities of dissident activists as well asmembers of a variety of social and union organizations that have beenactive for years in Tunisia, Algeria, Egypt, and other countries in thearea, as well as in the territory of Western Sahara.[57]

Revolts have been occurring in the Arab area since the 1800s but onlyrecently have these revolts been redirected from foreign rulers to theArab states themselves. The revolution in the summer of 2011 markthe end of the old phase national liberation from colonial rule, ratherthey are inwardly directed at the problems of Arab society.[58]

Tunisia experienced a series of conflicts over the past three years, themost notable occurring in the mining area of Gafsa in 2008, whereprotests continued for many months. These protests included rallies,sit-ins, and strikes, during which there were two fatalities, anunspecified number of wounded, and dozens of arrests.[57][59] TheEgyptian labor movement had been strong for years, with more than3,000 labor actions since 2004.[60] One important demonstration wasan attempted workers' strike on 6 April 2008 at the state-run textilefactories of al-Mahalla al-Kubra, just outside Cairo. The idea for thistype of demonstration spread throughout the country, promoted bycomputer-literate working class youths and their supporters among middle-class college students.[60] A Facebookpage, set up to promote the strike, attracted tens of thousands of followers. The government mobilized to break thestrike through infiltration and riot police, and while the regime was somewhat successful in forestalling a strike,dissidents formed the "6 April Committee" of youths and labor activists, which became one of the major forcescalling for the anti-Mubarak demonstration on 25 January in Tahrir Square.[60]

In Algeria, discontent had been building for years over a number of issues. In February 2008, United StatesAmbassador Robert Ford wrote in a leaked diplomatic cable that Algeria is 'unhappy' with long-standing politicalalienation; that social discontent persisted throughout the country, with food strikes occurring almost every week;that there were demonstrations every day somewhere in the country; and that the Algerian government was corruptand fragile.[61] Some have claimed that during 2010 there were as many as '9,700 riots and unrests' throughout thecountry.[62] Many protests focused on issues such as education and health care, while others cited rampantcorruption.[63]

In Western Sahara, the Gdeim Izik protest camp was erected 12 km south-east of El Aaiún by a group of young Sahrawis on 9 October 2010. Their intention was to demonstrate against labor discrimination, unemployment,

Arab Spring 5

looting of resources, and human rights abuses.[64] The camp contained between 12,000 and 20,000 inhabitants, buton 8 November 2010 it was destroyed and its inhabitants evicted by Moroccan security forces. The security forcesfaced strong opposition from some young Sahrawi civilians, and rioting soon spread to El Aaiún and other townswithin the territory, resulting in an unknown number of injuries and deaths. Violence against Sahrawis in theaftermath of the protests was cited as a reason for renewed protests months later, after the start of the ArabSpring.[65]

The catalyst for the current escalation of protests was the self-immolation of Tunisian Mohamed Bouazizi. Unable tofind work and selling fruit at a roadside stand, on 17 December, a municipal inspector confiscated his wares. Anhour later he doused himself with gasoline and set himself afire. His death on 4 January[66] brought together variousgroups dissatisfied with the existing system, including many unemployed, political and human rights activists, labor,trade unionists, students, professors, lawyers, and others to begin the Tunisian revolution.[57]

Major US policy shift in August 2010In 2010, US President Barack Obama made a major, but unannounced foreign policy shift regarding the relations tothe states of the Arab world. Instead of supporting stability Barack Obama vowed to support change anddemocratisation in the Arab world. David Ignatius reported that Obama placed a big bet that democraticgovernments will be more stable and secure, and thereby enhance U.S. interests in the region. In August 2010, USPresident Barack Obama issued the secret Presidential Study Directive 11, asking agencies to prepare for change.The directive cited "evidence of growing citizen discontent with the region's regimes", warned that "the region isentering a critical period of transition" and asked the advisers of the US President to "manage these risks bydemonstrating to the people of the Middle East and North Africa the gradual but real prospect of greater politicalopenness and improved governance".[67]

Julian Assange, founder of WikiLeaks, while speaking at the United Nations General Assembly, accused Obama ofexploiting Arab spring for political gain[68]:

For all Barack Obama’s fine words yesterday, and there were many of them, fine words, it is his administration that boasts on his campaign website of criminalizing more speech that all previous US presidents combined. I am reminded of the phrase: "the audacity of hope." Who can say that the President of the United States is not audacious? Was it not audacity for the United States government to take credit for the last two years’ avalanche of progress? Was it not audacious to say, on Tuesday, that the "United States supported the forces of change" in the Arab Spring? Tunisian history did not begin in December 2010. And Mohammed Bouazizi did not set himself on fire so that Barack Obama could be reelected. His death was an emblem of the despair he had to endure under the Ben Ali regime. The world knew, after reading WikiLeaks publications, that the Ben Ali regime and its government had for long years enjoyed the indifference, if not the support, of the United States - in full knowledge of its excesses and its crimes. So it must come as a surprise to Tunisians that the United States supported the forces of change in their country. It must come as a surprise to the Egyptian teenagers who washed American teargas out of their eyes that the US administration supported change in Egypt. It must come as a surprise to those who heard Hillary Clinton insist that Mubarak’s regime was "stable," and when it was clear to everyone that it was not, that its hated intelligence chief, Sueilman, who we proved the US knew was a torturer, should take the realm.

Arab Spring 6

It must come as a surprise to all those Egyptians who heard Vice President Joseph Biden declare thatHosni Mubarak was a democrat and that Julian Assange was a high tech terrorist. It is disrespectful to the dead and incarcerated of the Bahrain uprising to claim that the United States"supported the forces of change." This is indeed audacity.

He went on to encourage Obama to "do the right thing".[69]

OverviewThe series of protests and demonstrations across the Middle East and North Africa has become known as the "ArabSpring",[70][71][72] and sometimes as the "Arab Spring and Winter",[73] "Arab Awakening"[74][75][76] or "ArabUprisings"[77][78] even though not all the participants in the protests are Arab. It was sparked by the first protests thatoccurred in Tunisia on 18 December 2010 in Sidi Bouzid, following Mohamed Bouazizi's self-immolation in protestof police corruption and ill treatment.[79][80] With the success of the protests in Tunisia, a wave of unrest sparked bythe Tunisian "Burning Man" struck Algeria, Jordan, Egypt, and Yemen,[81] then spread to other countries. Thelargest, most organised demonstrations have often occurred on a "day of rage", usually Friday afternoonprayers.[82][83][84] The protests have also triggered similar unrest outside the region.As of September 2012, governments have been overthrown in four countries. Tunisian President Zine El AbidineBen Ali fled to Saudi Arabia on 14 January 2011 following the Tunisian revolution protests. In Egypt, PresidentHosni Mubarak resigned on 11 February 2011 after 18 days of massive protests, ending his 30-year presidency. TheLibyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was overthrown on 23 August 2011, after the National Transitional Council (NTC)took control of Bab al-Azizia. He was killed on 20 October 2011, in his hometown of Sirte after the NTC tookcontrol of the city. Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh signed the GCC power-transfer deal in which a presidentialelection was held, resulting in his successor Abd al-Rab Mansur al-Hadi formally replacing him as the president ofYemen on 27 February 2012, in exchange for immunity from prosecution.During this period of regional unrest, several leaders announced their intentions to step down at the end of theircurrent terms. Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir announced that he would not seek re-election in 2015,[85] as didIraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, whose term ends in 2014,[86] although there have been increasingly violentdemonstrations demanding his immediate resignation.[87] Protests in Jordan have also caused the sacking of foursuccessive governments[88][89] by King Abdullah.[90] The popular unrest in Kuwait has also resulted in resignation ofPrime Minister Nasser Mohammed Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah cabinet.[91]

The geopolitical implications of the protests have drawn global attention,[92] including the suggestion that someprotesters may be nominated for the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize.[93] Tawakel Karman from Yemen was one of the threelaureates of the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize as a prominent leader in the Arab Spring. In December 2011, Time magazinenamed "The Protester" its "Person of the Year".[94] Another award was noted when the Spanish photographerSamuel Aranda won the 2011 World Press Photo award for his image of a Yemeni woman holding an injured familymember, taken during the civil uprising in Yemen on 15 October 2011.[95]

Arab Spring 7

AlgeriaLibyaEgyptSudanMauritania—TunisiaMoroccoWesternSaharaSaudi ArabiaJordanLebanon—West Bank—SyriaIraq—Kuwait—BahrainOmanYemen—DjiboutiMaliIran      Government overthrown       Civil war       Sustained civil disorder and governmental changes       Protests and governmentalchanges      Major protests       Minor protests       Related crises outside the Arab world

Arab Spring 8

Summary of conflicts by country

Country Datestarted

Status ofprotests

Outcome Death toll Situation

 Tunisia 18December2010

Governmentoverthrownon 14 January2011

Overthrow of Zine El AbidineBen Ali; Ben Ali flees into exilein Saudi Arabia

• Resignation of PrimeMinister Ghannouchi[96]

• Dissolution of the politicalpolice[97]

• Dissolution of the RCD, theformer ruling party of Tunisiaand liquidation of itsassets[98]

• Release of politicalprisoners[99]

• Elections to a ConstituentAssembly on 23 October2011[100]

338[101] Governmentoverthrown

 Algeria 29December2010

Ended inJanuary 2012

• Lifting of the 19-year-oldstate of emergency[102][103]

8[104] Major protests

 Jordan 14 January2011

Ongoing • On February 2011, KingAbdullah II dismisses PrimeMinister Rifai and hiscabinet[105]

• On October 2011, Abdullahdismisses Prime MinisterBakhit and his cabinet aftercomplaints of slow progresson promised reforms[106]

• On April 2012, as the protestscontinues, Al-Khasawnehresigned, and the Kingappoints Fayez al-Tarawnehas the new Prime Minister ofJordan[107]

• On October 2012, KingAbdullah dissolves theparliament for new earlyelections, and appointsAbdullah Ensour as the newPrime Minister of Jordan[108]

3[109] Protests andgovernmental

changes

 Oman 17 January2011

Ended in May2011

• Economic concessions bySultan Qaboos[110][111]

• Dismissal ofministers[112][113]

• Granting of lawmakingpowers to Oman's electedlegislature[114]

2–6[115][116][117] Protests andgovernmental

changes

Arab Spring 9

 Egypt 25 January2011

Governmentoverthrownon 11February2011protestsongoing

Overthrow of Hosni Mubarak;Mubarak sentenced to life inprison for ordering the killingof protesters

• Resignation of PrimeMinister(s) Nazif andShafik[118]

• Assumption of power by theArmed Forces[119]

• Suspension of theConstitution, dissolution ofthe Parliament[120]

• Disbanding of State SecurityInvestigations Service[121]

• Dissolution of the NDP, theformer ruling party of Egyptand transfer of its assets to thestate[56]

• Prosecution of Mubarak, hisfamily and his formerministers[122][123][124]

• Lifting of the 31-year-oldstate of emergency[125]

• Democratic election held toreplace Mubarak as the newpresident of Egypt; MohamedMorsi elected andinaugurated[126]

846[60] Governmentoverthrown

 Yemen 27 January2011

Governmentoverthrownon 27February2012

Overthrow of Ali AbdullahSaleh; Saleh granted immunityfrom prosecution

• Resignation of PrimeMinister Mujawar

• Resignation of MPs from theruling party[127]

• Occupation of several areasof Yemeni territory byal-Qaeda and Houthi rebels

• Restructure of the militaryforces by sacking several ofits leaders[128]

• Approval of Saleh's immunityfrom prosecution by Yemenilegislators[129]

• Presidential election held toreplace Saleh as the newpresident of Yemen; AbdRabbuh Mansur Al-Hadielected and inaugurated

2,000[130] Governmentoverthrown

 Djibouti 28 January2011

Ended inMarch 2011

2[131] Minor protests

 Sudan 30 January2011

Ongoing • President Bashir announceshe will not seek another termin 2015[132]

14[133][134][135] Minor protests

Arab Spring 10

 Iraq 10February2011

Ended inDecember2011

• Prime Minister Malikiannounces that he will not runfor a 3rd term;[136]

• Resignation of provincialgovernors and localauthorities[137]

35[138] Major protests

 Bahrain 14February2011

Ongoing • Economic concessions byKing Hamad[139]

• Release of politicalprisoners[140]

• Negotiations with Shiarepresentatives[141]

• GCC intervention at therequest of the Government ofBahrain

• Head of the National SecurityApparatus removed frompost[142]

• Formation of a committee toimplement BICI reportrecommendations[143]

110[144] Sustained civildisorder andgovernment

changes

 Libya 17February2011

Governmentoverthrownon 23 August2011,fightingongoing

Overthrow of MuammarGaddafi; Gaddafi killed byrebel forces

• UN-mandated militaryintervention ended withNATO withdrawal[145]

•• Opposition forces takecontrol of all major Libyancities

• Assumption of interimcontrol by NationalTransitional Council

• International recognition ofNTC as the sole governingauthority for Libya

• Beginning of sporadiclow-level fighting andclashes[146]

25,000[147]–30,000[148] Governmentoverthrown

 Kuwait 19February2011

Ongoing • Resignation of PrimeMinister Nasser MohammedAl-Ahmed Al-Sabah[149]

• Dissolution of theParliament[150]

0[151] Protests andgovernmental

changes

 Morocco 20February2011

Ongoing • Political concessions by KingMohammed VI;[152]

• Referendum on constitutionalreforms;

• Respect to civil rights and anend to corruption[153]

6[154] Protests andgovernmental

changes

 Mauritania 25February2011

Ongoing 3[155] Minor protests

Arab Spring 11

 Lebanon 27February2011

End inDecember2011

0 Protests andgovernmental

changes

 SaudiArabia

11 March2011

Ongoing • Economic concessions byKing Abdullah[156][157]

• Male-only municipalelections held 29 September2011[158][159]

• King Abdullah announceswomen's approval to vote andbe elected in 2015 municipalelections and to be nominatedto the Shura Council[160]

22[161] Minor protests

 Syria 15 March2011

Ongoing • Release of some politicalprisoners[162][163]

•• End of Emergency Law• Dismissal of Provincial

Governors[164][165]

• Battles between the Syriangovernment's army and theFree Syrian Army in manygovernorates.

• Resignations fromParliament[166]

• Resignation of theGovernment[167]

• Large defections from theSyrian army and clashesbetween soldiers anddefectors[168]

• Formation of the Free SyrianArmy

•• The Free Syrian Army Takescontrols of large swathes ofland across Syria.

• Formation of the SyrianNational Council[169]

• Syria suspended from theArab League

• Recognition by 9 countries ofSyrian government in exile

44,000+ [170] Ongoing civilwar

IranianKhuzestan

15 April2011

Ended on 18April 2011

12 Major protests

Israeli borderareas

15 May2011

Ended on 5June 2011

30–40[171][172] Major protests

 Palestine 4September2012

Ongoing • Salam Fayyad states that he is"'willing to resign"[173]

0 Minor protests

Total death toll: 69,073-74,228+(International estimate,ongoing)

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Major events

Tunisia

Protesters in downtown Tunis on 14 January2011

Following the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi in Sidi Bouzid, aseries of increasingly violent street demonstrations through December2010 ultimately led to the ousting of longtime President Zine ElAbidine Ben Ali on 14 January 2011. The demonstrations werepreceded by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption,[174] lackof freedom of speech and other forms of political freedom,[175] andpoor living conditions. The protests constituted the most dramaticwave of social and political unrest in Tunisia in three decades,[176][177]

and have resulted in scores of deaths and injuries, most of which werethe result of action by police and security forces against demonstrators.Ben Ali fled into exile in Saudi Arabia, ending his 23 years inpower.[178][179]

A state of emergency was declared and a caretaker coalition government was created following Ben Ali's departure,which included members of Ben Ali's party, the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), as well as oppositionfigures from other ministries. However, the five newly appointed non-RCD ministers resigned almostimmediately.[180][181] As a result of continued daily protests, on 27 January Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchireshuffled the government, removing all former RCD members other than himself, and on 6 February the formerruling party was suspended;[182] later, on 9 March, it was dissolved.[183] Following further public protests,Ghannouchi himself resigned on 27 February, and Beji Caid el Sebsi became Prime Minister.

On 23 October, citizens voted in the first post-revolution election to elect representatives to a 217-memberconstituent assembly that would be responsible for the new constitution.[184] The leading moderate Islamist party,Ennahda, won 37% of the vote, and managed to elect 42 women to the Constituent Assembly.[185]

Egypt

Celebrations in Tahrir Square after OmarSuleiman's statement concerning Hosni

Mubarak's resignation

Inspired by the uprising in Tunisia and prior to his entry as a centralfigure in Egyptian politics, potential presidential candidate MohamedElBaradei warned of a "Tunisia-style explosion" in Egypt.[186]

Protests in Egypt began on 25 January 2011 and ran for 18 days.Beginning around midnight on 28 January, the Egyptian governmentattempted, somewhat successfully, to eliminate the nation's Internetaccess,[26] in order to inhibit the protesters' ability to organize throughsocial media.[187] Later that day, as tens of thousands protested on thestreets of Egypt's major cities, President Hosni Mubarak dismissed hisgovernment, later appointing a new cabinet. Mubarak also appointedthe first Vice President in almost 30 years.

On 10 February, Mubarak ceded all presidential power to Vice President Omar Suleiman, but soon thereafterannounced that he would remain as President until the end of his term.[188] However, protests continued the next day,and Suleiman quickly announced that Mubarak had resigned from the presidency and transferred power to theArmed Forces of Egypt.[189] The military immediately dissolved the Egyptian Parliament, suspended theConstitution of Egypt, and promised to lift the nation's thirty-year "emergency laws". A civilian, Essam Sharaf, was

Arab Spring 13

appointed as Prime Minister of Egypt on 4 March to widespread approval among Egyptians in Tahrir Square.[190]

Violent protests however, continued through the end of 2011 as many Egyptians expressed concern about theSupreme Council of the Armed Forces' perceived sluggishness in instituting reforms and their grip on power.[191]

Hosni Mubarak and his former interior minister Habib al-Adli were convicted to life in prison on the basis of theirfailure to stop the killings during the first six days of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution.[192] His successor, MohamedMursi, was sworn in as Egypt's first democratically elected president before judges at the Supreme ConstitutionalCourt.[193] Fresh protests erupted in Egypt on 22 November 2012.

Libya

Thousands of demonstrators gather in Bayda

Anti-government protests began in Libya on 15 February 2011. By 18February the opposition controlled most of Benghazi, the country'ssecond-largest city. The government dispatched elite troops and militiain an attempt to recapture it, but they were repelled. By 20 February,protests had spread to the capital Tripoli, leading to a televisionaddress by Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, who warned the protestors that theircountry could descend into civil war. The rising death toll, numberingin the thousands, drew international condemnation and resulted in theresignation of several Libyan diplomats, along with calls for thegovernment's dismantlement.[194]

Amidst ongoing efforts by demonstrators and rebel forces to wrest control of Tripoli from the Jamahiriya, theopposition set up an interim government in Benghazi to oppose Colonel Muammar Gaddafi's rule.[195][196] However,despite initial opposition success, government forces subsequently took back much of the Mediterranean coast.

On 17 March, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 was adopted, authorising a no-fly zone over Libya,and "all necessary measures" to protect civilians. Two days later, France, the United States and the United Kingdomintervened in Libya with a bombing campaign against pro-Gaddafi forces. A coalition of 27 states from Europe andthe Middle East soon joined the intervention. The forces were driven back from the outskirts of Benghazi, and therebels mounted an offensive, capturing scores of towns across the coast of Libya. The offensive stalled however, anda counter-offensive by the government retook most of the towns, until a stalemate was formed between Brega andAjdabiya, the former being held by the government and the latter in the hands of the rebels. Focus then shifted to thewest of the country, where bitter fighting continued. After a three-month-long battle, a loyalist siege of rebel-heldMisrata, the third largest city in Libya, was broken in large part due to coalition air strikes. The four major fronts ofcombat were generally considered to be the Nafusa Mountains, the Tripolitanian coast, the Gulf of Sidra,[197] and thesouthern Libyan Desert.[198]

In late August, anti-Gaddafi fighters captured Tripoli, scattering Gaddafi's government and marking the end of his 42years of power. Many institutions of the government, including Gaddafi and several top government officials,regrouped in Sirte, which Gaddafi declared to be Libya's new capital.[199] Others fled to Sabha, Bani Walid, andremote reaches of the Libyan Desert, or to surrounding countries.[200][201] However, Sabha fell in lateSeptember,[202] Bani Walid was captured after a grueling siege weeks later,[203] and on 20 October, fighters underthe aegis of the National Transitional Council seized Sirte, killing Gaddafi in the process.[204]

Arab Spring 14

Yemen

Protests in Sana'a

Protests occurred in many towns in both the north and south of Yemenstarting in mid-January 2011. Demonstrators initially protested againstgovernmental proposals to modify the constitution of Yemen,unemployment and economic conditions,[205] and corruption,[206] buttheir demands soon included a call for the resignation of President AliAbdullah Saleh,[206][207][208] who had been facing internal oppositionfrom his closest advisors since 2009.[209]

A major demonstration of over 16,000 protesters took place in Sana'aon 27 January 2011,[210] and soon thereafter human rights activist andpolitician Tawakel Karman called for a "Day of Rage" on 3February.[211] According to Xinhua News, organizers were calling for a million protesters.[212] In response to theplanned protest, Ali Abdullah Saleh stated that he would not seek another presidential term in 2013.[213] On 3February, 20,000 protesters demonstrated against the government in Sana'a,[214][215] others participated in a "Day ofRage" in Aden[216] that was called for by Tawakel Karman,[211] while soldiers, armed members of the GeneralPeople's Congress, and many protestors held a pro-government rally in Sana'a.[217] Concurrent with the resignationof Egyptian president Mubarak, Yemenis again took to the streets protesting President Saleh on 11 February, in whathas been dubbed a "Friday of Rage".[218] The protests continued in the days following despite clashes withgovernment advocates.[219] In a "Friday of Anger" held on 18 February, tens of thousands of Yemenis took part inanti-government demonstrations in the major cities of Sana'a, Taiz, and Aden. Protests continued over the followingmonths, especially in the three major cities, and briefly intensified in late May into urban warfare between Hashidtribesmen and army defectors allied with the opposition on one side and security forces and militias loyal to Saleh onthe other.[220]

After Saleh pretended to accept a Gulf Cooperation Council-brokered plan allowing him to cede power in exchangefor immunity only to back away before signing three separate times,[221][222] an assassination attempt on 3 June lefthim and several other high-ranking Yemeni officials injured by a blast in the presidential compound's mosque.[223]

Saleh was evacuated to Saudi Arabia for treatment, but he handed over power to Vice President Abd al-Rab Mansural-Hadi, who has largely continued his policies[224] and ordered the arrest of several Yemenis in connection with theattack on the presidential compound.[223] While in Saudi Arabia, Saleh kept hinting that he could return any time andcontinued to be present in the political sphere through television appearances from Riyadh starting with an address tothe Yemeni people on 7 July.[225] On Friday 13 August, a demonstration was announced in Yemen as "MansouronFriday" in which hundreds of thousands of Yemenis called for Ali Abdullah Saleh to go. The protesters joining the"Mansouron Friday" were calling for establishment of "a new Yemen".[226] On 12 September, Saleh issued apresidential decree while still receiving treatment in Riyadh authorizing Vice President Abd al-Rab Mansur al-Hadito negotiate a deal with the opposition and sign the GCC initiative.[227]

On 23 September, three months since the assassination attempt, Saleh returned to Yemen abruptly, defying all earlierexpectations.[228] Pressure on Saleh to sign the GCC initiative eventually led to his signing of it in Riyadh on 23November, in which Saleh agreed to step down and set the stage for the transfer of power to his vice-president.[229]

A presidential election was then held on 21 February 2012, in which Hadi (the only candidate) won 99.8 percent ofthe vote.[230] Hadi then took the oath of office in Yemen's parliament on 25 February.[231] By 27 February, Saleh hadresigned from the presidency and transferred power to his successor, however he is still wielding political clout asthe head of the General People's Congress party.[232]

Arab Spring 15

Syria

Anti-government demonstrations in Baniyas

Protests in Syria started on 26 January 2011, when a police officerassaulted a man in public at "Al-Hareeka Street" in old Damascus. Theman was arrested right after the assault. As a result, protesters calledfor the freedom of the arrested man. Soon a "day of rage" was set for4–5 February, but it was uneventful.[233][234] On 6 March, the Syriansecurity forces arrested about 15 children in Daraa, in southern Syria,for writing slogans against the government. Soon protests erupted overthe arrest and alleged mistreatment of the children. Daraa was to be thefirst city to protest against the Baathist regime, which has been rulingSyria since 1963.[235]

Thousands of protestors gathered in Damascus, Aleppo, al-Hasakah, Daraa, Deir ez-Zor, and Hama on 15March,[236][237][238] with recently released politician Suhair Atassi becoming an unofficial spokesperson for the"Syrian revolution".[239] The next day there were reports of approximately 3000 arrests and a few martyrs, but thereare no official figures on the number of deaths.[240] On 18 April 2011, approximately 100,000 protesters sat in thecentral Square of Homs calling for the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad. Protests continued through July2011, the government responding with harsh security clampdowns and military operations in several districts,especially in the north.[241]

On 31 July, Syrian army tanks stormed several cities, including Hama, Deir Ez-Zour, Abu Kamal, and Herak nearDaraa. At least 136 people were killed in the most violent and bloody day since the uprising started.[242]

On 5 August 2011, an anti-government demonstration took place in Syria called "God is with us", during which theSyrian security forces shot the protesters from inside the ambulances, killing 11 people consequently.[243]

By late November – early December, the Baba Amr district of Homs fell under armed Syrian opposition control. Bylate December, the battles between the government's security forces and the rebel Free Syrian Army intensified inIdlib Governorate. Cities in Idlib and neighborhoods in Homs and Hama began falling into the control of theopposition, during this time military operations in Homs and Hama ceased and stopped.By mid-January the FSA gained control over Zabadani and Madaya. By late January, the Free Syrian Army launcheda full-scale attack against the government in Rif Dimashq, where they took over Saqba, Hamoreya, Harasta and othercities in Damascus's Eastern suburbs. On 29 January, the fourth regiment of the Syrian Army led by the president'sbrother Maher al-Assad and the Syrian Army dug in at Damascus, and the fighting continued where the FSA was8 km away from the Republican palace in Damascus. Fighting broke out near Damascus international airport, but bythe next day the Syrian government deployed the Republican Guards. The military gained the upper hand andregained all land the opposition gained in Rif Dimashq by early February. On 4 February, the Syrian Army launcheda massive bombardment on Homs and committed a huge massacre, killing 500 civilians in one night in Homs. Bymid-February, the Syrian army regained control over Zabadani and Madaya. In late February, Army forces enteredBaba Amro after a big military operation and heavy fighting. Following this, the opposition forces began losingneighborhoods in Homs to the Syrian Army including al-Inshaat, Jobr, Karm el-Zaytoon and only Homs's oldneighborhood's, including Al-Khalidiya, Homs|al-Khalidiya, remained in opposition hands.By March 2012, the government began military operations against the opposition in Idlib Governorate including thecity of Idlib, which fell to the Army by mid-March. Saraqib and Sarmin were also recaptured by the governmentduring the month. Still, at this time, the opposition managed to capture al-Qusayr and Rastan. Heavy fighting alsocontinued in several neighborhoods in Homs and in the city of Hama. The FSA also started to conduct hit-and-runattacks in the pro-Assad Aleppo Governorate, which they were not able to do before. Heavy-to-sporadic fighting wasalso continuing in the Daraa and Deir ez-Zor Governorates.

Arab Spring 16

By late April 2012, despite a cease-fire being declared in the whole country, sporadic fighting continued, with heavyclashes specifically in Al-Qusayr, where rebel forces controlled the northern part of the city, while the military heldthe southern part. FSA forces were holding onto Al-Qusayr, due to it being the last major transit point toward theLebanese border. A rebel commander from the Farouq Brigade in the town reported that 2,000 Farouq fighters hadbeen killed in Homs province since August 2011. At this point, there were talks among the rebels in Al-Qusayr,where many of the retreating rebels from Homs city's Baba Amr district had gone, of Homs being abandonedcompletely. On 12 June 2012, the UN peacekeeping chief in Syria stated that, in his view, Syria has entered a periodof civil war.[244]

Bahrain

Over 100,000 of Bahrainis taking part in the"March of Loyalty to Martyrs", honoring political

dissidents killed by security forces

The protests in Bahrain started on 14 February, and were initiallyaimed at achieving greater political freedom and respect for humanrights; they were not intended to directly threaten themonarchy.[5][245](pp162-3) Lingering frustration among the Shiitemajority with being ruled by the Sunni government was a major rootcause, but the protests in Tunisia and Egypt are cited as the inspirationfor the demonstrations.[5][245](p65) The protests were largely peacefuluntil a pre-dawn raid by police on 17 February to clear protestors fromPearl Roundabout in Manama, in which police killed fourprotesters.[245](pp73-4) Following the raid, some protesters began toexpand their aims to a call for the end of the monarchy.[246] On 18February, army forces opened fire on protesters when they tried toreenter the roundabout, fatally wounding one.[245](pp77-8) Thefollowing day protesters reoccupied Pearl Roundabout after thegovernment ordered troops and police to withdraw.[245](p81)[247]

Subsequent days saw large demonstrations; on 21 February apro-government Gathering of National Unity drew tens ofthousands,[245](p86)[248] whilst on 22 February the number of protestorsat the Pearl Roundabout peaked at over 150,000 after more than100,000 protesters marched there and were coming under fire from the Bahraini Military which killed around 20 andinjured over 100 protestors.[245](p88) On 14 March, Saudi-led GCC forces were requested by the government andentered the country,[245](p132) which the opposition called an "occupation".[249]

King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa declared a three-month state of emergency on 15 March and asked the military toreassert its control as clashes spread across the country.[245](p139)[250] On 16 March, armed soldiers and riot policecleared the protesters' camp in the Pearl Roundabout, in which 3 policemen and 3 protesters were reportedlykilled.[245](pp133-4)[251] Later, on 18 March, the government tore down Pearl Roundabout monument.[245](pp150)[252]

After the lifting of emergency law on 1 June,[253] several large rallies were staged by the opposition parties.[254]

Smaller-scale protests and clashes outside of the capital have continued to occur almost daily.[255][256] On 9 March2012, over 100,000 protested in what the opposition called "the biggest march in our history".[257][258]

The police response has been described as a "brutal" crackdown on peaceful and unarmed protestors, including doctors and bloggers.[259][260][261] The police carried out midnight house raids in Shia neighbourhoods, beatings at checkpoints, and denial of medical care in a "campaign of intimidation".[262][263][264][265] More than 2,929 people have been arrested,[56][266] and at least five people died due to torture while in police custody.[245](p287,288) On 23 November 2011, the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry released its report on its investigation of the events, finding that the government had systematically tortured prisoners and committed other human rights violations.[245](pp415-422) It also rejected the government's claims that the protests were instigated by Iran.[267]

Arab Spring 17

Although the report found that systematic torture had stopped,[245](pp417) the Bahraini government has refused entryto several international human rights groups and news organizations, and delayed a visit by a UN inspector.[268][269]

More than 80 people had died since the start of the uprising.[270]

Analysis

Ethnic scopeMany analysts, journalists, and involved parties have focused on the protests as being a uniquely Arab phenomenon,and indeed, protests and uprisings have been strongest and most wide-reaching in majority-Arabic-speakingcountries, giving rise to the popular moniker of Arab Spring—a play on the so-called 1968 Prague Spring, ademocratic awakening in what was then communist Czechoslovakia—to refer to protests, uprisings, and revolutionsin those states.[271][272][273] However, the international media has also noted the role of minority groups in many ofthese majority-Arab countries in the revolts.In Tunisia, the country's small Jewish minority was initially divided by protests against Ben Ali and the government,but eventually came to identify with the protesters in opposition to the regime, according to the group's president,who described Jewish Tunisians as "part of the revolution".[274][275] While many in the Coptic minority in Egypt hadcriticized the Mubarak government for its failure to suppress Islamic extremists who attack the Coptic community,the prospect of these extremist groups taking over after its fall caused most Copts to avoid the protests, withthen-Pope Shenouda III of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria calling for them to end.[276] The internationalmedia pointed to a few Copts who joined the protests.[277][278]

Because the uprisings and revolutions erupted first in North Africa before spreading to Asian Arab countries, and theBerbers of Libya[279] participated massively in the protests and fighting under Berber identity banners, some Berbersin Libya often see the revolutions of North Africa, west of Egypt, as a reincarnated Berber Spring.[280][281][282] InMorocco, through a constitutional reform, passed in a national referendum on 1 July 2011, among other things,Amazigh—a standardized version of the three Berber languages of Morocco—was made official alongsideArabic.[283] During the civil war in Libya, one major theater of combat was the western Nafusa Mountains, wherethe indigenous Berbers took up arms against the regime while supporting the revolutionary National TransitionalCouncil, which was based in the majority-Arab eastern half of the country.[284][285]

In northern Sudan, hundreds of non-Arab Darfuris joined anti-government protests,[286] while in Iraq and Syria, theethnic Kurdish minority has been involved in protests against the government,[287][288] including the KurdistanRegional Government in the former's Kurdish-majority north, where at least one attempted self-immolation wasreported.[289][290][291]

Impact of the Arab SpringThe regional unrest has not been limited to countries of the Arab world. The early uprisings in North Africa wereinspired by the 2009–2010 uprisings in the neighboring state of Iran;[292][293] these are considered by manycommentators to be part of a wave of protest that began in Iran, moved to North Africa, and has since gripped thebroader Middle Eastern and North African regions, including additional protests in Iran in 2011–2012.[294]

In the countries of the neighboring South Caucasus—namely Armenia,[295] Azerbaijan,[296] and Georgia[297]—aswell as some countries in Europe, including Albania,[298] Croatia,[299] and Spain;[300] countries in sub-SaharanAfrica, including Burkina Faso,[301] and Uganda;[302][303] and countries in other parts of Asia, including theMaldives[304] and the People's Republic of China,[305] demonstrators and opposition figures claiming inspirationfrom the examples of Tunisia and Egypt have staged their own popular protests. The protests in the Maldives led tothe resignation of the President.The bid for statehood by Palestine at the UN on 23 September 2011 is also regarded as drawing inspiration from the Arab Spring after years of failed peace negotiations with Israel. In the West Bank, schools and government offices

Arab Spring 18

were shut to allow demonstrations backing the UN membership bid in Ramallah, Bethlehem, Nablus and Hebron;echoing similar peaceful protests from other Arab countries.[306]

The 15 October 2011 global protests and the Occupy Wall Street movement, which started in the United States andhas since spread to Asia and Europe, drew direct inspiration from the Arab Spring, with organizers asking U.S.citizens "Are you ready for a Tahrir moment?"[307] The protesters have committed to using the "revolutionary ArabSpring tactic" to achieve their goals of curbing corporate power and control in Western governments.[308]

Also, the Occupy Nigeria protests beginning the day after Goodluck Jonathan announced the scrap of the fuelsubsidy in oil-rich Nigeria on 1 January 2012, were motivated by the Arab people.[309]

International reactionsProtests in many countries affected by the Arab Spring have attracted widespread support from the internationalcommunity, while harsh government responses have generally met condemnation.[310][311][312][313] In the case of theBahraini, Moroccan, and Syrian protests, the international response has been considerably morenuanced.[314][315][316][317]

Some critics have accused Western governments, including those of France, the United Kingdom, and the UnitedStates, of hypocrisy in the way they have reacted to the Arab Spring.[318] Noam Chomsky accused the Obamaadministration of endeavoring to muffle the revolutionary wave and stifle popular democratization efforts in theMiddle East.[319]

The International Monetary Fund said oil prices were likely to be higher than originally forecast due to unrest in theMiddle East and North Africa (MENA), major regions of oil production.[320] Starting in 2010 global investors havesignificantly reduced their stakes in MENA region holdings since December 2010 resulting in significant declines inregion-linked stock indexes.[321]

Kenan Engin, a German-Kurdish political scientist, identified the new uprising in Arab and Islamic countries as the"fifth wave of democracy" because of evident features qualitatively similar to the "third wave of democracy" in LatinAmerica that took place in the 1970s and 1980s.[322][323]

Effect of social media on the Arab SpringThe importance of the role of social media on the Arab uprisings has been largely debated.[][][324] Some say thatsocial media was the main instigator of the uprisings, while others claim that it was merely a tool. Either way, theperception of social media has changed; its role in the uprisings has demonstrated to the world its power.[325] Suchinformation allowed the world to stay updated with the protests and facilitated organizing protests. Nine out of tenEgyptians and Tunisians responded to a poll that they used Facebook to organize protests and spread awareness.[326]

Furthermore, 28% of Egyptians and 29% of Tunisians from the same poll said that blocking Facebook greatlyhindered and/or disrupted communication.Further evidence that suggests an important role of social media on the uprisings is that social media use more thandoubled in Arab countries during the protests. Some research have shown how collective intelligence, dynamics ofthe crowd in participatory systems such as social media, have the immense power to support a collective action -such as foment a political change.[327][328]

The graph depicting the data collected by the Dubai School of Government illustrates this sharp increase in Internetusage. The only discrepancy in the trend is with the growth rate in Libya.[326] The report proposes a reasonableargument that explains such discrepancy: many Libyans fled the violence, and therefore moved their social mediausage elsewhere.This influx of social media usage indicates the kind of people that were essentially powering the Arab Spring. Young people fueled the revolts of the various Arab countries by using the new generation's abilities of social networking to release the word of uprising to not only other Arab nations, but nations all over the world. As of 5 April 2011 the

Arab Spring 19

amount of Facebook users in the Arabian nations surpassed 27.7 million people,[326] indicating that the constantgrowth of people connected via social media acted as an asset where communication was concerned.Different sorts of media such as image and video were also used to portray the information. Images surfaced thatshowed current events, which illustrated what was going on within the Arabian nations. The visual media that spreadthroughout the Internet depicted not only singular moments, but showed the Arabian nations history, and the changethat was to come.[329] Through social media, the ideals of rebel groups, as well as the current situations in eachcountry received international attention. It is still debated whether or not social media acted as a primary catalyst forthe Arab Spring to gain momentum and become an internationally recognized situation. Regardless, it has stillplayed a crucial role in the movement.

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Arab Spring 29

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Arab Spring 32

Further reading•• Aa. Vv. (2011), The New Arab Revolt: What Happened, What It Means, and What Comes Next, Council on

Foreign Relations, Foreign Affairs, Maggio-Giugno.•• Abaza, M. (2011), Revolutionary Moments in Tahrir Square, American University of Cairo, 7 May 2011,

www.isa-sociology.org.• Abdih, Y. (2011), Arab Spring: Closing the Jobs Gap. High youth unemloyment contributes to widespread unrest

in the Middle East Finance & Development, in Finance & Development (International Monetary Fund), Giugno.• Anderson, L (May/June 2011). "Demystifying the Arab Spring: Parsing the Differences between Tunisia, Egypt,

and Libya". Foreign Affairs 90 (3).• Beinin, J. – Vairel, F. (2011), (a cura di), Social Movements, Mobilization, and Contestation in the Middle East

and North Africa, Stanford, CA, Stanford University press.• Browers, Michaelle (2009). Political Ideology in the Arab World: Accommodation and Transformation. New

York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76532-9.•• Cohen, R. (2011), A Republic Called Tahrir, in New York Times.• Dabashi, Hamid. The Arab Spring: The End of Postcolonialism (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 182 pages• Darwish, Nonie (28 February 2012). The Devil We Don't Know: The Dark Side of Revolutions in the Middle East

(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=VjiKZwEACAAJ). John Wiley & Sons.• Gardner, David (2009). Last Chance: The Middle East in the Balance. London: I.B. Tauris.

ISBN 978-1-848-85041-5.•• Gause, F. G. (2011), Why Middle East Studies Missed the Arab Spring: The Myth of Authoritarian Stability, in

Foreign Affairs, July/August.• Goldstone, Jack A.; Hazel, John T., Jr. (14 April 2011). "Understanding the Revolutions of 2011: Weakness and

Resilience in Middle Eastern Autocracies" (http:/ / www. foreignaffairs. com/ articles/ 67694/ jack-a-goldstone/understanding-the-revolutions-of-2011). Foreign Affairs.

• Haddad, Bassam; Bsheer, Rosie; Abu-Rish, Ziad, eds. (2012). The Dawn of the Arab Uprisings: End of an OldOrder?. London: Pluto Press. ISBN 9780745333250.

• Kaye, Dalia Dassa (2008). More Freedom, Less Terror? Liberalization and Political Violence in the Arab World.Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. ISBN 978-0-833-04508-9.

• Ottaway, Marina; Choucair-Vizoso, Julia|||, ed. (2008). Beyond the Façade: Political Reform in the Arab World.Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. ISBN 978-0-870-03239-4.

• Pelletreau, Robert H.|| (24 February 2011). "Transformation in the Middle East: Comparing the Uprisings inTunisia, Egypt and Bahrain" (http:/ / www. foreignaffairs. com/ articles/ 67546/ robert-h-pelletreau/transformation-in-the-middle-east). Foreign Affairs.

• Phares, Walid (2010). Coming Revolution: Struggle for Freedom in the Middle East. New York: Simon &Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-7837-9.

• Posusney, Marsha Pripstein; Angrist, Michele Penner|||, ed. (2005). Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Regimesand Resistance. Boulder: Lynne Rienner. ISBN 1-588-26317-7.

• Struble, Jr., Robert|| (22 August 2011). "Libya and the Doctrine of Justifiable Rebellion" (http:/ / catholiclane.com/ libya-and-the-doctrine-of-justifiable-rebellion/ ). Catholic Lane.

• United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. Subcommittee on International Operations andOrganizations, Human Rights, Democracy, and Global Women's Issues. (2012). Women and the Arab Spring:Joint Hearing before the Subcommittee on International Operations and Organizations, Human Rights,Democracy, and Global Women's Issues and the Subcommittee on Near Eastern and South and Central AsianAffairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, FirstSession, November 2, 2011. (http:/ / purl. fdlp. gov/ GPO/ gpo18547) Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O.

Arab Spring 33

External links• Right to Nonviolence (http:/ / www. righttononviolence. org)• United States Institute of Peace (http:/ / www. usip. org)• Civil Movements: The Impact of Facebook and Twitter (http:/ / www. thenational. ae/ news/ uae-news/

facebook-and-twitter-key-to-arab-spring-uprisings-report)• Middle East Constitutional Forum (http:/ / www. righttononviolence. org/ mecf)Live blogs• Middle East (http:/ / www. aljazeera. com/ news/ middleeast/ ) at Al Jazeera• Middle East protests (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-middle-east-12480844) at BBC News• Arab and Middle East protests (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ news/ blog+ world/ middleeast) live blog at The

Guardian• Middle East Protests (http:/ / thelede. blogs. nytimes. com/ ) at The Lede blog at The New York Times• Middle East protests live (http:/ / live. reuters. com/ Event/ Middle_East_Protests) at Reuters

Ongoing coverage• A (Working) Academic Arab Spring Reading List (https:/ / docs. google. com/ document/ d/

1DU8AOlkTV6F0ZyoGcbk_060iBZG5tWKwj_n97EJPe9M/ edit) collected peer-reviewed academic articles onthe impact of social media on the Arab Spring

• Constitutional Transitions Timeline (http:/ / www. righttononviolence. org/ mecf/ timeline-me) Collected legaland political changes and short analysis at Middle East Constitutional Forum (http:/ / www. righttononviolence.org/ mecf/ )

• Unrest in the Arab World (http:/ / www. carnegieendowment. org/ topic/ ?fa=list& id=839) collected news andcommentary at Carnegie Endowment for International Peace

• Issue Guide: Arab World Protests (http:/ / www. cfr. org/ egypt/ issue-guide-arab-world-protests/ p23929),Council on Foreign Relations

• Middle East protests (http:/ / www. ft. com/ indepth/ middle-east-protests) collected news and commentary at TheFinancial Times

• Unrest in the Arab World (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ SPECIALS/ 2011/ arab. unrest/ ) collected map, news andcommentary at CNN

• Arab and Middle East unrest (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ arab-and-middle-east-protests) collectednews and commentary at The Guardian

• Arab and Middle East unrest – interactive timeline (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ interactive/ 2011/ mar/22/ middle-east-protest-interactive-timeline) collected news and commentary at The Guardian

• Rage on the Streets (http:/ / www. hurriyetdailynews. com/ t. php?t=uprising) collected news and commentary atHurriyet Daily News and Economic Review

• Middle East Unrest (http:/ / www. thenational. ae/ news/ worldwide/syria-president-appoints-new-government-orders-protesters-freed-from-jail) collected news and commentary atThe National

• Middle East Uprisings (http:/ / www. showdownmideast. com/ ) collected news and commentary at Showdown inthe Middle East website

• The Arab Revolution (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ international/ topic/ the_arab_revolution/ / ) collected news andcommentary at Spiegel.de

• The Middle East in Revolt (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ specials/ packages/ 0,28757,2045328,00. html)collected news and commentary at Time

Other• Interface journal special issue on the Arab Spring (http:/ / www. interfacejournal. net/ 2012/ 05/

interface-volume-4-issue-1-the-season-of-revolution-the-arab-spring-and-european-mobilizations/ ), Interface: a

Arab Spring 34

journal for and about social movements, May 2012• "The Shoe Thrower's index (An index of unrest in the Arab world)" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ blogs/

dailychart/ 2011/ 02/ daily_chart_arab_unrest_index). The Economist. 9 February 2011.• "Interview with Tariq Ramadan: 'We Need to Get a Better Sense of the Trends within Islamism'" (http:/ / en.

qantara. de/ webcom/ show_article. php/ _c-478/ _nr-1164/ i. html). Qantara.de. 2 February 2011.• Sadek J. Al Azm, "The Arab Spring: Why Exactly at this Time?" Reason Papers 33 (Fall 2011) (http:/ / www.

reasonpapers. com/ pdf/ 33/ rp_33_18. pdf)• Tracking the wave of protests with statistics (http:/ / www. revolutiontrends. org), RevolutionTrends.org

Article Sources and Contributors 35

Article Sources and ContributorsArab Spring  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=529162524  Contributors: !!2011WorldProtests!!, -js-, 2011 prediction is party time, 23sports,2607:F470:22:5:89A7:60B1:2FD9:33D8, 3RRORCode, 48Lugur, 8digits, A. Parrot, A.K.Khalifeh, A.h. king, A2Editor, ACSE, AK2, AMK152, ANG99, Aa2-2004, AbbaIkea2010, Abductive,Abdullais4u, Aberdonian99, Abjiklam, Abu Casey, Ace111, Adamtompkins, Adeliine, Adnan bogi, Against the current, Ajfweb, Al Ameer son, Alex Spade, Alex2310, Alexwithclass, Alhanuty,AliceStanley11, Alikash, Aljumaily.anas, Allmeanssomething, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Alphathon, AlwaysUnite, Amman12, Ana Ethan, Anakronik, Anas1712, Anas1954, Andrewbogott,Andrewp1986, Andrwsc, AndySimpson, Anna.g.stewart, Anomalocaris, Anotherclown, Anouarattn, Ansh666, Antixt, Anypodetos, Arab Hafez, Arch dude, ArglebargleIV, Arigoldberg,ArnoldPlaton, AshLin, Ass711, AstroHurricane001, Athkalani, Aurelius139, Avicennasis, Awk, BA201teamsix, BD2412, BabbaQ, Bakrnl, Banedon, BanyanTree, Barabum, Barryob, BaseballBugs, Baseball Watcher, BatteryIncluded, Beao, Beecher70, Beetstra, Beige.librarian, Bejnar, Bellerophon5685, Ben Ben, Benbest, Bender235, Bernardini2011, Big Axe, BillyTFried,BlackTerror, Blackmane, Bladyniec, BlazeDAmaN, Blethering Scot, Bo yaser, Bob drobbs, Bobamnertiopsis, Bobbyb373, Bokajsen23, Bongwarrior, Boniek1988, BoogaLouie, Booyahhayoob,BorgQueen, Boud, Braincricket, Brandmeister, Breawycker, Brightgalrs, Bromley86, Buggie111, ButJ, Butterfly2011, Byelf2007, C628, CRGreathouse, Calabe1992, Calicoosat, CamiloSanchez, CanadianLinuxUser, CaptainFugu, Carolyn.runyon, Cast, CatJar, Catgirl, Cavewiki, Cenarium, Cendes, Cgingold, ChaTo, Charles Essie, Chesdovi, Chiton magnificus, Chituokol1,Chocolateboy, ChrisSalty, Chrishmt0423, Chrisjj, Cilibinarii, Circeus, Citing, Cjs2111, Clancash, Clarificationgiven, Classicfilms, Closedmouth, Cmglee, Cmprince, Cogiati, Colipon,Commish1219, CommonsDelinker, ComputerJA, Cornel2121, Courcelles, CreepyLizard, Cryptic C62, Cs32en, Curb Chain, Cybercobra, Cypher foo, Czolgolz, DCEvoCE, DVdm, Dabomb87,Dahab777, Dalta, Danalm000, Daniel Cull, Danlaycock, Dans, Dante Alighieri, David copperson, Dawnseeker2000, Dbachmann, Dcd139, Dcljr, 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