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ARC-SMALL GRAIN INSTITUTE | 1


Imigaqo yokuveliswa kwengqolowa ngamafama asakhulayo Olu lwazi lukulencwadi ziziphumo zophando lwanamhlanje yaye luthembekile. Lonto ayithethi kuthi amaziko achaphazelekayo kuyo aya kubanetyala lempazamo ezothi zenzeke xa kusenziwa okuqulathwa yile ncwadi. Copyright © Agricultural Research Council 2009 ISBN: 978-1-86849-385-2 Iqulunqwe yahlelwa ngu: Dr. Eric Morojele and Elri Burger yafotwa, yenziwa, yabhalwa: infoworks

(018) 468-2716 www.infoworks.biz ARC-Small Grain Institute babulela u: U Winter Cereal Trust ngenxaso yabo yezimali ngethuba kusenziwa olu phando


Isivumo Zonke ingcaphephe nenzululwazi zakwa Small Grain Institute ezithe zathatha inxaxheba ekuqulunqeni le migaqo ziyabulelwa . Ezingcaphephe zezi zilandelayo : Willem Kilian Programme Manager Production Systems Services Dr Goddy Prinsloo Entomologist Plant Protection Dr Vicki Tolmay Entomologist Plant Protection Dr Willem Otto Agronomist Production Systems Dr John Tolmay Soil Scientist Production Systems Dr Annelie Barnard Crop Physiologist Production Systems Dr Eben von Well Plant Breeder Plant Improvement

ARC-Small Grain Institute Private Bag X29 Bethlehem 9700 www.arc-sgi.agric.za


Isiqulatho 1. Intshayelelo..........................................................................................04 2. Impawu zokumila kwesityalo okanye indlela ekhangeleka ngayo........06 3. Indlela isithombo esikhula ngayo…………………….............................08 4. Imfuno zesimo sezulu……………………..............................................12 5. Indlela zokuyilima………………………….............................................14 6. Ukukhuselwa kwezityalo……………….................................................28 7. Ukugcinwa nokuthengiswa…………………..........................................54 8. Olunye ulwazi olubalulekileyo……………….........................................56


1.INTSHAYELELO Ishishini lengqolowa apha Emzantsi Afrika Ingqolowa yenye yemveliso yezityalo ezithwala amakhozo asilwayo ukwenza ukutya.Ukuveliswa kwengqolowa kubekwa kwindawo yesibini kuba esona sityalo siveliswa kakhulu kwezithwala amakhozo ngumbona, ze kulandele ingqolowa . Xa kuqikelelwa umhlaba othi usetyenziswe ukuveza ingqolowa jikelele Emzantsi Afrika uqikelelwa kumakhulu asixhenxe anamashumi amahlanu amawaka , ukuya kwisigidi sehactare. Umlinganiselo wesivuno esithi sivele kulomhlaba uxeliweyo sikumyinge wesigidi esinesiqingatha ukuya kwizigidi ezibini ezinesiqingatha setoni . Elona phondo linqenqeza phambili ukuvelisa ingqolowa yiFreystata ngamashumi amane anesixhenxe ekhulwini, kuze Intshona koloni ngamashumi amathathu anethoba ekhulwini, kuze iphondo Lomntla ngeshumi elinanye ekhulwini. Amanye amaphondo angabalwanga ngentla avelisa nje umyinge omncinci wengqolowa . Ingqlowa efunekayo apha Emzantsi Afrika ikumyinge we zigidi ezibini zinamawaka asixhenxe etoni . Lo nto ixela ukuthi le iveliswayo apha Emzantsi Afrika ayonelanga. Ukuze Umzantsi Afrika wanelise imfuno zawo zenqgolowa kufuneka uyifune kwamanye amazwe anje nge Argentina, eMelika, eJamani, eCanada, Ukraine nakumazwe ase Britane. Olona hlobo luvezwa kakhulu luhlobo lokwenza isonka ngaphezu kwazo zonke ezinye intlobo zokwenza ukutya okuthambileyo . Olu hlobo lwengqolwa lwenza izonka ezibhakiweyo neziphekiyo, nekeyiki, namaqebengwane athi enziwe ngengqolowa . Ngamanye amaxesha abadidiyeli botywala bathi bayivundise bayivubele ukwenza nokudidiyela utywala . Kukho olunye uhlobo olusetyenziswa ukwenza amaqebengwana , imibhobho etyiwayo enje nge pasta, imakaroni njalonjalo.Ezinye zezinto ezithi zifumaneke engqoloweni kukutya kwemfuyo , umzekelo amadiza ayo kunye nekafu okanye inkatshunkatshu ethi isale xa igutywa ithi ityiwe zimpahla . Ikhozo lwengqolowa luqulathe ezona zinongo zibalulekileyo ekwakheni umzimba womntu ezinje nge khabhohydrates 69%, iProteyini 14%,ikhalisiyam 43%, niacin 6%, amafutha 22%. thiamin 0,57% kunye ne riboflavin 0,12%.

Imvelaphi nesiqalo sokulinywa kwengqolowa Kukholeleka ukuba ingqplowa yaqala yavela kula mazwe ase Mpuma nekungoku esaziwa njenge Syria, Turkey, Afganistan, Irag nase Iran.Ukhozo lwayo lwafumaneka kumathala novimba bendawo ekuthiwa yi Alikoshi ekwindawo yase Iranian Khusistan nase Anatolia ese Turkey . Kuye kwanda ukulinywa kwengqolowa ukuya kumazwe anje nge India, Parkistan, iChina esempuma, intshona ye Mediterra, nase U.S.S.R ukuya kumazwe ase mntla. Emzantsi Afrika ize no Jan Van Riebieeck ngenkulungwane yeshumi elinesixhenxe xa ebefika eKapa ngo 1652. Yandile ke kwiphondo leNtshona Koloni, emazantsi eNtshona Koloni nase Freysttata .


2. IMPAWU ZOKUMILA KWESITYALO OKANYE INDLELA EKHANGELEKA NGAYO

Ingqolowa sisithombo okanye sisityalo esikhangeleka mhlawumbi ngathi yingca nesinengcambu, intonga ethi intshule imimilelwa , amagqabi, umdubulo, nembewu. Ingcambu – Ingqolowa ibonisa intlobo ezimbini zengcambu. Kukho uhlobo oluphuma luye ezantsi ngqo emhlabeni

Xa imbewu ityalwe emhlabeni , emva kwethuba elithile liyaqhekeka ikhozo lembewu kuphume ingcambu ezothi zihle ngqo zijonge ezantsi emhlabeni. Zikhula zibenzulu khonukuze isityalo sifumane zonke izinongo zomhlaba . Kuphinde kubekho olunye uhlobo oluvela ngoku istyalo sele sivele ngaphandle mhlawumbi sele simagqabi mathathu . Lona oluhlobo luvela apha esixhantini sesityalo okanye apho kudibana khona intonga nomhlaba . Ezi ngcambu zikhula zinabele emacaleni . Zilapha kanye-kanye kulamalungu asezantsi esityalo yaye zezingcambu ezenza isityalo ukuba sinabe oko kukuthi ukutilisha. Ezi zinabayo imgcambu ziqinile yaye zomelele kakhulu kuneziya zehla ngqo ziye ezantsi emhlabeni. Intonga okanye idiza – Ubude bentonga yesityalo sengqolowa iyahluka ngokohlobo lwembewu. Ukusuka

kumalungu amane ukuya kwasixhenxe, amagqabi sube enakho ukudubula. Intonga yesityalo iqinile inomgqobho phakathi ize ibenamalungu namalungwana. Xa ithwala sube amalungu egqibile ukukhula, ekulungele ukuthwala imehlo umdubulo. La malungu alapha emazantsi esityalo mafutshane kunalawo kunalawo asemantla entonga. Kubalulekile ukuba intonga yomelele khonukuze ikwazi ukuthwala umdubulo. Ukubekela okanye ukunaba kwenzeka kanye-kanye emazantsi apho kudibana kudibana khona isityalo nomhlaba. Ngokohluka kwembewu zengqolowa ezinye zinaba ukusuka kumahlahla amahlanu ukuya kumashumi amabini ananye. Ukunaba kuxhomekeka kuhlobo lwembewu, amanani esityalo, nendlela yokuqelelanisa izityalo, ixesha lokuhlwayela kunye nobukho bezinongo okanye igwane. Imbewu zasebusika zinaba kakhulu kunezo zasentwasahlobo ngenxa yamaqondo aphantsi athi akhuthaze ukudubula okukhawulezileyo. Igqabi – Igqabi lengqolowa likhangeleka lilibhekezana elide elicuthekileyo xa lisiya ekupheleni Lijikeleze intonga le

yesithombo ukusukela kwilungu elisezantsi. Xa ulijonga eli gqabi apha emazantsi alo lomelelele khonukuze lingemnki msinyane. Umdubulo – Umdubulo abanye bathi lilihlo okanye ukubekela. Zininnzi yaye zidlala inxhaxheba eyahlukileyo izinto ozifumana emdubulweni kuba ekugqibeleni kulapho kuye kufumaneke khona isivuno okanye amakhozo. Umdubulo ukhula uhlale apha phezulu ekupheleni kwentonga. Kufuneka likhule ligqibelele eli lihlo liqulathe konke okufunekayo kungenjalo akukho nzuzo yothi ifumaneke . Kukho ilungu ekuthiwa yifloret nequlathe yambathise ubudoda nobufazi besityalo . Ubufazi bubizwa ngokuba yicarpel kuba igcina amaqanda obufazi ekuthiwa yi ovary. Ubudoda bubizwa ngokuba sistamen igcine amagaqana amancinci ayimbewu yobudoda. Ukuze eli lihlo libekele kakuhle makube umdubulo ugqibelele ukukhula, imbewu yobudoda nobufazi nazo mazigqibelele ukukhula. Xa kufuneka kwenzeke ikhozo kuwa igaqa elincinci lobudoda ekuthiwa yipollen, ze iwele ebufazini ngalo ndlela ke kuqala ukukhula ikhozo emva koba ezi zinto zimbini zidibene. Amaxesha amaninzi ingqolowa idubula emini. Isityalo sengqolowa sizekana sodwa (self pollination), nangona ekhona emancinci amathuba okuba esinye sizeke esinye(cross pollination). Ikhozo- ikhozo lengqolwa lilikhuni yaye livalekile. Xa ulijonga ngasemva likhangeleka lirawundi ze libemtyibilizi. Xa

ulijonga busemacaleni ligongqokile. Ngaphakathi kulo liqulathe amalungu athi ancedisane nalo xa lintshula emhlabeni ze kubekho nenwebu ezithi zibonakale zidlala inxaxheba ekulikhuseleni.


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Figure1 :Umfanekiso okanye indlela esimile ngayo isithombo sengqolowa.

3.INDLELA ISITHOMBO ESIKHULA NGAYO

Esi sityalo sithi sibonakalise izigaba ezininzi ezahlukileyo zokukhula ukusukela ekuntshuleni de kuye ekuvuthweni . Umzekelo kukho ezi zigaba zine zilandelayo : ukunaba(tillering), ukukhula kwentonga(stem elongation), isigaba okuthwala inkozo(grain filling), isigaba sokuvuthwa nokuvuna(harvesting).


Isigaba sokunaba okanye ukuzalela – Singathi esi sigaba sisigaba sokunaba kwesityalo okanye ukuzalela esinye

isityalo apha kuso emazantsi. Kuphuma intonga ezininzi malunga phakathi kwengcambu kunye nentonga yesityalo. Le nto yenzeka xa isityalo sineveki ezintandathu sintshulile. Imbewu zasebusika zizalela kakhulu kunezo zasentwasahlobo ngenxa yamaqondo obushushu aphantsi, Kubakho incindi eninzi eveliswa sisityalo ekuthiwa yi(vernalin) nethi yona idlale inxaxheba enkulu ekuzaleleni kwesityalo ngoba yenza isityalo sizalele kakhulu. Imitha yelanga ithi idlala inxaxheba enkulu ekuzaleleni kwesityalo. Imizalelo ithanda ukuya emacaleni kunokuya phezulu. Lo mfanekiso ungaphantsi ubonisa ukuzalela kwesityalo.

Figure 2: Isigaba sokuzalela

Isigaba sokukhula kwentonga – Kuthi xa isityalo sikwiveki yesine intonga ibonakalise amalungu aya ekhula,

ngelithuba nobude bentonga buya bukhula. Nentonga ebezikhula zibujonga bucala nazo ziya ngokomelela ngamandla . Kuya kubonakala amagqabi amaninzi kodwa oko kuxhomekeke kwisimo sezulu, amanzi kunye nezinongo zegwane.


8

Figure 3: Ukukhula kwentonga

Isigaba sokuthwala okanye ukudubula –Isityalo sithi xa sinamagqabi asibhozo ithi incopho yesityalo iyeke

ukukhula koko iveze impawu zokuthwala okanye ukuzekisa. Ukuba kuthe amaqondo obushushu aphezulu ngelixesha isityalo singakwazi ukudubula. Kule midubulo kuthi kukhule khona ikhozo ngokuthi kubekho uzekano (pollination).


Figure 4 : Umdubulo


Figure 5 : Ukuthwala

Isigaba sokuvuthwa nokuvunwa – Kwesisigaba kuxa kusekeka ikhozo ze liqale ukuvuthwa. Ngesi sigaba kuxa

uzekano (pollination) lugqibile phaya emdubulweni ngoku kukhula ukhozo oluye lubonakalisa ukukhula okugqibeleleyo kwekhozo. Xa sele livuthiwe ngokugqibeleleyo ikhozo yaye liqinile amagqabi ayabuna Xa usijonga isityalo wofika ngathi sigolide ngokwebala lelothuba ke apho kuvuniwe. Ukukhula kwengqolowa kuthi kulandeleke lula ngokulandela Indlela zika Zadock, Feeke noJoubert zokwahlula izigatyana zokukhula kwengqolowa.


Figure 6: Ukuvuthwa


Figure 7: Izigaba zokukhula kwengqolowa nenzuzo yayo ngokukaFeeke’s scale, Zadock and Joubert .

Figure 8:Izigaba zokukhula kwengqolowa


4. IMFUNO ZESIMO SEZULU4. Climatic requirements

Amaqondo Amaqondo emozulu – Esi sityalo sesasebusika nekufanelwe sityalwe ebusika, ebusika okanye xa kuqala uhlobo . Imbewu ziyahluka ngethuba lotyalwa, ubude besuku, nangemfuno zokudubula. Kodwa naxa kukho umahluko phakathi kwazo, kukho intlobo-ntlobo ezikwaziyo ukumelana nemfuno zengingqi nganye apha Emzantsi Afrika. Iyakufuna ukufuma kwasebusika, entwasahlobo, xa kuqala uhlobo okanye qiniseka ukuba unayo Indlela yokunkcenkceshela ngelithuba khonukuze isityalo sikhule kakuhle, Akukho ngxaki kwingingqi ezinobusika obunethayo njenge Mpuma Koloni kuba isityalo sithi sifumane imvula eyaneleyo. Kuthi kubenzima ke kwezongingqi zinobusika obomileyo kulapho kanye apho kufuneka unkcenkcesho, okanye makube imihlaba yezongingqi iyakwazi ukugcina amanzi kude kube yiminyaka elandelayo. Nangona ingqolowa ifuna unkcenkcesho kodwa iyalunga kwindawo ezomileyo zase Freystat neziyingqongileyo. Isityalo sengqolwa sithi sifune umyinge wamanzi ayi 300mm ukuze sikhule yaye sivelise. Kuze kwimihlaba ekugcinayo ukufuma sifuna kuphela umyinge oyi 150-200mm yemvula. Ekuntshuleni, nasakukhuleni kwayo ingqolowa ayinangxaki namaqondo aphantsi okanye iqabaka. Eyasebusika imbewu ifuna amaqondo aphantsi kangangesithathu, ukusuka kwintsuku ezilishumi ukuya kwiveki ezisibhozo ntoleyo yenza ibenamandla okuzalela (tillering). Ungahlwayela nge 15-30xa komile kg/ha. Imbewu zasentwasahlobo ziyogqithwa zezo zase busika nokuzalela yiyo lonto kufuneka zixinanisiwe ezi zasentwasahlobo kangange 8-120kg/ha. Nangona ingqolowa ingenangxaki neqabaka kodwa lumkela ingadibani neqabaka xa ikwisigaba sokudubula kuba ingabanga umonakalo omkhulu kwisityalo. Isityalo siyonakala futhi xakomile yaye kushushushu kakhulu. Ubushushushu obukhulu, imbalela nomoya owomileyo ngakumbi xa idubula buthi benze umonakalo. Imvula- Isityalo esityalwe ngemvula zehlobo ziya zilunge xa kuqala uhlobo. Kungelithuba ke apho kwenzeka ingozi

yesichotho esonakalisa ukvuthwa kwesityalo. Phantse zonke imbewu zengqolowa zifuna ukuvunwa kwangoko xa ithuba lokuvuthwa lifikile. Xa ithe ayavunwa ngexesha umgangangatho wayo uyehla yasulelwe zizifo ezifana nokungunda nokuqapheleka ngokutshintsha kombala womthwalo ukhangeleke umthubi ukuya kumnyama namhlophe. Isichotho siyingozi xa isityalo sibekela, singabanga ilahleko kulapho kufuneka amafama athathe umshorensi izobuyekez ilahleko. Entshona koloni akukho mvula zininzi xa kuvunwa, nesichotho sinqabile kodwa imimoya emikhulu yenza ingxaki ngakumbi kwibarley neoats. Kubalulekile ke ukuba zisikwe phambi koba zivuthwe ziqundaniswe phantsi zibuye zibhulwe ethubeni. Kubalulekile ukuba silandele imiyalelo yembewu nganye nengingqi zayo, sazi ithuba lokuyityala, isimo sezulusayo, imbalela, ubushushu nengqele. Ezonto zonke xa sithe sazithathela ingqalelo ithi inciphe ilahleko. Imfuno zomhlaba - Ilunga phantse kuyo yonke imihlaba elimekayo yaseMzantsi Afrika. Ukusuka kumhlaba

oludongwe, oyisanti, nakonamatye ngakumbi imeko zezulu zivuma. Njengazo zonke izityalo sithi senze kakuhle kakhulu kakuhle kakhulu kwimihlaba ekwaziyo ukuggcina amanzi, kodwa noxa kunjalo kufuneka kulandelwe indlela ezizizo zokufaka igwane nomanyolo. Iyoyiswa kakhulu ngumhlaba omuncu (acdic). Ithi ifune i(pH) yomhlaba oyi 4,5. Kufuneka kufakwe imigubo ethile emhlophe emhlabeni ngenjongo zokuthomalalisa ubumuncu (liming). Kwakhona ayilungi ncam kwimihlaba okanye amanzi anetyuwa(salanity). Xa ulima ngaphandle konkcenkcesho kufuneka umhlaba okwaziyo ukugcina amanzi ithuba elaneleyo ubuncikane umyinge wamanzi ayi 180mm. Olu hlobo lwemihlaba lulandelayo lunoqweqwe lodongwe oluthi luwaphazamise amanzi angakhawulezi ukubaleka ngoko ke ilungile, Avalon, westleigh, clovelly, longlandskunye nepinedine. Eminye imihlaba ejenge hutton iyakwazi ukugcina amanzi kodwa ilunga kuphela xa kukho unkcenkcesho.


5 INDLELA ZOKUYILIMAronomic practices Isicwangciso/cropping system –Xa sijonga intlobontlobo zokutyala nokulima sibona kubalulekile sibona kubalulekile nokuqoqoshayo ukulima ngokusitshintshatshintsha esi sityalo(crop rotation).Inzuzo iyenyuka ibeninzi kodwa ukhula, izinambuzane nezifo zithi zinciphe. Xa ke oluhlobo lokulima luthe lwacwangciswa lwalandelwa kakuhle luthi lubenenzuzo emandla, lunciphise indleko nengozi zelahleko. Ayisayi kubanye indlela yokutshintsha yokutshintsha ngokohluka kwengingqi, kodwa umfama kufuneka abe nesicwangciso esisiso sokutshintshatshintsha izityalo. Izityalo ekutshintshwa ngazo mazihambelane nezicwangciso nemibono yomfama ezakuqinisekisa inzuzo enkulu, ingabinazindleko . Xa ufuna ukutshintshatshintsha izityalo kubalulekile oku kulandelayoukuthathele ingqallelo: (a) Injongo namava omfama. (b) Intlobo zamashishini okanye imveliso eqhubekayo apho efama kunye nengeniso yalomashishini. (c) Ubume bezimali noqoqosho lomhlaba lowo ulinywayo. (d) Indlela ezizizo okanye imigaqo okanye imigaqo yokulima umhlaba. (e) Ukutyeba komhlaba okanye amaqondo obumuncu. (f) Umyinge wemvula nokuba ixhaphaka nini. (g) Uhlobo nobuninzi bokhula. (h) Ukutshintshatshintsha ezo zityalo ziyigcinayo i oxygen nezo zixhomekeke kwioxygen. (i) Ubukho bezifo nezinambuzane. (j) Ukukhuselwa kokunwenwa kwezifo ezibangwa ngumhlaba. (k) Ubukho bezixhobo nematshini. (l) Imfuno zezilwanyana nokutya okufunekayo (m) Imfuno zemakete. Inzuzo yokulima ngokutshintshatshintsha izityalo kukuncipha kwezifo, ukhula alubiluninzi, ukutyeba komhlaba kuyenyuka kanti nenzuzo iyenyuka ibeninzi. Ukulungiswa komhlaba – Umhlaba mawulungiswe ulinywe kakuhle ukudala imeko ezizizo zokuchuma kwengqolwa. Uhlaba mawulungiswe ulinywe khonukuze ukwazi ukugcina amanzi awoneleyo, isityalo sizontshula kakuhle , yaye sikhule kakuhle. Xa kuzakulinywa ingqolowa ehlotyeni ngaphandle konkcekcesho kufuneka ulinywe nzulu umhlaba. 4


Figure 9: Ukulima nzulu

Figure 10: Ikhuba lokulima lishiya kunje


Xa kuzakulinywa ingqolowa ehlotyeni phantsi konkcenkcesho, msinya emva kokuvuna makulinywe, kubulawe amagade, kutyalwe ingqolowa. Xa kunkcenkceshelwa akugeleshwa koko ulungisa nje umhlaba iveki ezimbini ube sele uhlwayela . Zintathu indlela zokulima ezisetyenziswayo xa uzokutyala ingqolowa. Umzekelo : Ukulima nzulu( convetional tillage), Ukutyala phakathi kobufurha( conservation tillage), Ukutyala ngqo. 5

Figure 11:Isixhobo okanye ikhuba lokudiska

Olu hlobo lokulima nzulu lubalulekile ngakumbi xa utyala emva kwenye iminyaka ilandelelana kuba kubakho isifo lima luthi lusinciphise esi sifo , nengozi zokuphaphatheka nomoya zithi zinciphe, nkhukuliseko lomhlaba namanzi luthi lunciphe. Kuvunwa ngoDecember ukuya kuJanuaury. Xa imeko zivuma kuqhunyuzwe amagade. Kulinywa ngoJanuary ukuya ku Marcrh . Ze uyekwe umhlaba ulale de kufike uJune xa kuhlwayelwa. Phambi kohlwayela kothi uvunguzwe noba kunge disk kufe isoyi namagade ze emva koko kutyalwe. Kubekho olu hlobo kuthiwa yiconservation tillage tillage apho kutyalwa phakathi kwemfungumfungu notyani apha kutkho ingozi enkulu yokhukuliseko lomhlaba ngamanzi , eyona nto ilinika amandla olu khukuliseko kukunqongophala kodonwe emhlabeni. Kuvunwa ngoNovember ukuya kuDecember . Kusetyenziswa idisk ukubulala ukhula. Ukulinywa nzulu komhlaba kwenziwa ngoMar okanye April yaye kwenziwe ngesixhobo esitsolo njenge ripper.


Xa uhlwayela qiniseka ukuba akukho khula, umhlaba ulungiswe kakuhle yaye neplanter isetwe ngendlela yokukhu pha umlinganiselo othile wembewu. 16

Figure 12: Ukutyala ebufurheni


Figure 13 : I planta yokutyala inqolowa

Imbewu nokutyala Ixesha lokutyala lithi liphenjelelwe zizinto ezininzi ekukho phakathi kwazo amqondo obushushu, nobumanzi obukhoyo ngethuba lokukhula. Ingqolowa ifuna amaqondo abandayo khonukuze idubule kakuhle. Xa ingingqi inemvula zohlobo ingqolowa ithi ityalwe ngaphandle konkcenkcesho kanti iyalunga naphantsi konkcenkcesho. Xa ingigqi inemvula zasebusika ithi ityalwe ngaphandle konkcekcesho kuphela. Kwingingqi ezinemvula zohlobo kuhlwayelwa ukusuka kuAprilukuya kuJuly, kanti kwezinye ingingqi ityalwa ngoMay ukuya kuJuly. Makutyalwe imbewu ekumyinge wobunzima we 20-25kg/ha ne 90-120kg/ha kwindawo ezomileyo nakwezinkcekceshelwayo ngokufanayo. Isithuba phakathi kwesityalo ngasinye naphakathi kwemiqolo masibe yi 40-50cm ne 7-15cm xa usebenzisa iplanter. Imbewu mayityalwe kubunzulu obuyi 5cm. Bubulumko ukusebenzisa imbewu ezifakwe okanye zanxuzwa emayezeni khonukuze zizomelana nezifo ezifunyanwa emhlabeni.

Inani lezityalo Oku kuthetha ukuthi indleko zezityalo eziveliswayo , makuqinisekwe ukuba nenzuzo ingaphezulu kakhulu kwindleko okanye kunenani lezityalo.


TABLE 1: Inani lezityalo xa ufuna esona sivuno silungileyo

Antcipated yield

Potential (t/ha)

Target plant population

Plants/m2 Plants/m row

1.0 50 9

2.0 100 18

3.0 150 27

4.0 200 36

Anticipated Asjnhlhihfijfioejfiejifojfiejfifjidjfi; P

Ukukhetha imbewu Mayikhethwe kakuhle imbewu kuba xa wenze njalo nenzuzo ibaphezulu kungabikho zingozi zelahleko. Amafama mawazi ukuba zikhona imbewu ezilungele ukusetyenziswa kwindawo zonkcenkcesho kuphela, nezisetyenziswa kwindawo ezingenankcenkcesho kuphela. Makusetyenziswe ezo zivunywe ngabakwa (Millers) . Okubalulekileyo nemakuqondakale xa ukhetha imbewu ujonga amandla ayo esivuno, umgangatho wayo nokuthi isetyenziswa ekwenzeni ntoni ukunyamezela kwayo izifo nezinambuzane, ixabiso lembewu, yoma ze ivuthwe nini, ubude bediza okanye intonga, ayivuthuluki na amaqondo nokudubula kwayo, ayiqhekeki na, ayiphumi mdubulo apha ekutyeni na. Oku kulandelayo makuthathelwe ingqalelo xa ubani ekhetha imbewu. (a) Tyala imbewu ezahlukileyo ukwenzela imbalela nezifo. (b) Sukuyisusa imbewu evavanyiweyo utsibele entsha engavavanywanga. (c) Makukhethwe imbewu ezothi zikwazi ukumelana nemeko nomyinge wemfuno zemveliso. (d) Yivavanye okanye yihlole imbewu yakho minyaka le izomelana ezitshintshayo okanye uzobona uba kufaneleke uyitshintshe na.


TABLE 2 : Uludwe lwembewu athi UMiller zilungele isonka ngonyaka ka 2008/2009.

Northern Dryland Production Areas Irrigation Aras

Cultivars preferred Cultivars

unwanted

Cultivars

prefered

Cultivars

unwanted

Belinda PAN 3377 Adan Tas Baviaans Adam Tas

Betta DN SST 107 Alpha Buffels Alpha

Caledon SST 124 Gamtoos CRN 826 Gamtoos

Carina SST 308 Karee Duzi Karee

Carol SST 319 Multilyn Z Kariega Multilyn Z

Elands SST 322 Nantes Krokodil Nantes

Gariep SST 333 Palmiet Marico Palmiet

Hugenoot SST 334 Scheepers 69 Olifants Scheepers 69

Komati SST 347 SST 38 PAN 3434 SST 38

Limpopo SST 356 SST 44 SST 802 SST 44

Matlabas SST 363 T4 SST 822 T4

Nossob SST 366 Tugela SST 825 Tugela

PAN 3118 SST 367 Tugela DN SST 835 Tugela DN

PAN 3120 SST 399 SST 867

PAN 3122 SST 935 SST 874

PAN 3144 SST 936 SST 875

PAN 3161 SST 946 SST876

PAN 3191 SST 954 SST 885

PAN 3211 SST 963 SST886

PAN 3235 SST 964 Steenbras

PAN 3349 SST 966

PAN 3355 SST 972

PAN 3364 SST 983

PAN 3368 Tarka


19

Ukufakwa kwegwane Ukufakwa kwegwane kuko emakuthathelwe ingqalelo kuba kunempumelelo enkulu kwisivuno. Njalo mnyaka ngamnye umfama ngamnye makacwangcise imfuno okanye isikhokelo segwane . Kufana njengaxa ukhetha imbewu, naxa usenza isicwangciso okanye isikhokelo segwane ulawulwa kukuba ufuna isivuno esingakanani. Oku kulandelayo kungakunceda xa usenza isikhokelo segwane. Makwenziwe uxilongo lomhlaba oluchanekileyo khonukuze kwazeke ukuba isikhokelo segwane sazeke ukuba sisekwe kwiziphumo zoxingo olo lomhlaba.Olu xilongo lomhlaba malumane lusenziwa rhoqo khonukuze ingxaki zomhlaba zibonakale kwangoko.

Ukukhiwa kwemihlatyana iyokuxilongwa /Soil sampling for analysis Umhlaba uxilongelwa ukufumana nokujonga amandla omhlaba ukuphilisa okanye ukutyisa isityalo eso sizakutalwa . Lolu xilingo oluye lubonakalise amandla nobuthathaka bomhlaba , ze ekugqibeleni olu xilongo lubonise ukuba kufakwe eyiphi igwane kangakanani na . Nasi isikhokelo xa uthatha umhlatyana uyokuxilongwa .

(a) Le mihlatyana mayikhiwe kule ndawo kuza kutyalwa kuyo . (b) Indawo ke yokulima kothi kujongwe inkqubela yesityalo ebesiinyiwe , ukuphakama nokukekela okanye

ubumthebelele bendawo leyo izakulinwa , ub .unzulu bomhlaba , umbala womhlaba, noburhabaxa bomhlaba .

(c) Le mihlatyana xa ithathwa mayingathathwa kumhlaba obukhulu bungaphezu kwi 50 yehactare . (d) Yonke ke le mihlatyana mayohlulwe ibhalwe cacileyo . (e) Leyo imihlatyana inengxaki nebonakala imibi mayithathwe yodwa ngokwahlukileyo . (f) Xa ithathwa le mihlatyana izinto ezifana nengca , amatyana amncinci mawasuswe kwangoko . Xa zithathwa

kwindawo enamatye amaninzi amaninzi kufuneka kuqikelelwe ubuninzi bawo (g) Amashumi amabini ukuya kwamane emihlatyana mawathathwe njee kulondawo izakulinywa . Indawo

ezibonakala zimbi kakhulu , ukuqala kwemiviko , izikhundla zezilwanyana zonke ezondawo maziyekwe . (h) Ubunzulu bendawo ekukhiwa kuyo umhlatyana ongaphezulu mabube yi 200mm . (i) Ze obomhlaba ongaphantsi ubunzulu bube yi 200- 600mm kwindawo engankcenkcesheliyo , bube yi 600-

1200mm xa kunkcenkceshelwa . (j) Xa sele kulinyiwe imihlatyana mayikhiwe ndawoyonke njee kungekho ndlela ilandelwayo . Xa kubonakala

imiqolo yesityalo esigqithileyo maze kukhiwe phakathi kwemiqolo leyo hayi kwimiqolo ngqo . (k) Mayiphinde ikhiwe le mihlatyana emva kweminyaka emithathu , kodwa kwangelaxesha linye lonyaka

ibikhiwe ngalo kwiminyaka egqithileyo . (l) Xasele ithathiwe le mihlatyana ingamashumi amane zothi iziphumo zibe zezobukhulu balo mhlaba wonke .

Mayidityaniswe ixutywe yonke le mihlatyana kukhethwe izinto ezingacocekanga . Makukhiwe umhlaba oyi 0,5-1,0kg ugalelwe eplastikini ecocekileyo .

(m) Amagosa ayakunincedisa ukugcwalisa nokubhala okufunekayo , uze uthunyelwe kwindawo zoxilongo mhlaba .

Umhlaba omuncu Ingxaki yengqolowa kwindawo ezinemvula enkulu kukumelana nobumuncu bomhlaba ngenxa yemvula . Imvula ezinkulu zithi zinyuse izinga lento ekuthiwa yi aluminium nethi itsalwe zizityalo ze kamva izibulale izityalo . Xa ke isityalo sithe sadibana nale aluminium wosibona ngokungawatsali amanzi , sibonakalise nobuthathaka de sigqibele ngokoyiswa sife . impawu zesityalo esifumene le aluminium zicaca kakhulu ezingcanjini , ingcambu zibankulu , ingcambu ziyaqina zome , zikhangeleke zimdaka ngebala , zithi ke kunjalo ingcambu zingakazi ukutsala amanzi nezongo de sife isityalo .

Isikhokelo Uburhabaxa bomhlaba knye neziphumo zoxilongo bumuncu (ph) zizo ezibonisa ubungakanani be lime obufunekayo emhlabeni .


TABLE 3: Umyinge we-lime (TON/HA) kumanqanaba ohlukileyo omumuncu nakwisanti

% clay ▲ph>0.5 ▲ph>0.5-0.4 ▲ph>0.4-03 ▲ph>0.3-0.2 ▲ph>0.2-0.1

▲sv>32 ▲sv>32-25 ▲sv>25-15 ▲sv>15-10 ▲sv<10

5-10 3.9 3.0 2.2 1.4 0.5

10-15 4.1 3.3 2.5 1.6 0.8

15-20 4.4 3.5 2.7 1.9 1.0

20-25 4.6 3.8 2.9 2.1 1.3

25-30 4.8 4.0 3.2 2.3 1.5

30-35 5.1 4.2 3.4 2.6

pH - Change in pH(KCl) SV - Change in % acid saturation

Lime requirement = pH*8.32+0.0459*Clay-1.037

Ukuba umyinge we-lime uyegqitha kwi 4 ton/ha, i-lime kwa mayifakwe amathuba amabini , ingafakwa kubekanye kube kugqityiwe Esi sicwangciso singentla singasetyenziswa ukubala umyinge we-lime efunekayo ngokuthi kubhalwe leyo PH ifunekayo neso siqulatho sifunekayo sodongwe. Olu qikelelo lusekelwe kwi CCE (Resin) of 75.3. If the lime source has a CCE (Resin) value higher or lower than 75.3 the following adaptations must be made for a soil with a lime requirement of 3.5 ton/ha. Suppose a CCE (Resin) of 90%, then the actual lime requirement will be as follows: 75.3/90 = 0.84 3.5*0.84 = 2.93 ton lime/ha, thus •3 ton/ha Suppose a CCE (Resin) of 60%, then the actual lime requirement will be: 75.3/60 = 1.26 3.5*1.26 = 4.4 ton lime/ha thus •4.5 ton/ha

Intlobo ntlobo ze-lime Makukhethwe kakuhle phakathi kwezi ntlobo zimbini ze lime eyi calcitic lime kunye ne dolomitic lime . Uhlobo omalusetyenziswe luxhomekeke ekuvumelaneni kwezinongo ezifunwa sisityalo ekuthiwa yi calcium ne magnesium (ca:mg ratio ) kunye nokuba umhlaba uqulathe I magnesium engakanani na ( Mg2+ content of the soil) . Ukuba isivumelwano se ca:mg singaphezu kwe 10:1 makusetyenziswe idolomitic lime . Ukanti xa isivumelano se ca:mg singaphantsi kuka 10: 1 uhlobo omalusetyenziswe luyakuboniswa bubungakanani be Mg2+ .

Ukuba umhlaba uqulathe ngaphezu kwe 40mg/ k(ppm) maze kusetyenziswe i calcitic lime , xa uqulathe ngaphantsi kothi kusetyenziswe idolomitic lime .

Ukufakwa kwe-lime Eyona njongo iphambili ye lime kukuthomalalisa ubumuncu bomhlaba (acidity) . I dolomitic lime mayiqulathe ngaphezu kwe 20% ye magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) ze i calcitic lime yona iqulathe ngaphezu kwe 70% ye calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Uburhabaxa be lime mabubengaphantsi kwi 250 micron . Kubalulekile ukuba I lime ifakwe kwinyanga ezintathu ukuya kwezine phambi kokutyala . Uburhabaxa , i nitrogen fertilizer , umgangatho nobuninzi be lime efakwayo zizo ezibonisa kufuneka kuthathwe ithuba elingakanani uze kuphinde kufakwe kwakhona . Eyona mihlaba ikhawulezayo ukuba muncu (acidic) yileyo inesanti ngaphezu kwaleyo inodongwe ngenxa yokunyamezela komhlaba ngamnye . Khumbula iziphumo ezihle zifumaneka xa i lime ixutywe kakuhle nomhlaba . Umhlaba mawuxutywe kakuhle ne lime kusetyenziswe i disc , ze ulinyelwe kubunzulu obuyi 200mm - 400mm .


Ukukhetha imbewu njengechiza Noxa ulandela inkqubo yakho ye lime , qonda nje ukuba imbewu ezikwaziyo ukunyamezela I alluminium zingaseyenziswa na ukunciphisa ilahleko ebangwayimihlaba emuncu . Zininzi ke imbewu ezikwaziyo ukunyamezela le meko yobumuncu yaye ziyashiyana ngamandla azo okunyamezela . Ezi mbewu zingohlulwa ngoluhlobo ngokwamandla azo okunyamezela . Ezi mbewu zingohlulwa ngoluhlobo ngokwamandla azo kwi alumminium . (a) Ezona zinamandla (b) Ezinanamandla (c) Ezingakwaziyo

TABLE 4: Imbewu ezahlukeneyo ngokunyamezela kwazo i-alluminium-

Good tolerance Reasonable Poor tolerance

PAN 3349 Gariep Betta –DN

PAN 3377 Caledon Limpompo

SST 966 Elands PAN 3235

PAN 3120 PAN 3191 SST 399

PAN 3118 PAN 3364

Komati

SST 322

SST 334

23

Kubalulekile ukuqonda ukuba ukukhetha imbewu awujongi ukumelana kwayo ne alluminium kuphela . Umgangatho wekhozo nguwo owosoloko ubalulekile kuba sifuna isivuno esisemgangathweni . I alluminium yingxakana emayilunyukelwe nje okwethutyana , ngelixesha kusa thonyalaliswa ubumuncu . Ukugalela i lime akuncedi nje kuphela kwingozi zemveliso koko nasekugcineni umhlaba . Ingqolowa ifuna izinongo ezoneleyo khonukuze ivelise kakhulu yaye imveliso esemgangathweni. Ezona zinongo ezibaluleke kakhulu kwingqolowa yi nitrogen , phosphorus , ne potassium . Iqondo eliphezulu le nitrogen libanga ukubotyoka kwesityalo ukanti xa initrogen ishota yenza amagqabi abemthubi , ze izityalo zingakhuli zinqaphele . I nitrogen yiyo enika amagqabi elabala liluhlaza kakhulu . Xa kushota iphosphorus amagqabi ayatshintsha abe purple kunye nengcambu zikhula kade . I phosphorus yenza ukukhula msinya kwengcambu I- nitrogen efunwa yingqolowa nge hectare yi 40-60kg ne 160-180kg phantsi konkcenkcesho naxa kungankcenkceshelwa . I phosphorus egalelwa kwi hectare yi 12-15 kg/ha . Kubalulekile ukuthatha imihlatyana iyoxilongwa qho emva kweminyaka emithathu , yile mihlatyana eye ibonise izidingo zezinongo (fertilizers) . lo mfanekiso ungezantsi ubonisa itoni zesivuno noba kufanaleke ufake initrogen engakanani na . I nitrogen iya ibaleke namanzi itshone ezantsi emhlabeni ngalondlela ingasebenziseki kakuhle zizityalo (volatilization) . Ngenxa yokuswela kwayo okukuzinza kucetyiswa ukuba ifakwe ngendlela ezimbini . Ifakwe xa kutyalwa (basal dressing) iphinde ifakwe ngaphezulu xa sele isityalo sele siphumile ngakumbi kwindawo ezinkcenkceshelayo (top dressing) . Kwindawo ezingankcenkcesheliyo nook akude kufuneke ukuba mayifakwe ngokwahlukileyo . Le table ilandelayo ibonisa imfuno ze nitrogen ngetoni nganye.


TABLE 5: Ukugalelwa kwe-nitrogen ngokwemfuno zesivuno kwindawo ezinemvula zohlobo

Target yield (ton/ha) N Fertilisation (kgN/ha)

1.0 10

1.5 15-20

2.0 25-30

2.5 45-50

3.0 55

3.5 65

Ngokufanayo , Le table 6 ibonisa umyinge omawufakwe phantsi konkcenkcesho . Phantsi konkcenkcesho isivuno siyaphindana yiyo lento nomyinge wemfuneko we nitrogen uphezulu . Umzelelo 6-7 t /ha , 160- 180 n/ ha mayigalelwe . TABLE 6: Ukugalelwa kwenitrogen (KG N/HA) ngokwemfuno zesivuno kwindawo zonkcenkcesho.

Target yield (ton/ha) Nitrogen (kg N/ ha)

4-5 80-130

5-6 130-160

6-7 160-180

7-8 180-200

8 200+

Umyinge we phosphorus omawugalelwe ixhomekeke kubukho be phosphorus emhlabeni kunye nokuthi ubani ufuna isivuno esingakanani . Ukuba emva kovavanyo lomhlaba iziphumo zibonisa iphosphorus ephakathi kuka 5-18 mg / kg kanti ufuna isivuno esingu 2 tons / ha , faka i15kg /ha yephosphorus . Ezi table zilandelayo u 7 no 8 zibonisa isidingo se phosphorus phantsi konkcenkcesho nakomileyo umhlaba .


TABLE 7: UKUGALELWA KWE PHOSPHORUS (KG/HA P) NGOKWEMFUNO ZESIVUNO PHANTSI KWEMEKO EZOMILEYO NESIMO SEMIHLABA NGOKUKA BAY 1 ANALYSIS METHOD.

Target yield (ton/ ha) Soil phosphorus status (mg/kg)

<5* 5-18

19-30 >30

1.0 6

5 4 4

1.5 9

8 6 5

2.0 12

12 8 7

2.5 18

15 12 10

TABLE 8: UKUGALELWA KWE PHOSPHORUS (KG/HA P) NGOKWEMFUNO ZESIVUNO PHANTSI KONKCENKCESHO

NEZINGA LE PHOSPHORUS NGOKUKA BRAY 1 ANALYSIS METHOD.25 Target yield (ton/ha) Us sUUUuuutatus (mg/kg) UTa

Target yield (ton/ha)

soil phosphorus status (m/kg)

<10 10-18* 19-30 >30

4-5

36 28 18 12

5-6

44 34 22 15

6-7

52 40 >26 18

7+

>56 >42 >28 21


TABLE 9: ISIKHOKELO SE POTASSIUM (KG /HA K) PHANTSI KWEMEKO EZOMILEYO NANGOKWEZINGA LE- POTASSIUM KWESOSIVUNO SIFUNEKAYO .

Target yield (ton/ha)

Soil potassium (mg/kg k)

< 60 61-80 81-120* 120+

1-2 20 15 15 0

2-3 30 20 20 0

3+ 40 25 25 0

Soil with > 35% clay (Soil with < 35% clay content, no potassium recommended, but potassium applications may be done for maintenance of soil K values.)

TABLE 10: ISIKHOKELO SE-POTASSIUM (KG /HA K)PHANTSI KONKCEKCESHO NGOKEZINGA LAYO EMHLABENI NESIVUNO ESO SIFUNEKAYO.

Tareget yield (ton/ha) Soil potassium (mg/kg k)

<60 61-80 81-120 120+

4-5 50 25 25 0

5-6 60 30 30 0

6-7

7+

70

70

35

40

35

40

0

0

* Soil with > 35% clay (Soil with < 35% clay content, no potassium is recommended)

Ukusetyenziswa kwamanzi sisityalo Ngophando yi Dyunivesithi yase Free State , kwaboniswa imfuno zamanzi esityalo sengqolowa xa inkcenkceshelwa ukuba ithi isebenzise amanzi angakanani xa isivuno siyi 10kg amanzi (mm) afakiweyo mangakanani . Kukhona izigaba zokukhula kwesityalo ezithi ziwachithe kakuhle amanzi . Ezi zigaba zicwangciswe ngoluhlobo :

- Ukuthwala : isivuno , ubungakanani bamanzi nobungakanani bomthwalo . - Ukubunokala kwelihlo ukuya ekudubuleni : ukuncipha kwenani lentshaka nezakha mzimba . - Amagqabi : Ukuhla kwenani lezindawo zityekayo kwilihlo ngalinye nezakha mzimba nesivuno . - Ukukhula kwentonga okanye idiza: Ukukhula kweflorets kwilihlo liyachaphazeleka nokuhla kwesivuno

kwilihlo ngalinye . - Ukuzalela : Ukuzalela , nokukhula kwengcambu , nesivuno siyachaphazeleka .


TABLE 11: IMFUNEKO YAMANZI KWINGQOLOWA NGOKWEZIGABA ZOKUKHULA EZOHLUKENEYO XA UFUNA ISIVUNO ESINGANGE 7 T/HA.

Growth stage mm water

Plant to emergence 58 8.3

Tillering to stem elongation 67 9.6

Stem elongation to flag leaf 105 15.0

Flag leaf to flowering 211 30.1

Grain filling 173 24.7

maturity 86 12.3

total 700 mm 100%

6 Ukukhuselwa kwezityalo

Ukulawulwa kwezinambuzane nerhorho Kwingingqi ezinemvula zehlobo Zininzi zahlukene zahlukene izinambuzane okanye irhorho ezihlasela ingqolowa yaye azifani nangobungozi bazo . Ngoko ke kufuneke kujongwe kakuhle indlela yokulwa isinambuzane ngasinye , yaye lo ndlela ingabinazindleko zininzi nazingozi noko kuyindalo kusingqongileyo . Masaziwe kakuhle isinambuzane kuqala khonukuze kwazeke ukuba ukuba kufuneka kuliwe naso ngoluphi uhlobo . Ikhona ke incwadana ethi incedise ukuxela isinambuzane iyafumaneka kwa ( ARC small grain Institute) . Le ncwadana iqulathe imifanekiso yazo zonke izinambuzane eziyingozi neziluncedo . Le ncwadana iqulathe imifanekiso yazo zonke izinambuzane eziyingozi neziluncedo . Le ncwadi ibhalwe ngolu hlobo “ Field guide for identification of wheat insects in S.A .” Nenye incwadana equlqthe amayeza okuzibulala nayo iyafumaneka . Makusetyenziswe iglasi ezilungiselelwe lo mcimbi wokujonga kuba ezinye kuthiwa zincinci kakhulu . Okanye la madoda alandelayo ungawabuza ngencukaca ezithe vetshe Goddy Prinsloo , Justin Hatting , Vicki Toolmay or Astrid Jankielsohn .

Intwala okanye irhorhwana ezincinci / Aphids Zintlanu intlobontlobo zentwala ezifumaneka kwingqolowa , kwingingqi ezivelisa ngemvula zehlobo apha eMzantsi Afrika . Kukho uhlobo lentwala ebalulekileyo ekuthiwa yi Russian wheat aphid nethi ibonakale minyaka le . Ezinye intwala ezinje ngegreen bug , bird cherry oat aphid , brown ear aphid or English grain aphid ne rose grain aphid azixhaphakanga zifumaneka kwindawo ezimanzi .

(a) Russian wheat aphid - Incinane kangange 2mm , itsobhile ukuya entloko nokuya emsileni , ixwebe

mthubi – naluhlaza ukuya ku grey- naluhlaza , inamaphondwana amafutshane nemisilana emibini . Okokoko ngaphambi ko 2005 lunye uhlobo lentwala obelusaziwa eFreystata yi Rwasa1, kuye kwe qhaphu gqi ngo 2005 olunye uhlobo oluyingozi lentwala ekuthiwa yi Russian wheat aphid , yaye imbewu ezazikwazi ukumelana ne Rwasa 1 zange zikwazi ukumelana nale ntwala intsha . Izityalo ezimelanayo nale ntwala ibe lelona chiza iminyaka elishumi linambini . Imbewu ezimelanayo ne Rwasa 1 , azonakaliswa kangako yile Russian wheat aphid intsha ngoko ke ukulwa le ntwala makusetyenziswe olo hlobo lwembewu . Akukho lula ncam ukuba zibonakale qha ubona ngemisebenzi nomonakalo . Izityalo ezincinane ziba namagqabi aqinileyo asongeneyo . Ukanti kwezindala kuye kubonakale imigcana emhlophe , ixwebile ifune ukuba mthubi le migcana , xa kubanda ifuna ukuba purple ngebala , amagqabi aphindeneyo de intloko ibambeke . Ukanti ezimelanayo kubakho nje amachokoza amancinci amhlophe namthubi apha emagqabini , amagqabi awasongani ngokuthe nca kakhulu . Abavelisi mabahlole amasimi rhoqo yaye kufuneka amayeza efakiwe xa inani lentwala liya likhula .


Figure 14: Russian wheat aphid

Ingqolowa sesona sityalo sonakaliswayo yi Russian wheat aphid ngethuba eliphakathi kokukhula kwegqabi nokuphela kwalo . Xa kufakwa amayeza ngethuba kukhula amagqabi makuqinisekwe ukuba amgqabi akhuseleke kakuhle kwintwala . Lonto iyakukhusela ilahleko yesivuno . Ukufafaza amayeza kubalulekile ngakumbi xa inani lentwala ligqitha u 30% , ntoleyo enothi yenzeke kwingqolowa etyalwe entwasa hlobo kwi Mpuma yeFreystata , okanye kwindawo ezomileyo kakhulu zaseNtshona Freystata . Xa kuphinde kubonakale intwala emva kwethuba kufafazwe kufafazwe iyeza , kufuneka kuphindwe kufafazwe kwakhona . Imbewu mayifakwe amayeza nomhlaba ufakwe amayeza ukulwa nokulawula intwala , yaye xa kuthe imbewu zafakwa emayezeni kwangoko isityalo sithi sikhuseleke kwizinambuzane ithua elizintsuku ezilikhulu emva kokutyala .

Ukufumana umyinge wentwala entsimini / Determining the percentage aphid infestation in a field Ukufumanisa umyinge wentwala entsimini kulapho aye athathe khona isigqibo sokuba uzakusebenzisa amayeza ukuzitshabalalisa na . Ukuba intwala ziye zaninzi ngaphezulu kunomlinganiselo walo ntsimi lonto iya kuchaphazela isivuno kuba siya kwehla . Amanyathelo okufumana umyinge wentwala entsimi ngala : (a) Gqiba kwangoko ukuba mingaphi imitsi ozakuyisebenzisa , uzakuphawula njani na apho uphela khona okanye umda . (b) Hamba entsimini umganyana ze ubale imitsi le ubugqibe ngayo , kulo mitsi uyibalileyo izityalo ezilishumi ezisondele emdeni zichatshazelwe zintwala . Inani elichaphazelekileyo kwelishumi uliphala phantsi . Le nkqubo ke uyayiphindaphinda intsimi yonke amatyeli alishumi . Yonke ke le ndawo ibicandiwe mayibe ibonisa umyinge wentwala kulo ntsimi .


TABLE 12: UBUKHO BE RWA KWISIVUNO NEKUFUNEKA KUKHWIJIWE NGEYEZA.

Yield potential ( ton ha-1) Infestation level at GS 12 (% plants)

2.0-2.5 7

1.5-2.0 10

1.0-1.5 14

b) Ezinye Intwala

I oat aphid , English grain aphid , rose grain aphid azixhaphakanga kwingqolowa yasehlotyeni . Zithanda ukuhlala kwizityalo ezixineneyo , ezimanzi ngakumbi apho kunkcenkceshelwayo , zakubakho kuphela kwindawo ezingankcenkceshelwayo xa kuthe kwakho imvula ezinkulu . I-oat aphid – yintwala enabala elimdaka – buhlaza , ikhangeleka nje ngepere kuba inkulu ukusuka emazantsi ize inciphe ukuya ngasentloko , ibenebala elibomvu eliqaqambileyo apha ngasemva ekupheleni kwayo (Figure 15a) I-english grain aphid - le ntwala iluhlaza- bumdaka , ibenemibala emnyama kwimisilana elapha ngasemva (Figure 15b) . I-rose grain aphid – yintwala exwebileyo bumthubi ngebala , apha emqolo inemigcana emdaka buhlaza (Figure 15c) .

Figure 15 (a): Oat aphid Figure 15 (b): English grain aphid Figure 15 (c): Rose-grain aphid

Xa kuqikelelwa umonakalo oyi 70% kwilihlo ube ubangwe yi 5-10 yentwala kwilihlo lo nto ingasetyenziswa nje ngendlela yokulwa nokuqikelela intwala . Amalinge okufumana ezinye indlela zokulwa ezintwala kwingingqi ezinemvula zobusika zisalingwa . Qinisekisa ukuba amayeza afakwa kakuhle xa efuneka . Funda kakuhle umbhalo obhalwe ngaphandle eyezeni , jonga umlinganiselo , xa uthe wawuphazama umlinganiselo kothi kubekho ezinye indleko ebezingacwangciswanga kuba kofuneka kufakwe amanye amayeza . Amayeza mawafakwe ngobunono kungenjalo kothi kufe nendalo elulutho .


Ezinye izinambuzane / other insect pests Ezi zinambuzane zilandelayo zithathwa nje ngezibalulekileyo kwingqolowa kwingingqi ezine mvula zehlobo . a) Brown wheat mite (intwala zengqolowa ezimdaka ) .Ezi ntwala zincinci , zimdaka ngebala , zinomzimba obu

(round) , imilenze yokuqala yangaphambili ibonakala imide kweminye , naxa ithi xa kukho umoya ihlale ngaphantsi kwamagade . Ibeka intlobo ezimbini zamaqanda phantsi kwamagade . Amaqanda abomvu adlamkileyo azalelwa phantsi kwamagade aze aqandusele ngentsuku ezimbalwa , ze la amhlophe atyhafileyo anokuhlala emhlabeni into engango nyaka omnye . Emva kokuqandusela imeko ezomileyo zibanga ukwanda kwazo , nezityalo ezichaphazelekayo zibonisa amagqabi anamachokoza okanye amabala . Xa ezi ntwala ziye zahlasela ngamandla amagqabi aba mthubi ekugqibeleni amabala abonakale entsimini . Kwezi meko ukufafaza iyeza kuko okubalulekileyo . Kwelinye icala xa lentwala ithe yahlasela ingqolowa ibanga unxunguphalo oluye lwenze kubenzima ukuba isityalo sikwazi ukusebenzisa iyeza . Imvula eziyi 12mm nangaphezulu ziyakunciphisa ukwanda kwale ntwala , ngalo ndlela kungabikho mfuneko yamayeza . b) False wireworm

Ibizwa ngoluhlobo kuba sube iyirhorhwana engekagqibi ukukhula , le rhorho xa indala inebala elimdaka , inemilenze emide , ungayibona ihamba emhabeni ze izimele kubufukufuku bezityalo ezidala . Xa ibizwa ngokuba yi (larvae ) kukhona yenza umonakalo kwimbewu , ingcambu entongeni okanye edizeni . Le (larvae) ingakhula ibe yi 20mm ubude , imtyibilizi ibemdaka bugolide ngokombala . Indlela zokulungisa umhlaba ezingqamane ne(larvae) zithi zilithobe inani elikhulu lokwanda njengoko la mabhabhathane engakwazi ukubhabha . Imbewu mayifakwe amayeza l. (c) Bollworm

Ibhabhathane elidala linobumdaka ukuya kugrey namaphiko abude buyi 20mm Eli bhabhathane libhabha ekuseni namatshona libeka amaqanda kwisityalo ngqo . Xa lisanduqandusela (larvae ) lithi litye incindi eluhlaza eyenziwa zizityalo okanye amagqabi ebizwa ngokuba yi(chrorophyll) , ze lifudukele emagqabini apho liphila khona . I (larvae ) ingakhula de ifike kwi 40mm ubude , yaye ingabanga umonakalo ngakumbi kumgangatho wesivuno . Amafama mawahlole emasimini ukufumana i (larvae ) , njengoko ezindala sube sele zingeva namayeza . Xa kungankcenkceshelwa amayeza angafakwa xa kuthe kwabonwa 3-4 (larvae) kumtsi emqolweni . Nakanjani ke amafama kufanele athathe imigqaliselo yamayeza abawasebenzisayo . d) Black maize beetle (irhorho )

Olu hlobo le rhorho xa indala imnyama , isuka ku12-15mm ubude . Izalela amqanda ayi 7-10 emhlabeni , ikhule izibakala ezithathu . Irhorho endala yiyo ebanga umonakalo kakhulu ngelithuba i (larvae) ithanda ukuhlala kwimfungumfungu yezityalo emhlabeni . Le indala ihlafuna apha emazantsi esityalo ide isigedle sife . Ngenxa yokuba le rhorho iyakwazi ukufuduka ngoko ke ubuchule kukuba unyange umhlaba ungekatyali ngalo ndlela ke azukubanathuba lakuphila laneleyo . e) Leafhoppers and maize streak virus(intethe nesihlava)

Isihlava sisuka kumbona ochaphazelekileyo wosulele ezinye izityalo . Ingqolowa etyalwe kwangoko ibe ikufutshane nentsimi yombona ingqolowa isesichengeni sokosuleleka . Xa izityalo ezincinci zichaphazelekile ziyanqaphela zingakhuli , amagqabi agobe , abonakalise imigcana emincinci emhlophe . Akukho yeza lisemthethweni lokulwa intethe engqoloweni . Ubuchule kukutyala kade yaye ubekude emboneni .

Ingingqi ezinemvula zobusika nonkcenkcesho Intwala / Aphids Uhlobo lentwala elibanga ingxaki kwingingqi ezinemvula zobusika yi oat aphid , English grain aphid ne rose grain aphid . I- Russian wheat aphid neyeyona iyingozi apha eMzantsi Afrika , ayixhaphakanga kwezingingqi . Ezinye intwala ezisele sizibalile ngentla zithanda izityalo ezixineneyo apho kukho nobumanzi ntoleyo yenzekayo kwingingqi ezinemvula zobusika , nakumasimi ankcenkceshelwayo . Xa komile kwezi ngingqi intwala ziyanqongophala , ngaphandle kwe Russian wheat aphid ethanda ukoma . I-oat aphid – yintwala enebala elimdaka –buhlaza , ikhangeleka nje ngepere kuba inkulu ukusuka emazantsi ize inciphe ukuya ngasentloko , ibenebala elibomvu eliqaqambileyo apha ngasemva ekupheleni kwayo (Figure 16a) . I-english grain aphid – iluhlaza bumdaka , ibene mibala emnyama kwimisilana elapha ngasemva(Figure 16b) . I-rose grain aphid - yintwala exwebileyo bumthubi ngebala , apha emqolo inemigcana emdaka –buhlaza(Figure 16c)


(

Figure 16 (a): Oat aphid Figure 16 (b): English grain aphid Figure 16 (c): Rose-grain aphid

I-oat aphid itya intonga zezityalo , yaye xa zithe zakhona kwangoko zihlala apha emazantsi entonga ekusondeleni emhlabeni . Ethubeni zihlala entongeni kanye phantsi kwelihlo , nalapho iye inyuke ide ifike elihlweni . I-English grain ne rose grain zihlala ngaphantsi kwamagqabi , apha kanye kula aphezulu amagqabi , I- English grain aphid ithi iye kuhlala kwilihlo . Ezi ntwala azinabungozi bungako . Kuyavunywa intwala zikhona kwingqolowa kodwa umonakalo obangwa luhlobo ngalunye ubungaqondakali lula . Kude kwenziwa uvavanyo nalapho kuye kwafunyanwa intwala ngokohluka kwazo . I English grain aphid iye yafunyanwa iyeyona ininzi . Xa kuqikelelwa umonakalo oyi 70% kwilihlo ube ubangwe yi5-10 yentwala kwilihlo lo nto ingasetyenziswa nje ngendlela yokulwa intwala . Amalinge okufumana ezinye indlela zokulwa ezintwala kwingingqi ezinemvula zobusika zisalingwa . Funda kakuhle umbalo obhalwe ngaphandle eyezeni , Jonga umlinganiselo , xa uthe wawuphazama umlinganiselo kothi kubekho ezinye indleko ebezingacwangciswanga kuba kofuneka kufakwe amanye amayeza . Amayeza mawafakwe ngobunono kungenjalo kothi kufe nendalo elulutho .


Figure 17: Inani lentwala kwi plot.

Ezinye izinambuzane/ Other insect pests a) Bollworm

Ibhabhathane elidala linobumdaka ukuya kugrey namaphiko abude buyi 20mm . Eli bhabhathane libhabha ekuseni namatshona libeka amaqanda kwisityalo ngqo . Xa lisandukulukuqandusela (larvae) lithi litye incindi eluhlaza eyenziwa ngamagqabi ezityalo ebizwa ngokuba yi (chlorophyll ) , ze lifudukele emagqabini apho liphila khona . I (larvae) ingakhula de ifike kwi 40mm ubude , yaye ingabanga umonakalo ngakumbi kumgangatho wesivuno . Amafama mawahlole amasimi ukufumana i(larvae) zisencinci , njengoko ezindala sube sele zingeva namayeza . Xa kungankcenkceshelwa amayeza angafakwa xa kuthe kwabonwa 3-4 (larvae) kumtsi emqolweni . Xa unkcenkceshela uvame ukubona zibe 6-7(larvae ) kumtsi emqolweni . Nakanjani ke amafama kufanele athathe imigqaliselo yamayeza abawasebenzisayo . b) Grain chinch bug okanye Grain stinkbug

Zirhorhwana ezincinci ezibhityileyo , ezinobude obuyi 4-5mm . Ithi ibeke amaqanda kwezindawo zinemiqolo kanye apha kumabhekeza amagqabi , apho kuthi entwasahlobo kubonakale imibundane engenamaphiko enebala elimthubi na(orange) . Zombini le mibundane nezindala zifunxa incindi yesityalo zisishiye isityalo simthubi yaye somile . Le ncindi ziyifunxa nditsho nalapha ekhozweni . Uba mkhulu umonakalo xa kushushu komile njengoko isityalo esichaphazelekileyo kungelulanga ukuba siphinde sichache . Xa kuqala uhlobo , irhorho endala ifudukela kwelinye uhlobo lesityalo , ilinde apho de kufike ubusika kungelothuba ke apho ithi iphinde ibuyele kwingqolowa kuba sube sele ityaliwe . Nangona kungekho yeza ncam elithi liyibulale le rhorho kodwa akukho manani makhulu okuxhaphaka kwayo engqoloweni . c)Grain slug(ibunyekevu kodwa ayinaqokobhe)

Ikhangeleka ingathi yinyekevu kodwa enyanisweni ngumbundane (larvae) we green bettle. Endala inobude be 5mm , ifumaneka ukusuka kuJune ukuya phambili . Amaqanda iwabeka emiqolweni ngokwamaqela amabini ukuya


kwamahlanu , iwabeka kanye apha emthanjeni omkhulu wegqabi . Lo mbundane ukhangeleka buxweba , kodwa kamsinya iwugqume umzimba umzimba wayo ngencindi emnyama eyenza itsho ikhangeleke ngqo njengenyekevu . Le(larvae) ithi itye apha emithanjeni ishiye imigca apha kwelogqabi lonakeleyo . d) Black sand mite or red-legged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor)

Zintwala ezincinane ubude obuyi 0,5 mm, imilenze ebomvu. Iqala ukubonakala emva kwemvula zokwindla ukuya kwezobusika . Lentwala ifunxa incindi yesityalo ibange amanxeba akhazimlayo amelene nalomthambo mkhulu , icaca kakhulu lento kwezo zinamagqabi amadala . Xa sele zininzi zibanga ukufa kwezityalo ezincinci , Le ntwala ithi ichithe uhlobo oludlulisileyo emagqabini athi agcinwe emzimbeni de imazi ife . Akhona amayeza okuyitshabalalisa .

Ukulawulwa kwezifo (kwingingqi zonke) Izifo zengcambu Take-all

I (take- all) engqoloweni ibangwa zizilwanyana ezincinci kakhulu ezibanga ukungunda , ssingawubanga umonakalo oqikelelwa kwi 72% xa sithe ayalawulwa. Xa ithe yakhona kwisityalo sibonakala ngokuthi kubekho intloko ezimhlophe phambi kokuvuthwa . Ziyanqaphela ezi zityalo ziphethe sele zingathwali zome nko . Ngaphandle kwalamabala abonakala apha entloko , kubonakala amabala amnyama ezingcanjini nasemazantsi entonga( Fig 18) . Ukunqaphela nokunga zaleli (tillering) kwesityalo senqolowa kuko okuya kuqapheleke rhoqo apha ekukhuleni kwaso. Xa ufuna ukusibona esi sifo ukuba sikhona na , yithi utsale isityalo ngaphandle komhlaba . Isityalo esichaphazelekileyo wothi usibone ngokutoncuka lula emhlabeni , ibonakalise ngokucacileyo ingcambu ezonakeleyo . Zininzi izinto ezifunyaniswe zisenyusa esi sifo . Ezi zinto ziquka umhlaba oyisanti , ubumuncu bomhlaba, umhlaba ombi onamanzi amayo, izityalo ezixinene ngaphezu komlinganiselo , umhlaba onemfungu mfungu eninzi ukushokoxeka kwe nitrogen kunye nemanganese. Enye into enyusa kakhulu esi sifo kukuphinda phinda isityalo esinye kanti kufuneka uzitshintshatshintshe izityalo . Esi sifo ke ingaliwa ngamayeza nendlela zencubeko ezithile. Jikelele apha eMzantsi Afrika liselinye iyeza lokulwa le ngxaki ngokuthi kunxuzwe imbewu kulo elibizwa ngokuba yilatitude . Kodwa le latitude ayisitshabalalisi siphele esi sifo . Ndaweni yokusiphelisa yenza ingcambu ziqine zomelele zizokumelana nesi sifo . indlela zencubeko zokulwa le ngxaki kukutshintshatshintsha izityalo ezingazalaniyo unzekelo uyitshintshanise ingqolowa nojongilanga , itapile, neoats. Ukufakwa kwegwane ezinje nge nitrogen zibonakalisa ukunceda izityalo zimelane nesi sifo . Makusetyenziswe negwane ekuthiwa yi potassium chloride . 36

Figure 18: ingcambu ezimnyama nesityalo esingenakuthwala

Crown rot ( Ukubola kwentonga emazantsi) Esi sifo senzeka xa kuthe kwasuleleka isityalo esidala apha emazantsi entonga , senziwa zezinye zezilwanyana ezibanga ukungunda ekuthiwa zifurasium . Impawu zesifo zibonakala kakuhle xa isityalo sidubula okanye xa sithe saswela amanzi ithuba elide , mhlawumbi xa isityalo okanye ilungu lesityalo lithe lafa. Senzeka nakwingingqi apho kungankcenkceshelwayo ngakumbi embindini nase Ntshona Freystata , eSwartland nase Humansdorp ezizingingqi zaseNtshona Koloni . Nangona impawu zibufana nezo zesifo itake all ngokubhekisele kwintlokwana ezimhlophe


ezingavelisiyo kodwa zithi zibekhona nezinye impawu zokwahlula phakathi kwezi zifo zibini. Impawu eziquka ibala elibomvu – mdaka apha emazantsi kanye entonga , ze umphakathi wentonga ubonakalise ukungunda okumhlophe –nabomvu (Fig 19) . Okwangoku akukabikho yeza libhalisiweyo elinyanga esi sifo . Sihlasela zonke imbewu ntonje zishiyana ngokunyamezela . Ukugelesha umhlaba nokukhusela uqweqwe emhlabeni kuko okuthi kwenze kubebhetele ukulawula esi sifo . Ingxinano eninzi yezityalo ayifuneki , ukanti nokugalelwa kwegwane eyinitrogen kakhulu kunomlinganiselo akufuneki ngakumbi kwindawo ezingenamvula eninzi .

. Figure 19: Igcambu nentonga ezosulelwe yi hyphae

Izifo Zamagqabi / Foliar deseases Amaqhuqhuvana amthubi / okanye amaqhuqhuvana abayimigcana Sibangwa yincukuthu eluhlobo ehlala kuphela kwizityalo eziphilayo . Ithi le ncukuthu ifumaneke okanye ihlasele ingqolowa , ibarley , irye kunye nezinye intlobo - ntlobo zezityalo . Impawu zala maqhuqhuvana ayimigca (stripe rust ) aqala ngombala omthubi kakhulu ukuya ko-orenji ze abonakale la maqhuqhuvana esenza umgca apha egqabini (Fig. 20). La sele sihlasele ngamandla la maqhuqhuvana athi anwenwele entongeni . Le migcana yamaqhuqhuva ibonakala entwasahlobo xa amaqondo emozulu esuka kwishumi ukuya kwamabini xa kumana kubakho umbethe . Xa komile kutshisa ukwanda kwaso kuyehla kodwa siphida siqale phantsi xa komile kumanzi . Maninzi amayeza okulwa esisifo mayeza lawo asekelezwe kwi – triazole . La mayeza kufuneka afakwe xa kuthe kwacaca ukuba sesi sifo ngenyani , yaye lixesha lokuxhaphaka kwaso . Ukuba ukufa kwenzeka kwimbewu ezithile ezibuthathaka , makujongwe ixesha elilungileyo lokukukhwija iyeza ukukhusela isityalo xa sithwala ukutya . Ukosuleleka okumandla kubanga ilahleko enkulu .

Figure 20: Impawu zamaqhuqhuvana amthubi( yellow rust)


Amaqhuqhuvana egqabi( Leaf Rust ) Abangelwa zizilwanyana ezincincinane kakhulu . Aziwa ngokuba ngamaqhakuva amdaka . La maqhuqhuvana amile a-round amane ukugqagqana , aorenji – bubomvu ngebala ukuya ku orenji – bumdaka ngebala afumaneka egqabini (Fig 21) . La maqhuqhuvana abasemagqabini achaphazela izityalo ezenza inkozo kunye nentlobo ezenza zengca ezithile . Kuqala kubangathi amagqabi aluhlaza kodwa ngokuya la maqhuqhuvana ebamaninzi amagqabi ayatshintsha abe mdaka mgombala . Ngamanye amaxesha wosibona isityalo esidala kubekho amachokoza ngelo xesha ke sube imeko zinga vumelani nesisifo . Makujongwe ixesha elilungileyo lokukhwija iyeza ukukhusela isityalo xa sele sithwala. Xa esi sifo sifike ngamandla inzuzo iyehla kuba ukutya kuyavuthuluka.

Figure 21: Impawu zamaqhuqhuvana egqabi

Amaqhuqhuvana entonga / ediza Stem rust Aziwa ngokuba yiblack rust, abangwa zizilwanyana ezincinane kakhulu . Zihlala kwizityalo eziphilayo ezinje nge ngqolowa , ibarley , irye nezinye intlobo-ntlobo zezingca ziyachaphazeleka loluhlobo lesifo . Impawu zaso kuye kubonakale amaqhuqhuvana amile oku kweqanda , amdaka afune ukuba bomvu - bumdaka ngebala , afumaneka kwintonga yesityalo (Fig 22). Xa size ngamandla esi sifo sihlasela amagqabi , imbewu ezibuthathaka kufa nenkozo , imidubulo njalonjalo. Esi sifo sifuna amaqondo akwishumi linesihlanu ukuya kumashumi amabini anesine . Esi sifo sibasininzi kakhulu xa isityalo sisiya ekuvuthweni, ngakumbi xa kutshisa kuphinda kuphinde kubemanzi . Xa sithe sahlasela kwangoko senza isityalo singakwazi ukunaba ngalo ndlela kubenelahleko .


Figure 22: Impawu zmaqhuqhuvana entonga okanye idiza

Glume blotch Ibangwa kukungunda okuthi kubangwe bubuthathaka bembewu . Ithi ichaphazele amagqabi namakhasi . Esi sifo senzeka xa kuthe kwatyalwa kade kwiMpuma ye Freystata nakwa Zulu-Natal , inzala yesi sifo iye isale iphila phaya kumasalela ezityalo ezisikiweyo ithuba lenyanga ezilishumi linambini . Sikhula kakuhle esi sifo xa kuthe igqabi lamanzi iyure ezisixhenxe . Sifuna amaqondo aphakathi kwe shumilinesihlanu namashumi amabini anesihlanu nobumanzi obuninzi . Impawu ziyahluka ngokwembewu kuxhomekeke ekubeni isityalo sinobucekeceke kangakanani . Kubakho amnxetyana ngakumbi kwizityalo ezidala yaye nolo hlobo lwembewu lunganyamezeli . La madyunguza akhangeleka emdaka enomphakathi omnyama ojikelezwe zimpawu zokwenzakala kwesityalo . Kwezo imbewu zinako ukusinyamezela esi sifo la madyunguza mancinci nomonakalo obonakalayo waso uthi ube mncinane . Amagaqana amancinci amnyama athi afumaneke apha elihlweni . Esi sifo singalawulwa kakuhle ngokuthi kusetyenziswe imbewu ezisinyamezelayo . Akho amayeza kodwa makuqinisekwe ukuba siso . Sithi siqatsele ngethuba lokudubula , yilonto kufuneka silawulwe kanye ngelithuba . Ngaphandle kokusetyenziswa kwamayeza nezinye indlela zingasetyenziswa , indlela ezinje ngokulinyelwa ngaphantsi kwamasalela okanye amasalela atshiswe . Enye indlela elula kukutshintshanisa izityalo .

Powdery Mildew / ukungunda Ukungunda kwenzeka kwimeko zaxa kufumile . Kuthi kuchaphazele ingqolowa , ibarley , irye , nezinye intlobo-ntlobo zezingca . Impawu zokungunda kubamhlophe ukuya kubulembu obuthi bubemhlophe apha esityalweni , kanye oku ngathi buboya bomqhaphu . Ukungunda kuthanda ukuhlasela incopho zalmagqabi asezantsi nangona sinokwandela kwisityalo sonke(Fig 23). Ukungunda kuthanda ukuphola , nokufuma , kunye nezityalo ezixineneyo . Sifuna amaqondo alishumi linanye ukuya kwamabini anesibini . Xa isityalo sithe sachaphazeleka sithi silimale sonke .

Figure 23: Impawu ze Powdery Mildew

Loose smut Senzeka apho kulinywa khona ingqolowa . Impawu zesi sifo zibonakalaa emva kokuthwala apho intloko ziye zibonakale zichaphazelekile . Kwisityalo esichaphazelekileyo kuthi kubonakale amaqhuqhuvana/amadyunguza amdaka ngebala apha kulendawo ibifanele ukuba inomthwalo/ikhozo . La madyunguza athi awavuthulule awe kushiyeke intonga . La maqhuqhuvana ahlasela intonga itsho ingathwali , nakunyaka olandelayo siyaphinda sivele . Esi sifo sikholana nemozulu epholileyo , efumileyo . Akhona amayez okunyanga , makusetyenziswe imbewu ezivunyiweyo.


Stinking smut Sifunyanwa kwingqolowa , ibarley nezinye intlobo zezityalo . Impawu zibonakala emva kokuthwala . Imithwalo ibamdaka ngebala , kubeho ukushiyana nokonakala kwemithwalo . Le ke ichaphazelekileyo imithwalo ithatha ithuba elide ukuvuthwa . Kubakho ukukhukhumala okanye ibholanyana ezithile apha phantsi kwexolol lekhozo de kuyovunwa, kubonakale ukungunda okugrey namdaka . Xa ezibholanyana zigqajuzwa kuphuma umgutyana omnyama ophuma ivumba elibukhali elinukayo . Xa kuvunwa ezi bholanyana zosulela amakhozo nomhlaba . Ukukhusela esi sifo makusetyenziswe amayeza phambi kotyala , kutyalwe imbewu ezihloliweyo .

Izifo ezixhaphaka phantsi konkcenkcesho Maize streak virus Esi sifo sibanga ukunqaphela kwingqolowa . Esi sifo sisasazwa zintethe eziqulathe intsholongwane ezithi izisulele esityalweni xa isitya isityalo . Intethe zithanda indawo ezifudumeleyo yiyo lento esi sifo sixhaphaka kwindawo ezishushu . Ezona ndawo zinengxaki yi Limpompo , ingingqi ze Vaal , nase KZN . Impawu ezibonakalayo kukunqaphela kwesityalo , nemigcana emincinci emthubi emile ngokobude begqabi ( Fig 24 ). Le migcana mincinci iqala encotsheni yegqabi yehlise igqabi ukuya emazantsi egqabi . Ilihlo liyaqothola lingakhuli kakuhle . Makusetyenziswe imbewu ezilungileyo ezikwaziyo ukumelana nesi sifo

Figure 24: Maize streak virus


Fusarium head blight Sibangwa zizilwanyana ezincinane kakhulu . Olona phawu lubonakalayo sisibhaxu esingathi kukutsha kwegaqa elinye okanye umthwalo lo wonke uyatsha , umthwalo uyalilahla ibala lokuba luhlaza utsho uxwebe (Fig 25) . Xa ke sihlasele ngamandla umthwalo uyaqothola ungakhuli , ubemncinci , ubemhlophe – bupinki ngebala. Sifuna amaqondo alishumi linanye ukuya kwamathathu , nokufuma . Esi sifo sixhaphaka apho kunojikeleza wokunkceshela (centre pivot) , apho kutyalwa ingqolowa ingatshintshatshintshaniswa okanye kutyalwe ingqolowa nombona kulomhlaba ithuba elide zingatshintshatshintshi nezinye izityalo . Indlela yokulawula esi sifo kukutshintshanisa uhlobo lwezityalo nezo zingachatshazelwa sesisifo . Singalawulwa futhi ngokuthi kulinyelwe ngaphantsi amasalela engqolowa nombona (residues) . Singathintelwa ngokuthi kunxuzwe imbewu eyezeni . Amayeza awalungi kuphele kuphele kuba aphazamisana nokudubula ntoleyo ilibazisa ukudubula , ncakasana awekho amayeza abhalisiweyo aziwayo okwangoku apha eMzantsi Afrika .

42

Figure 25: Fusarium head blight


Karnal Bunt Okwangoku esi sifo sixhaphake kwingingqi yonkcenkcesho yase Douglas/ Prieska kuba sisesitsha esi sifo eMzantsi Afrika urhulumente usibazele amehlo abukhali , nekufuneka ngokomthetho walapha sithi xa sibonakele sixelwe kwisebe lolimo elikhulu (NDA) . Likhona igqiza olonyulwayo ukuqinisekisa ukunqumama kwesi sifo . Laseka imithetho yokuxilonga yonke imbewu yengqolowa , naleyo ithengiswayo ukuba ayisulelekanga na . Eli gqiza liphinda lilawule futhi ukuphuma nokungena kwayo . Amaqondo aphezulu avumelana nesisifo 16-23 c , amaqondo aphantsi 7-11 c , ubumanzi obuphezulu bosuku obungaphezu kwe 70% , ubumanzi obuncinci yi bube yi 48% . Imvula kufuneka kumana kuthathwa umlinganiselo wayo . Impawu zaso kukosuleleka kwamakhozo athi abemnyama , aqhekeke akhuphe ivumba elibi (Fig 26) . Izihlahla ezichaphazelekileyo zithi imithwalo le ikhukhumale iqhekeke . Kunzima ukuqwalasela esi sifo entsimini ngenxa yoba asibulali sityalo sonke . Siye ke kusetyenziswe imitshini ethile yokubona izinto ezincinci ze emva koko kuthathwe amanyathelo . Ukulawula esi sifo abavelisi mabasebenzise imbewu ezivunyiweyo . Kuyacetyiswa futhi ukuba bayinxuze imbewu phambi koba batyale kwi Anchor Red (carboxin) nekwaziyo ukutshabalalisa amaqanda aphantsi kweqweqwe lekhozo . Apho ke sithe sabonakala ukuba siso makukhwijwe nge Triticonazole (Tilt okanye Bumper) . Ukukhwijwa kokuqala makwenziwexa xa isityalo sisandubekela ze kuphinde kukhwijwe emva kwentsuku ezilishumi . Olu hlobo lokukhwija lusetyenziswa ngabavelisi bengingqi ye Douglas ukuthoba izinga lesi sifo . Amayeza ewodwa awonelanga ukulawula esi sifo nezinye Indlela zibalulekile . Uphando ludiza ukuba esisifo siyabaxeka apho kugalelwa initrogen eninzi , izityalo ezixineneyo , nokutyala kade . Makwahlulwe ukugalelwa kwenitrogen kunokuba ifakwe ngexesha elinye kuba eli licebo lokuthoba esi sifo . Ukutshintsha izityalo kucetyiswa ngamandla . Ukuvalwa kwendawo ezinesisifo ukukhusela ukwanda kwesisifo ( quarantine) .

Figure 26: Karnal Bunt


Izifo Ezixhaphake eNtshona Koloni Eyespot Esi sifo senzeka emazantsi entonga kwisityalo sengqolowa . Uchaphazeleko kwenza isityalo okanye idiza lingabinamandla ze izityalo zitshabalale phambi kokuvuna . Ukuvumbuluka kwesi sifo kukwingingqi ezinemvula eninzi zase Koeberg ne Swartland . Kwingingqi ye Ruens asixhaphakanga esi sifo . Ngaphandle nje kwengqolowa , iBromus neHordeum zezinye zezityalo ezinceda esi sifo siqale sigqibe ubomi baso (lifecycle) . Ukutshintsha izityalo , namayeza kuyanceda ukunciphisa ukuvumbuluka kwesi sifo .

Ukhula nokulawulwa kwalo Ukhula kukuntshula kwesityalo kwindawo esingacwangciselwanga yona , okanye apho singafuneki khona . Umzekelo xa kutyalwe ingqolowa emasimini ze kubekho nesithombo sombona , esi sombona silukhula kuba besingafuneki kulontsimi .

Impawu zokhula (a) Ukhula lwanda ngokukhawuleza, (b) Ukhula luyazingisa xa litshatyalaliswa libulawa , ukhula luyakwazi ukubuna lungakhuli , lizimele ukusuka kwiminyaka . (d)Ukhula luqinile lomelele luyakwazi ukumelana nesimo sezulu esitshintshayo . (e) Ukhula luyakwazi ukuzifanisa nezinye izityalo ntoleyo yenza kubenzima ukuzahlula . (f) Ukhula luyavelisa ngokuthi kudibane ubufazi nobudoda , ukanti liyakwazi nokuvelisa ngaphandle kobudoda .nobufazi (sexual and asexual )

Iziphumo ezibi zokhula (a) Ukhula lukhuphisana nezityalo ngezondlo ezifana namanzi , ilanga negwane . (b) Ukhula lunciphisa umgangatho nobuninzi bemveliso yasefama . (c) Ukhula lugcina izifo nezinambuzane (d) Ukhula lunyusa indleko zabasebenzi nematshini . (e) Ukhula luyalithoba izinga lomhlaba . (f) Amanye amakhula ayityhefu eyingozi ebantwini nakwizilwanyana xa zithe zazitya . (g) Ukhula olukhula emanzini luphazamisa ukuhamba kwamanzi kophayiphi bonkcenkcesho , ezidreyinini , lubeyingozi kwindalo yasemanzini , umzekelo iintlanzi . (h) Ukhula luphazamisana nolonwabo lendalo yasemanzini . (i) Ukhula lukhula kumhlaba omkhulu obekufanele usetyenziswe ukuvelisa . (j) Ukhula luyakhawuleza ukukhula de lodlule nesityalo esi sityaliweyo .

Iziphumo ezilungileyo zokhula (a) Olunye ukhula lusetyenziswa njengamayeza . (b) Olunye lusetyenziswa xa kuveliswa . (c) Ukhula luyasetyenziswa njengokutya kwizilwanyana nasebantwini . (d) Amanye amakhula ayasetyenziswa ukubiya . (e) Ukhula xa lithe lalinyelwa ngaphantsi longeza ubungovungovu bomhlaba utsho utyebe . (f) Ukhula luyabekwa phezu komhlaba ukukhusela ilahleko yamanzi njenge gas eya esibhakabhakeni . (g) Amanye amakhula agcina i gas eyinitrogen kuwo . (h) Ukhula liyingubo eyambathisa nekhusela umhlaba kukhukuliseko lomhlaba , nomoya .

Ukwahlula hlulwa kwentlobo zamakhula . Ukhula lungohlulwa ngezindlela zilandelayo . (a) Kukho olumile ngohlobo uthi xa uliqhekeza kuvele icala elinye ( monocotyledons) , kubekho othi xa uliqhekeza kuvele amacala amabini ( dicotyledons) . (b) Lukhona olo ukhula luthi luphile unyaka omnye , olunye iminyaka emibini , olunye luphila okokoko , olunye ithuba elincinci kakhulu . (c) Lukhona oluxhomekeka kwezinye ukuze luphile (parasite) lubekhona oluzenzelayo ukutya . (d) Kubekho oluhlala emhlabeni . (e) Kubekho olumila emhlabeni kuphela . (f) Kubekho olukhuphisana nezityalo lusincukuthe . (g) Kubekho olokuhombisa . (h) Kubekho olo amagqabi afayo unyaka lo wonke kodwa ingcambu zibe zisaphila , kubekho olo luqinileyo .


Izifundo ngokhula (a) Ukhula luyanda ngokudibana kwembewu yobufazi nobudoda (sexually) , luyanda ngokunaba ze apho ilungu lidibane khona nomhlaba kukhule ingcambu (stolon) , luyanda ngentonga enengcambu namagqabi (rhizomes ) , luyanda ngamagaqa a-round ngaphantsi komhlaba oku kufana netswele( bulb ) , kubekho olungathi zitapile (tubers) . (b)Ukukhula kokhula nokuzilungiselela .

Ukulala/ Ukungantshuli Imbewu zokhula njengezezityalo zinecebo lokulala zingantshuli xa imeko zingavumelani nazo . Kodwa ke xa ukhula luthe lwalala akhona amayeza okuliqhekeza nezinye ke Indlela . Ukulala kuxelwa njengendlela yokungantshuli kwembewu ngenxa yesimo sangaphakathi nesangaphandle apho embewini . Isimo sangaphakathi zincindi namayeza . Isimo sangaphandle ngamanzi , amaqondo ezulu , ubushushu ne oxygen . Intlobo zokulala /zokungantshuli (a) Xa imbewu ingakwazi ukuntshula ngenxa yokungabinamandla , ayinaziniki mandla kuyo ngaphakathi . (b) Xa imbewu ingakwazi ukuntshula ngenxa yendlela ephatheka ngayo emva koba ivuniwe . (c) Xa imbewu ingakwazi ukuntshula ngenxa yokuba iye yanyanzelwa yabekwa kwimeko ezingavumelani nokuntshula kwayo .

Izigaba zokuntshula (a) Ukufunxa amanzi – kuba ikhozo lembewu lomile lithi xa lityalwe kwindawo emanzi litsale amanzi ade abe kumyinge we 40% kuyo ngaphakathi . (b)Ukuvuka kwencindi okanye iziniki mandla – xa imbewu iwatsalile amanzi awoneleyo , ezincindi okanye izinikimandla ezingaphakathi kwimbewu zivuke zisebenze . (c) Ukuhanjiswa kwamandla – Kuthi kubekho amandla amandla atyhutyha imbewu apha ngaphakathi khonukuze ilungele ukuntshula . (d) Ukuntshula kwembewu Ukukhula kokhula kukhawuleza kangangokuba kogqitha isityalo . Imbewu yokhula iphenjelelwa koku (a) Bubuninzi bembewu yokhula emhlabeni . (b) Xa imbewu yokhula isuka kwenye ingingqi iye kewnye . (c) Xa imbewu yesityalo ithe yonganyelwa yimbewu yokhula , ngalo ndlela ukhula luyanda (d) Kubakho ilahleko ngenxa yentaka , impuku , imbovane , nokubola kwembewu emhlabeni . Indlela elinwenwa ngayo ukhula (a) Xa imbewu zithe zaxubana , umzekelo xa sithe sityala imbewu yombona kanti ithe yaxubana nekhozo le lucern . (b) Xa lisemgqubeni kanti alibolisiswanga ngokwaneleyo . (c)Luyasasazeka ngomoya namanzi . (d) Luyasasazwa zintaka , izilwanyana , nabantu . (e) Luyasasazwa ngamanzi onkcekcesho nawe drain . (f) Lusasazeka ngodaka nangelindle .

Indlela zokubulala ukhula (a)Ungasebenzisa amagaba , isikofolo , iyerha , imower , okanye ulitsale ngesandla . (b) Ukutshintshanisa izityalo ukulwa ukhula oluthile oluqhelene neso sityalo , ukugalela igwane khonukuze isityalo sikhawuleze ukukhula silishiye ukhula , ukutyala kwangethuba ikhula lingekayongameli indima , ukulitshisa , ukulikhukulisa , ukuligquma . (c) Ukusebenzisa izilo nezilwanyana ezithi zilitye zilitshabalalise ukhula . (d) Ukusebenzisa amayeza ukulwa ukhula . Lamayeza ahlulwa ngoluhlobo .

- Indlela yokulifaka (egqabini okanye emhlabeni ) . - Indlela iyeza elihlasela ngayo isityalo (eli yeza lisibulala isityalo xa lithe ladibana naso ngokonangoko na

okanye lithatha ixesha ukubulala ) . - Ixesha lokufaka eliyeza (phambi kotyala okanye emva kotyala) . - Lifakwa phambi koba ukhula luntshule na . - Eliyeza liqulathe ntoni le ilenza libenamandla (amanye aqulathe icarbonate , urs – trazine , amides ,

phenoxy acid . - Indlela elihlasela ngayo okanye yindawuni le liyifunayo esityalweni . 47


Ukufunxwa kweyeza sisityalo - Lithi life ukhula xa lithe ukhula latsala iyeza ngamagqabi ‘. - Lithi life ukhula xa lithe iyeza langena esityalweni ze iyeza lityhutyhe isityalo sonke ukusukela egqabini

ukuya ezingcanjini - Lithi life ukhula xa lithe iyeza langena ngentunja ezincinci ezisentongeni okanye exolweni (stomata) ,

kodwa xa komile intunja ziyavala iyeza lingakwazi ukungena lide lome . - La mayeza adutyelwayo ayakhawuleza ukungena esityalweni ngaphezu kwalawo aqinileyo afuna ude

uwamanzise ukuze asebenze . - Xa iyeza lithe latsalwa zingcambu ze ukufa kwengcambu kuthi kufe isityalo sonke . Lifakwa ngokuthi

lilinyelwe emhlabeni ze ngemvula okanye unkcenkcesho lihle liye ezinjanjini , okanye kutofwe phaya ezantsi buphantsi komhlaba ezingcanjini .

Ukuhamba kweyeza kwisityalo - Lihamba ngomongo wegqabi ukusuka egqabini ukuya kwamanye amalungu . ukuba lifakwe kakhulu lingalibulala igqabi . Ukanti lifakwa emhlabeni lithi linyuke nezinongo ukuya esityalweni . - Ukufika kwalo kwingcambu lithi linyuke isityalo sonke . (a) Indlela ezimile ngayo ezi zityalo kuthiwa ( zidicots ) yenza iyeza lisebenze kakuhle kuzo . - Amagqabi ezityalo ezifana nengqolowa enza iyeza libenobunzima ukusebenza . - Ezo zinamagqabi amakhulu enza kubelula ukusebenza kweyeza . - Ukuqina kwexolo eyeza - Ubukhulu nobuninzi bentunja . - Ubunjani begqabi , ubukhulu nobungakanani , limtyibilizi na okanye linoboya . (b) Indlela ezenzeka ngayo izinto kwihlobo lesityalo ngasinye yenza kubenzima ukuba kusebenze uhlobo olunye leyeza . - Esinye isityalo siyakwazi ukuwaphelisa amandla eyeza ngelixesha lisebenza kwesinye isityalo . - Ukusebenza kwezoncindi kwenza ityhefu . Imixube (a) Elingamanzi . (b) Elinamagaqa eliphelelwa kade . (c) Elingumgubo Izinto ezichaphazela ukusebenza kweyeza (a) Isimo sezulu – Ubushushu benza iyeza lingene esityalweni . - Relative humidity – low HR reduce permeability of herbicide . - High HR increases permeability . - High temperature and low HR increase cuticle layer making penetration is slow .

- Ukukhanya kuvula intunja kukhuthaze i ( photosynthesis ) ethi ikhuthaze ukuhamba kweyeza kumongo wesityalo .

- Imvula yongeza amanzi kwisityalo , kanjalo nobumanzi begqabi buyenyuka . (b) Imeko yomhlaba – Ukugcinwa kweyeza ngumhlaba kuxhomekeke koku - Kubuninzi nohlobo lomhlaba . - Idongwe nemihlaba engovongovo ifuna kugalelwe iyeza elininzi . - Amaqondo omhlaba nobumanzi buyakuchaphazela ukumka kweyeza njenge gas (volatization) . Ukulahleka kweyeza elifakiweyo - Ukumka kweyeza njenge gas (volatisation ) - Ubushushu obugqithileyo bulithoba amandla . - Unkcenkcesho namanzi lubhetele ukuhambisa iyeza kunokusebenzisa imatshini zokulima .

Ezona zigaba zezityalo nekufuneka kutshalaliswe ngalo ukhula. Elona xesha linzima kuxa izithole zincinci kuba ziyabulawa likhula elininzi ngelithuba . Noko ke xa zithe izityalo zalishiya zalongamela ukhula kuye kungabikho kuxhalaba kungako . Amanqanaba okomelela kwesityalo nokukhuphisano nokhula . (a) Uhlobo lwesityalo – kufuneka ukhethe uhlobo lwesityalo esimelanayo nemeko zengingqi , umhlaba , amanzi , nesimosezulu . Makukhethwe uhlobo lesityalo esomeleleyo . (b) Ukulima – kulinywa nini , kangaphi , nzulu kangakanani na .


(c) Imvula - ubuninzi bemvula nokuthi ifika xeshanini inenxaxheba kwisityalo . Xa imvula ininzi isityalo siyakhawuleza ukukhula . (d) Ubumuncu bomhlaba nabo bunenxaxheba . (e) Imbewu eninzi nexineneyo iyalidobelela ukhula . (f) Ixesha lokutyala xa kuthe kwatyalwa msinyane sithi isityalo sintshule msinyane silushiye ukhula ngasemva . Ukhula lulawulwa ngokusebenzisa la mayeza anje nge Topic esetyenziswa kwioats , Glean ne Brush off kukhula olunamagqabi amakhulu , elinye yi Servian . Maninzi ke lamayeza ngokohluka kwabenzi bawo . Into encangathi ingasetyenziswa ukuqinisekisa amachaphaza eyeza ahlala kanye emagqabini . Imiyalelo yokuxutywa kweyeza mayilandelwe . Nexesha elifakwa ngalo iyeza kuba ukhula oluncinci lufa msinya kunolo ludala .

Ukhula oluyingxaki kwingqolowa

Chenopodium spp Portulaca oleraceae

Buckwheat Avena fatua

Ukuvuna Ingqolowa ivuthwa kwintsuku ezingamashumi amathathu emva kokudubula . Ngelixesha sube amagqabi nentonga sele ziyeka ukuba luhlaza ngebala zibe golide bumthubi . Ngeli xesha makuqinisekiswe ukuba yomile ngokwaneleyo , izovuneka kakuhle ze iphinde ipakishwe kakuhle . Ukuma kokhozo kuko okuzakuxelela okanye kubonise ukuba ixesha lokuba ivunwe lifikile . Zikhona ke indlela zangoku zokujonga ubumanzi bekhozo . Umtshini wengqolowa uye usetyenziswe ukuvuna ngakumbi kumafama amakhulu ( Fig 27) . Lawo mancinci amafama athi ayisike ngezandla . Izinto emazithathelwe ingqalelo bubumanzi bekhozo , mayingaqhekeki , makucocwe imatshini


Figure 27: Umatshini wokuvuna nokusika ingqolowa

Isivuno Kubalulekile ukuba uzenzele umgomo wokuba uzakuvelisa isivuno esingakanani , ujonge zonke izinto onazo . Ukukhetha imbewu , ukufakwa kwegwane , amayeza okubulala ukhula , ukucwangcisa imali nezinye izicwangciso zokuphatha okanye ukukhokela . Umgomo ungazenzela ngoluhlobo lulandelayo (a) Amava – Yiba namava okwenyusa eso sivuno sigqithileyo singasoloko sime ndawonye . (b) Amanzi – Akhona na amanzi awoneleleyo okanye qonda isimo semvula ngethuba utyalile . (c) Ingozi – Qonda ingozi ezinothi zihle ngelithuba utyalile . (d) Inzuzo ke iza emva kokuzincama ungene engozini kodwa qiniseka yingozi eza nenzuzo ekugqibeleni . (e) Yilumkele imigomo eza nengozi enkulu kakhulu . Indlela zokujonga isivuno (a) Inani lezityalo kwihactare nganye . (b) Inani lentloko kwisityalo ngasinye . (c) inani lamakhozo kwintloko nganye . (d) Ubunzima bekhozo . 52


7. Ukugcinwa Nokuthengiswa

Ukugcinwa Isivuno masivunwe xa sele sigqibile ukukhula , sivuthiwe , soma ngokwaneleyo , sibekwe khuselekileyo kumonakalo we rhorho ekuthiwa yingogwane side siyokuthengiswa . isivuno masibekwe endaweni eyomileyo , epholileyo necocekileyo . Xa isivuno sithe soma sabekwa ekupholeni , ekomeni, namabhabhathane awabikho . Oku kulandelayo makuthathelwe ingqalelo xa kugcinwa ingqolowa (a) Engekalungi okanye eyonakeleyo ingqolowa mayingagcinwa kakhulu . Mayivunwe xa ivuthiwe . (b) Eqhekezwe ngumatshini okanye yaqhekeka ngethuba ivunwa iphelela esitorini . (c) Amakhozo mawomiswe kakuhle phambi koba agcinwe yaye akhuselwe ebumanzini nasekufumeni . (d) Ubushushu benza umonakalo , izindlu zokugcina mazenziwe ngendlela ezobandisa ngokwaneleyo . (e) Impuku namabuzi zingenza intshabalalo enkulu kwisivuno . Makubekho izicwangciso zokulwa nezizilwanyana . (f) Amabhabhathane mawabulawe ngamayeza neziqhumiso ezithile . IPhostoxin lelona likhuselekileyo , kuba imethyl bromide ingasichaphazela isivuno . (g) Indawo yokugcina mayilawulwe ibenomoya . (h) Ukuba kukho ukuqhambuka kwamabhabhathane mawaxelwe kwabasemagunyeni .


Figure 28: Amatanki esamente enzelwe ukugcina isivuno sengqolowa

Amafama amancinci asebenzisa indawo zokugcina ezingagqibelelanga ukukhusela isivuno emvuleni okanye ukufuma namabhabhathane . Zikhona indawo zokugcina kodwa makudityanwe nengcali zicebise . Izakhiwo zamazinki nesamente zizo ezisetyenziswayo (Fig 28) .

Ukuthengisa Ukukhetha/Grading Eyona njongo iphambili yokukhetha kukukhetha umgangatho nezinga lengqolowa . Ingqolowa enye ngokomgangatho nezinga ibekwa ndawonye . Umgangatho ujongwa ngokwembewu , yiyo ebonisa ukuba ilungele ukubhaka okanye isetyenziswe kwenye into . Ukukhetha kuko okubonakalisa umgangatho ngoba xa isemgangathweni kubonakala ngobuninzi bomgubo wokuxova othengiswayo ofumaneka kwingqolowa Zindlela zintathu zokukhetha ingqolowa , ubunzima bayo xa yomile , ukuba iqulathe izakha mzimba ezingakanani na(protein), nefalling number . Ungazijonga nezinye izinto ezinothoba umgangatho ezinje ngokonakaliswa yiqabaka , ukungunda , ukungavuthwa , ubushushu , umonakalo wamabhabhathane . Umfama angayithengisa naphi na apho afuna khona nokuba kungamalini okanye bavumelane ngomlomo okanye ngento ebhaliweyo .

Izibhambathiso okanye ukuthengisa ngqo Ingqolowa ingathengiswa ngezibhambathiso okanye kwinkampani nakubasili . Xa usenza isibhambathiso niyavumelana nomthengi kwaphambi kokutyala ngexabiso nenani enizakuthengiselana ngalo . Olunye uhlobo xa ulima ze uthengise emva koba uvunile .

Ukuyithengisa emva kokuyigcina Ingqolowa ungayigcina ze uyithengise emva kwexesha elithile apho amaxabiso akuba ephezulu kodwa kufuneka ubenendawo elungileyo yokugcina .

Ixabiso Ixabiso lengqolowa eMzantsi Afrika luyafana nelezizwe ngezizwe . Eyona nto idlala inxhaxheba kakhulu kukuba inqabe kangakanani na .


Isindululo Kuyacetyiswa ukuba umfama athengise isahlulo sesivuno sakhe ngesibhambathiso ngqo kwinkampani nabasili , ingxenye igcinwe ze ithengiswe emva kwexesha . Kodwa kuxhomekeke kumfama ukuba unazo na indawo zokugcina , nemali kuba konke kufuna imali . Ulwazi oluthe oluphangaleleyo , nceda unxibelelane ngaledilesi:

Agricultural Research Council Small Grain Institute Private Bag X29 Bethlehem 9700 Umnxeba : 058 307 3400

8.Olunye Ulwazi olubalulekileyo

A. Abantu abazingcaphephe

NAME SPECIALITY PLACE TEL/CELLPHONE

W.H. Kilian Plant Nutrition Bethlehem (058) 307-3498

J.P. Tolmay Soil Tillage Bethlehem (058) 307-3422

T. Terefe Disease Control Bethlehem (058) 307-3440

A. Barnard Crop Physiology Bethlehem (058) 307-3411

C. Miles Quality laboratory Bethlehem (058) 307-3414

L. Visser Soil laboratory

Bethlehem (058) 307-3401

W. Lemmer Marketing Grain SA Bothaville (056) 515-0922

A. Malan Plant Breeding Bethlehem (058) 307-3430

S. Msibi Agricultural Information Pretoria (012) 319-6380

G. Prinsloo Pest Control Bethlehem (058)307-3435

(058) 307-3435

General Inquiries

Silverton - ARC (012) 842-4017

NAME SPECIALITY PLACE TEL/CELLPHONE


B. Ukuseta (a) Ukuseta iplanta yokutyala ingqola

Step 1 – Hitch a planter to the three-point linkage of a tractor squarely. Look for a flat clean ground without obstructions. Lift the planter from the ground using hydraulic system to the sufficient height that can allow you to move the driving wheel freely and put the containers below the furrow opener. Step 2 – Measure the circumference of the driving wheel. Decide the distance that you want to use for calibration, more often 50 meters is used. Then divide 50 metres by the circumference of the wheel to get the number of revolutions that wheel will travel to cover 50 metres. Step 3 – Measure the width of the planter that is going to be used. Multiply the width by 50 metres to get an area where seed would be planted. Then calculate the amount of seed that has to be applied on this area as per recommendations from production guidelines. Step 4 – Put wheat seed into the seed hopper and try to spread it evenly along the length of the hopper. Fastern the plastic bags on the furrow opener where seed is dropped during planting. Open the aperture of the seed hopper where the seed is regulated using the graduations provided. Select mark that you think when chosen, seed that would go through the aperture would deliver the amount of seed that is close to what you require. Turn the driving wheel, the number of times that would cover 50 meters. Maintain constant speed when turning the wheel. Step 5 – Remove plastic bags that are now containing seed, weigh seed in each plastic bag separately. Ensure that the amount of seed in each plastic bag is the same, otherwise adjust the aperture of seed to deliver similar amount. If the total amount of seed from all plastic bags is lower than the recommended rate, increase the aperture on the seed hopper to allow more seed to go through. But if the amount of seed going through is high, it reduces aperture size. This has to be repeated several times until the correct rate is obtained by adjusting aperture size. For example:

Distance is 50 metres Circumference of driving wheel is 1.5 metres Width of planter is 3 metres Six row planter Row spacing is 50 cm Seed rate per hectre is 25 kg (25000 g) No of revolutions = 50 metres

1.5 metres = 33.3 revolutions (turns) Area to be tested on

50 m x 3 m = 150 m2

Amount that has to be delivered on an area of 150m2

= 150 m2 x 25000 g 10 000 m2

= 375 g of seed should be from six rows of planter So from each row, an amount of 62.5 g should be delivered to apply 25 kg or 25 000 g.

(b) Ukuseta kwesikhwiji Calibration of a boom sprayer

Step 1 = The boom sprayer has a pamphlet which shows the speed at which the tractor has to travel and the pressure at which the liquid in the sprayer tank has to be discharged. Step 2 = Measure a distance of 50 metres on the level ground. Time the sprayer over the measured distance. Step 3 = Determine the delivering capacity of the boom for the same time by adding the volumes for all the nozzles together. Water from a single nozzle


sprayer is collected directly in to measuring cylinder. Step 4 = Determine the spray width of a tractor sprayer by measuring the distance of the wet soil underneath boom. Multiply the spray width with the measured distance to get an area in m2. Step 5 = Divide area into 100 000 m2 to get a factor. Multiply the volume collected in the measuring cylinder with a factor to determine the delivering capacity of the sprayer on a hectare. Step 6 = The following information is necessary to determine the amount of pesticides that must be mixed in the tank filled with water: Amount of water that should be used to mix the pesticides. The recommended rate of pesticide as per label The delivering capacity of the sprayer on hectare. Amount of pesticide to be applied = (Amount of water x Amount of pesticides in litre / ha) Delivering capacity of the sprayer / 1 ha

D. Amagama axhaphakileyo (kuquka namagama elwimi asetyenziswa ngabantu abohlukeneyo eMzantsi Afrika) . ILWIMI Igama

ISINGESI WHEAT

ISISUTHU KORO

ISIZULU KOLO

ISIXHOSA NGQOLOWA

ISIBHULU KORING

E. Amazinga emveliso negingqi ezivelisa ingqolowa eMzantsi Afrika Province 2000-2001 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006

Tons

Werstern Cape 691 000 804 100 NS NS NS

Northern Cape 324 800 270 000 NS NS NS

Free State 908 000 1 035 000 NS NS NS

Eastern Cape 14 500 9 280 NS NS NS

Kwazulu Natal 43 700 50 600 NS NS NS

Mpumalanga 102 600 102 500 NS NS NS

Limpopo 75 000 46 500 NS NS NS

Gauteng 18 000 13 200 NS NS NS

North West 171 550 161 700 NS NS NS

Total 2 348 550 2 492 880 1 540 000 1 680 000 1 905 000

Note: * Ns: Not specified Source: CE


F. Ukuveliswa kwengqolowa lihlabathi (t/ha)

1961-1969 1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999 2000-2004

World 1.141 1.86 2.37 2.84 3.02

Africa 0.93 1.10 1.45 1.96 2.18

Asia N/A N/A N/A 2.15 2.87

Europe N/A N/A N/A 2.86 3.81

North & Central

America

1.86 2.26 2.49 2.79 2.88

Oceania 1.36 1.44 1.86 2.31 2.42

South America 1.40 1.42 1.86 2.31 2.42

South Africa 0.71 1.03 1.36 2.01 2.61

South Africa as

a % of World

50.3 55.4 57.4 70.8 86.4

arc-small grain institute | 1...arc-small grain institute | 3 isivumo ... emzantsi afrika ize no jan...

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