МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

Государственное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования -

«Оренбургский государственный университет»

Кафедра английского языка естественнонаучных и инженерно-технических специальностей

И. В. ЗАЙЦЕВА

ARCHITECTURE

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ

Рекомендовано к изданию Редакционно-издательским советом государственным образовательным учреждением высшего профессионального образования -

«Оренбургский государственный университет»

Оренбург 2003

ББК 81.2 Англ. (07) З-17

УДК802.0:72 я 73

Рецензент

кандидат филологических наук, доцент Н. С. Сахарова

Зайцева И. В. Architecture: Методические указания по английскому языку. – Оренбург: ГОУ ОГУ, 2003 – 76 с.

З 17

Методические указания представляют подборку текстов по теме «Архитектура» и систему упражнений к ним. Они предназначены для студентов 2 курса по специальности «Архитектура» архитектурно-строительного факультета. Все упражнения рассчитаны на развитие речевых навыков и умений и способствуют достижению основных целей обучения иностранному языку студентов неязыковых специальностей.

ББК 81.2 Англ(07)

© Зайцева И. В., 2003

© ГОУ ОГУ, 2003

Введение

Данные методические указания предназначены для студентов 2 курса по специальности «Архитектура» архитектурно-строительного факультета.

Цель методических указаний – расширение лексического запаса, развитие навыков и умений чтения и перевода научно-технической литературы по специальности, развитие коммуникативных навыков.

Методические указания состоят из 7 разделов. Шесть разделов имеют идентичную структуру. Они включают тексты по теме, которые обеспечены системой предтекстовых и послетекстовых упражнений. В 7 разделе даны термины по теме «Архитектура».

1 Unit 1 Architecture and the Architect 1.1 Pretext exercises 1.1.1 Warming-up

1) What do you think the word "architecture" means? 2) Why did you make up your mind to become an architect? 3) What can you say about the role of an architect in civilized society?

1.1.2 Read the words. Pay attention to the letters in italics

[a:] are, art, architect, architecture, part, landmark, advanced [æ] man, has, practical, natural, characteristic, adaptability, activity, contracted, plan,

landscape, axis, aspect, many [):] almost, all, also, hall, fall, wall, alter, water [ei] preparation, regulate, nature, placement, space, range, shape, basic, train against,

may, way

1.1.3 Read the following words. Mind their meaning

temple храм requirement требование permanence прочность suitability соответствие adaptability приспособляемость benefit выгода, польза settled устойчивый, постоянный prerequisite предпосылка experience опыт, квалификация expressive выразительный environment окружающая среда particular определенный, особенный condition условие utility полезность, выгодность relative относительный concern забота, дело, отношение defense защита equal равный

1.1.4 Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms. to build (built; built) строить to employ (-ed;-ed) применять to fulfil (-ed;-ed) выполнять to confine (-ed;-ed) ограничивать, обрекать, заключать

to distinguish (-ed;-ed) различать to vary (-ed;-ed) изменяться to meet (-met;-met) встречать to possess (-ed;-ed) обладать, владеть to develop (-ed;-ed) развивать

1.1.5 Find proper Russian words with the same roots as the following English words: architecture, design, structure, ensemble, aesthetic, function, criteria, principle, practical, civilized, technique, culture, primitive, element, natural, human, symbol, institution, characteristics, activity, stability, construction, communication, form, idea, constant, social 1.1.6 Choose the proper English word: 1) применять a) to design b) to employ c) to possess 2) требование a) science b) criteria c) requirement 3) опыт a) art b) experience c) society 4) выполнить a) to fulfil b) to work c) to build 5) прочность a) struggle b) activity c) permanence 6) храм a) tomb b) temple c)church 7) особенный a) particular b) expressive c) equal 8) выгода a) utility b) defense c) benefit 9) окружающая среда a) man-made b) environment c) development 10) дело a) concern b) institution c) function

1.1.7 Find the English equivalents for the following Russian words:

A ограничивать; предпосылка; различать; устойчивый; соответствие; изменяться; защита; развивать; полезность; приспособляемость; обладать; условие; выразительный; равный В to vary; adaptability; equal; to confine; utility; to possess; prerequisite; condition; to distinguish; expressive; suitability; settled; to develop; defense

1.1.8 Form all possible word-combinations: A practical B society functional struggle natural requirements primitive activities expressive environment civilized importance settled criteria man-made people human function equal structures

1.1.9 Read the following word combinations and translate them into Russian: art of designing and building; according to aesthetic criteria; to build in accordance with such principles; to fulfil the requirements; every settled society; in all but the simplest cultures; defense against environment; a symbol of development; other man-made structures; adaptability to particular human activities; permanence of the work's construction; the communication of experience and ideas through its forms; relative importance; minor importance; equal importance

1.2 Read the text. Give your reasons that architecture has many functions Text 1A Architecture

Architecture is the temple of life. G.K. Muennig

Architecture is the art and science of designing and building structures, or

ensembles according to aesthetic and functional criteria. Structures built in accordance with such principles are also architecture.

Architecture is employed to fulfil the practical and expressive requirements of civilized people. Almost every settled society that possesses techniques for building produces architecture. It is necessary in all but the simpliest cultures; without it, man is confined to a primitive struggle with the elements; with it, he has not only a defense against the natural environment but also the benefits of a human environment, a prerequisite for and a symbol of the development of civilized institutions.

The characteristics that distinguish a work of architecture from other man-made structures are (1) the suitability of the work to use by human beings in general and the adaptability of it to particular human activities; (2) the stability and permanence of the work's construction; and (3) the communication of experience and ideas through its forms.

All these conditions must be met in architecture. The second is a constant, while the first and the third vary in relative importance according to the social function of buildings. If the function is chiefly utilitarian, as in a factory, communication is of less importance. If the function of buildings. If the function is chiefly expressive, as in a monumental tomb, utility is a minor concern. In some buildings such as churches and city halls, utility and communication may be of equal importance.

1.3 Exercises to the text 1.3.1 Read the text again and find out if the following statements are true or

false: 1) Architecture should fulfil requirements of primitive people. 2) Without architecture, man is confined to a primitive struggle with the elements. 3) Structures should be built according to aesthetic and functional criteria. 4) There are no differences between a work of architecture and other man-made structures.

5) The stability and permanence of the work's construction is a constant for all types of buildings. 6) In a factory, utility and communication are of equal importance.

1.3.2 Complete the sentences:

1) Almost every settled society that possesses the technique for building produces… a) nature b) architecture c) struggle

2) Architecture is necessary in all but the simplest… a) techniques b) theories c) cultures

3) With architecture, man has a prerequisite for the development of civilized… a) importance b) institutions c) symbols

4) The stability and permanence of the work's construction is a… a) form b) function c) constant

5) If the function is chiefly utilitarian, communication is of less… a) importance

b) condition c) benefit

6) In a monumental tomb, utility is a minor… a) feature

b) experience c) concern

7) Utility and communication are equally important in churches and… a) markets

b) plants c) city halls

1.3.3 Find the passage describing the characteristic features of a work of

architecture and translate it into Russian

1.3.4 Read aloud the passage concerning the main aims of architecture

1.3.5 Answer the following questions in written form:

1) What is architecture? 2) What is architecture employed for? 3) Is architecture necessary in all settled societies?

4) What does architecture give for a man? 5) What are the main features that distinguish work of architecture from other man-made structures? 6) Which of them is a constant? 7) How do these characteristics vary?

1.3.6 These are the types of architecture. Give examples of each type. Use the words and word combinations given below: 1) Domestic Architecture 2) Religious Architecture 3) Governmental Architecture 4) Recreational Architecture 5) Architecture of Welfare and Education 6) Commercial and Industrial Architecture theatres; hospitals; guardhouses; capitols; schools; stores; prisons; parliament buildings; museums; court houses; villas; circuses; huts; banks; exhibition halls; sport facilities; factories; mines; churches; libraries; hotels; markets; publishing houses; post-offices; palaces; laboratories; cathedrals; restaurants; plants; temples

1.3.7 Summarize your knowledge of the question under consideration. Discuss it with your partner. Use the following plan: 1) Architecture as an art and science. 2) The main aim of architecture. 3) The life of a man with and without architecture. 4) The main characteristics of a work of architecture.

1.4 Read the text. Give your reason that the architect is an honorable profession

Text 1B

The Profession of an Architect

The architect creates order in the picturesque variety of nature

August Perret

The architect is a person trained and experienced in the design of buildings and the coordination and supervision of all aspects of the construction of buildings.

When the architect designs a structure, he uses the cumulative knowledge of centuries. Working to the architect's design are many consultant experts - structural engineers, services engineers and other sub-contracted specialists.

The architect function now extend into town planning and work activities that need buildings.

Town planning or urbanism is the preparation of plans for the regulated growth and improvement of towns or the organization of land and buildings for group living. It is a cooperative process in which architects, economists, engineers, lawyers, landscape architects, doctors, sociologists, surveyors or topographers and other specialists take part.

In town planning there are different street patterns : gridiron, radial, ring and functional ( or organic).

According to the International Union of Architect (IUA or UIA) at present there are more than 800.000 fully qualified architects in the world. In the highly developing countries there is one architect per two or three thousand people. In the developer countries there is only one architect per 500,000 or 1,000,000 people.

The architect's sphere of knowledge is constantly expanding. He has to combine art, advanced technology, science and economics in his work. The structure an architect creates should give us pleasure, sense of beauty.

The main problem facing the architect today is to avoid any conflict with nature and landmarks of by-gone days.

1.5 Exercises to the text 1.5.1 Complete the following sentences using the words given below:

1) According to August Perret the architect… order in the … variety of nature. 2) The architect is an expert experienced in the… of all aspects of the… of buildings. 3) The architect uses the cumulative … of centuries. 4) The architect should consult many experts such as structural engineers, services engineers, and other … specialists. 5) City planners … town and regulate their … . 6) There are different street … such as radial, ring or circular, functional and … . sub-contracted; improve; gridiron; creates; patterns; growth; construction; supervision; knowledge; picturesque

1.5.2 Replace the words and word combinations in italics (A) by their contextual synonyms (B): A 1) The architect is a person who designs buildings.

2) Town planning is the preparation of plans for the regulated growth and improvement of towns.

3) City design is the organization of land and buildings for group living. 4) The main problem for the architect today is to avoid any conflict with nature

and the landmarks of by-gone days. 5) The architect uses the cumulative knowledge of centuries. B man; schemes; nowadays; structures; environment; collective; urbanism; city; territory; design; development; basic; elaboration; modernization; old centuries; concern; architectural monuments

1.5.3 Answer the following questions:

1) What are the architect's functions? 2) What specialists help the architect to design structures? 3) What is town planning? 4) Why is urban design a cooperative process? 5) What street patterns are there in urbanism? 6) What specialists take part in town design? 7) How is the architect's sphere of knowledge expanding at present? 8) What is the main problem facing the architect today?

1.5.4 Speak on the topic: "I've chosen architecture as a career because…" Highlight at least 5 points which make profession so attractive.

1.6 Read the text using a dictionary. Give your reason that architect must possess the knowledge in different sciences

Text 1C

Architectural Planning

The architect usually begins to work when the site type and cost of a building have been determined.

Planning the environment. The natural environment is at once hindrance and a help, and the architect seeks both to invite its aid and to repel its attacks. To make building habitable and comfortable, he must control the effects of heat, cold, light, air, moisture, and dryness and foresee destructive potentialities such as fire, earthquake, flood, and disease.

The placement and form of buildings in relation to their sites, the distribution of spaces within buildings, and other planning devices discussed below are fundamental elements in the aesthetics of architecture.

Orientation. The arrangement of the axes of buildings and their parts is a device for controlling the effects of sun, wind, and rainfall.

Within buildings, the axis and placement of each space determine the amount of sun it receives. Orientation may control air for circulation and reduce the disadvantages of wind, rain, and snow.

The characteristics of the immediate environment also influence orientation: trees, land formation, and other buildings create shade and reduce or intensify wind, while bodies of water produce moisture and reflect the sun.

Architectural forms. Planning may control the environment by the design of architectural forms that may modify the effect of natural forces.

Colour. Colour has a practical planning function as well as expressive quality because of the range of its reflection and its absorption of solar rays. Since light colour reflect heat and dark colours adsorb it, the choice of materials and is an pigments is an effective tool of environmental control.

Materials and techniques. The choice of materials is conditioned by their own ability to withstand the environment as well as by properties that make them useful to human being. One of the architect's jobs is to find a successful solution to both conditions; to balance the physical and economic advantages of wood against the possibility of fire, termites, and mold, the weather resistance of glass and light metals against their high thermal conductivity, and many similar conflicts.

Interior control. The control of the environment through the design of the plan and the outer shell of a building cannot be complete since extremes of heat and cold, light, and sounds penetrate into the interior, where they can be further modified by the planning of spaces and by conditioning devices.

Temperature, light and sound are all subject to control by the size and shape of interior spaces, the way in which the spaces are connected, and the materials employed for floors, walls, ceilings, and furnishings.

Today, heating, insulation, air conditioning, lighting, and acoustical methods have become basic parts of the architectural program.

Planning for use. While environmental planning producer comfort for the senses (sight, feeling, hearing) and reflexes ( respiration), planning for use or function is concerned with convenience of movement and rest.

Differentiation. The number of functions requiring distinct kinds of space within a building depends not only upon the type of building but also upon the requirements of the culture and the habits and activities of the individual patrons. A primitive house has a single room with a hearth area, and a modern one has a separate areas for cooking, eating, sleeping, washing, storage, and recreation. A meeting-houses with a single hall is sufficient for Quaker religious services, while a Roman Catholic cathedral may require a nave, aisles, choir, apse, chapels, crypt, sacristy, and ambulatory.

Economic planning. Major expenses in buildings are for land, materials, and labour. In each case they are high when the commodity is scare and low when it is abundant, and they influence planning more directly when they become restrictive.

When land coverage is limited, it is usually necessary to design in height the space that otherwise would be planned in breadth and depth, as in the ancient Roman insula (apartment houses) or the modern skyscraper. When the choice of materials is influenced by cost, all phases of architectural design are affected, since the planning procedure, the technique, and the form of buildings are dependent on materials. High labour cost influence the choice of techniques and, consequently, of materials. Notes to the text:

hindrance помеха mold плесень nave неф aisle боковой неф apse апсида chapel часовня crypt склеп sacristy ризница ambulatory крытая галерея

1.6 Exercises to the text

1.6.1 Choose the right word:

1) The placement and form of buildings in relation to their… is one of the fundamental elements in the aesthetics of architecture.

a) square b) comfort c) sites

2) The arrangement of the buildings and their parts controls the effects of sun, wind and rainfall.

a) rooms b) axes c) spaces

3) The characteristics of the immediate … also influence orientation. a) environment b) territory c) building

4) Bodies of water produce … and reflect the sun. a) shade b) moisture c) wind

5) Colour has a practical planning … and expressive quality. a) choice b) feature c) function

6) Planning for use is concerned with convenience of … and rest. a) movement b) parts c) requirements

7) Major expenses in building are for …, materials, and labour. a) habits b) land c) phase 1.6.2 Complete the sentence:

1) The architect usually begins to work when … a) a project of a building has been made b) the site type and cost of a building have been determined c) the choice of materials has been made

2)The effect of sun, wind and rainfall are controlled by … a) the height of a building b) a esthetical usage of spaces c) the arrangements of the axes of buildings and their parts

3) The choice of materials and pigments is … a) an effective tool of environmental control b) a device for distribution of spaces c) not connected with the function of a building

4) Extremes of heat and cold, light and sounds … a) are regulated by fundamental elements of the aesthetics of architecture b) penetrate into the interior c) are of less importance for interior control

5) The number of functions depends not only upon the type of building but also upon… a) the site type b) the amount of sun it receives c) the requirements of the culture and the habits and activities of the individual

patrons

1.6.3 Replace the words and word combinations in italics (A) by their contextual synonyms (B): A 1) The natural environment is at once a hindrance and a help, and the architect seeks

both to invite its aid repel its attacks. 2) The architect must foresee destructive potentialities such as fire, earthquake, flood,

and disease. 3) The placement and form of buildings in relation to their sites, the distribution of

space within buildings, and other planning devices are fundamental elements in the aesthetics of architecture.

4) Orientation may control air for circulation and reduce the disadvantages of wind, rain, and snow.

5) Planning may control the environment by the design of architectural forms that may modify the effect of natural forces.

6) The choice of materials is conditioned by their own ability to withstand the environment as well as by properties that make them useful to human beings.

7) One of the architect's jobs is to find a successful solution to both conditions.

B to look for, to resist, to diminish, people, subversive, to vary, basic, a task

1.6.4 Answer the questions:

1) When does the architect begin to work on the project? 2) What are the main aspects of architectural planning? 3) What are the fundamental elements in the aesthetics of architecture? 4) What must the architect control to make buildings habitable and comfortable? 5) What is the planning for use concerned with? 6) What are the major expenses in building?

1.6.5 Give the English equivalents: отразить атаку; пригодный для жилья; расположение, положение; результаты воздействия солнца, ветра и дождя; создавать влажность и отражать солнце;

важное (эффективное) средство контроля; выбор материалов для строительства; способность противостоять воздействиям окружающей среды; отопление, изоляция, кондиционирование; боковой неф; склеп, ризница, часовня; расходы; влиять на выбор материалов; зависеть от требований заказчика

1.6.6 Speak on the different aspects of architectural planning: Environmental Design Materials and Techniques Aesthetic and Functional Criteria in Architecture Economics and Architectural Planning

1.7 Read the dialogue and perform the conversation in pairs. Think of your own dialogues A.: Could you please tell me about the architect's sphere of knowledge? B.: With great pleasure. Architects have to combine art, advanced technology, science

and economics in their work A.: What specialists help architects in their work? B.: Many sub-contracted experts take part in this cooperative process. A.: I see, thank you B.: don't mention it. 1.8 Audial practice 1.8.1 Listen to the text and render it either in English or in Russian

Text 1 D

Training of Architects in Russia

The architect's cradle in our country is the Moscow Institute of Architecture. It was established over 60 years ago. At that time it was the world's only higher educational establishment specializing in architecture. In fact it is much older than sixty. 60 years ago the institute acquired the name it has to date, but it had been operating since 1866. Then the architecture department was set up within the framework of the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. Now in our country many institutes train architects. The general trend of our architects is to improve scope and volume. At present there are about 40 thousand fully qualified architects in our country. Several thousand architects are the members of the Russia Architects Union.

2 Unit 2 History of Architecture: from Ancient Times to Gothic Art

2.1 Pretext exercises 2.1.1 Warming-up

1) What wonders of the world do you know? 2) What is the only remained wonder of the world? 3) Who is supposed to be the first named architect?

2.1.2 Read the words. Pay attention to the letters in italics

[ou] stone, most, post, Roman, noble, also, lotus, old, devote, progress [)] monument, column, symbolical, god, prosperous, blossom [):] more, corbel, cornice, border, order, court, fortress [u] wood, took, room [au] outstanding, throughout, power, without [ou] known, show, low, load [Λ] wonder, once, cover, some

2.1.3 Read the following words. Mind their meaning

craftsman ремесленник funerary погребальный, траурный post-and-lintel стоечно-балочная corbel vault ложный свод vaulting свод; возведение свода capital капитель steeply battered pylon сильно суженный кверху пилон incised relief резной рельефный орнамент feature черта, свойство; отличаться outstanding выдающийся spectacular эффектный, захватывающий large-scale крупномасштабный divinity божество prosperous процветающий excellence высокое качество, мастерство refinement усовершенствование durable прочный, долговечный blossoming расцвет encouragement поощрение mortuary погребальный pillar столб, колонна, пилон ramp скат, уклон, наклонная плоскость successor последователь, наследник

2.1.4 Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms

to draw(drew; drawn) тащить, тянуть;

приближать to achieve(-ed; -ed)

достигать to invent(-ed; -ed)

изобретать to remain(-ed; -ed)

оставаться to survive(-ed; -ed) выжить, уцелеть,

сохраниться to begin(began, begun)

начинать to erect(-ed; -ed)

воздвигать to cover(-ed; -ed)

покрывать to devote(-ed; -ed)

посвящать to take(took; taken) place

происходить to revive(-ed; -ed)

возрождать

2.1.5 Find proper Russian words with the same roots as the following English words:

Egypt, period, patronage, technique, metal, progress, massive, monument,

construction, arch, pyramids, column, cornice, characteristic, obelisk, symbolical, material, relief, colonnade, universal, traditional, style, elegant, gigantic

2.1.6 Choose the proper English word:

1) капитель a) vault b) colonnade c) capital

2) свойство a) feature b) divinity c) successor

3) крупномасштабный a) large-scale b) corbel vault c) incised relief

4) процветающий a) outstanding b) prosperous c) ancient

5) расцвет a) linking b) building c) blossoming

6) усовершенствование a) refinement b) wonder c) patronage

7) прочный a) tremendous b) durable c) great

8) свод a) construction b) arch c) vaulting 9) ремесленник a) artist b) craftsman c) architect 10) эффективный a) spectacular b) notable c)

gigantic

2.1.7 Find the English equivalents for the following Russian words:

A стоечно-балочная конструкция; поощрение; колонна; высокое мастерство; скат; сильно суженный кверху пилон; траурный; ложный свод; резной рельефный орнамент; воздвигать; божество; выдающийся; последователь; уцелеть; возрождать

B divinity; pillar; to revive; post-and-lintel construction; to survive; corbel vault; excellence; outstanding; ramp; encouragement; to erect; successor; incised relief; funerary; steeply; buttered pylon

2.1.8 Form all possible word combination:

A traditional B period ancient progress prosperous achievement spectacular monuments tremendous architecture great material large-scale building massive style durable temples

2.1.9 Read the following word combinations and translate them into Russian: the 3rd millenium B.C.; to work under the patronage of the King; tremendous

progress; the most outstanding achievements; massive funerary monuments; ancient Egyptian architecture; Old Kingdom; on the desert edge; the only remained wonder of the world; the world’s first large-scale monument in stone; the great gods of earth and sky; new level of excellence; less durable materials; great simplicity; new blossoming of arts and crafts; to give encouragement; great temples and palaces; the only woman-pharaoh; under the rule of; numerous temples of traditional style; slightly more elegant, less crushingly inhuman

2.2 Who doesn’t dream about travelling to Egypt? We think all the architects do. So let’s read the text and have a wonderful journey

Text 2A

Egyptian Architecture

The architecture of Egypt developed from the 3rd millennium B.C. to the Roman period. During this period artist and craftsmen were drawn to the court to work under the patronage of the King and his great nobles. Techniques of the working in stone, wood and metal made tremendous progress. The most outstanding achievements of this period are massive funerary monuments and temples build of stone for permanence, featuring only post-and lintel construction, corbel vaults without arches or vaulting, and pyramids. This architecture gave the world the earliest building in dressed stone, invented the column, capital and cornice. Features characteristic of the ancient Egyptian architecture also include the obelisk, the steeply battered pylon, the symbolical lotus column, and incised relief decoration without any structural relevance.

The pyramids of the Old Kingdom, majestically planted on the desert edge, are the most spectacular of all funerary works and the only remained wonder of the world. The world’s first large-scale monument in stone is Zoser’s necropolis at Sahara, built it 2766 B.C. by the Imhotep, the earliest named architect. These monuments celebrated the divinity of the kings of Egypt, linking the people with the great gods of earth and sky.

During the prosperous period know as the Middle Kingdom fortresses were built to defend the southern and eastern borders. Craftsmen achieved new levels of excellence. Very little architecture remains, but what has survived shows great simplicity and refinement, less durable materials were used. The example is the pyramid of Sesostris I at Lisht.

Great buildings began to be erected once again in the New Kingdom(1570-1085 B.C.), marking new blossoming of the arts and crafts of ancient Egypt. The kings gave encouragement to artists and craftsmen by ordering great temples and palaces to be built throughout Egypt. The temple walls were covered with reliefs celebrating the achievements of the kings and the power of the gods. The most notable monuments are the Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatsheput (the only woman –pharaoh) at Deir el Bahari, with its pillared halls, colonnades, and gigantic ramps connecting the different levels; the magnificent Great Temple at Karnak devoted to Amon as the universal god of Egypt.

The final revival took place under the rule of the Ptolemies, the successors of Alexander the great, who built numerous temples of traditional style but slightly more elegant and less crushingly inhuman. The finest examples that survive are the Temple of Horus at Eftu and the temples on the islands of Philae.

2.3 Exercise to the text

2.3.1Find the false sentences using the information from the text. Correct the false sentences:

1) Techniques of working in reinforced concrete made tremendous progress. 2) The architecture of Egypt gave the world the column, capital and cornice. 3) The world’s first large-scale monument in stone is the pyramid of Sesostris I

at Lisht. 4) Many architectural monuments of the Middle Kingdom can be seen

nowadays. 5) New blossoming of the arts and crafts of ancient Egypt began in the New

Kingdom. 6) The final revival took place under Alexander the Great.

2.3.2 Fill in the gaps with the words given below:

1) In ancient ... art of building only ... constructions were applied. 2) What the architecture of Egypt gave the ... the earliest buildings in ... ,

columns ... and cornice. 3) The pyramids of the Old Kingdom are the most ... of all ... works. 4) The world’s first ... monument is stone Zoser’s ... . 5) The most remarkable monument of the New Kingdom use colossal ...

linking the various ... . capitals; necropolis; post-and lintel; levels; ramps; world; dressed stone;

spectacular; Egyptian; large-scale; funerary.

2.3.3 Answer the following questions:

1) When did the old ancient Egyptian architecture develop? 2) Into what period could it be classified? 3) What typical structures did the architecture of Egypt produce? 4) What system of construction was used in Ancient Egypt? 5) What elements did this architecture invert? 6) What is the only remained wonder of the world? 7) Who was the earliest named architect? 8) How do the structures of the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms differ? 9) When did the final revival of ancient Egyptian architecture take place?

2.3.4 Find in the text and put down key words that can be used to speak about Egyptian architecture

2.3.5 Summarize your knowledge of the question under consideration.

Discuss it with your partner. Use exercise 2.3.3 as a plan

2.4 Read and translate the text using a dictionary

Text 2B

Ancient Greek Architecture

Commenting on the building of the Acropolis at Athens, Plutarch remarked: “They were created in a short time for all time. Each in its fineness was even then at once age-old; but in the freshness of its vigour it is, even to the present day, recent and newly made.” No better description of the aims and achievements of Greek architecture has ever been given.

The ambition of the ancient Greek architects was to discover eternally valid rules of form and proportion; to erect buildings human in scale yet suited to the divinity of their gods; to create, in other words, a classically ideal architecture. Their success may be measured by the fact that their works have been copied on and off for some 2,500 years and have never been superseded.

The Greek derived much from other Mediterranean civilizations – the plan of the temple from Crete, the columnar form from Egypt, the capital from Assyria.

One of the greatest monuments of ancient Greek architecture is the Athenian Acropolis. The Acropolis, the Greek for upper town, stands on a low rocky hill and contains the ruins of several ancient Greek architectural monuments.

The Parthenon, a stately building with an eight – column facade honouring the goddess Athena, was built by Ictinus and Callicrates in 447 – 438 B.C. Next to the Parthenon is an Ionic temple of Athena, the Erechtheum, built by anonymous architect in 421 – 406 B.C. In has the unparalleled portrayal of a contemporary event on the frieze of the building. It also had to serve different cults, which meant that its architect had to design a building with three porches and three different floor levels.

The monumental gateway to the Acropolis, the Propylaea was designed by Mnesicles, who had to adapt the rigid convention of colonnade construction to a steeply rising site. In the precision and finish of their execution, which complements the brilliant innovation of their design, these buildings had no rival in the Greek world.

The Greeks gave rise to some orders of architecture. The orders are the highest accomplishment of the pillar and beam construction. In classical architecture, the order is a column with base (usually), shaft, and entablature, decorated and proportioned according to one of the accepted modes. The entablature is the upper part of a classical order, between column and pediment, consisting of architrave (the lowermost part), frieze (in the middle), and cornice (the uppermost part).

The Greek invented the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Doric order is the oldest and the simplest one. It has baseless columns as those of the Parthenon, the spreading capitals, and triglyph-metope frieze above the column.

The Ionic order appeared later, in eastern Greece. It is characterized by a moulded base; tall, column shafts with 24 semi – circular flutes separated by flat fillets. Its capitals have large volutes.

The Corinthian order was an Anthenian invention of the 5th century B.C. It is the slenderest and most ornate of the three Greek orders. In its general proportion it is very like the Ionic. It has Ionic capitals elaborated with acanthus leaves. At first it was used for interiors only.

Notes to the text:

porch – портик, крытая галерея rival – соперник shaft – столб, стержень entablature – антаблемент flute – каннелюра, желобок fillet – поясок, углубление volute – волюта, спираль, завиток mould – облом; профиль; форма; опалубка pediment – фронтон

2.4.1 Give English equivalents for the words given below(B) and fill in the gaps

in the following sentences (A):

A 1) The Greek architects tried to discover ... ... rules of form and proportion. 2) They wanted ... a classically ideal architecture. 3) The works of the ancient Greek architects have never been ... . 4) Buildings of the Anthenian Acropolis had no ... in the Greek world.

5) The architect Mnesicles had to ... the ... conventions of colonnade construction to a ... ... site.

B соперник; превосходить; вечно имеющие силу; круто поднимающийся; создать; строгий; древний; приспособить

2.4.2 Choose the correct definition (A) from the words given below (B): A 1) The upper most member of the entablature. 2) The simplest order of architecture. 3) The middle part of the entablature. 4) The spiral scrolls of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals. 5) The lowest part of the entablature. 6) A particular style of column with its entablature, having standard details. 7) The slenderest and most ornate order of Greek architecture. 8) The upper part of a classical order between the columns and pediment. 9) The triangular part at the top of front of building B volutes; order; frieze; the Corinthian; entablature; cornice; pediment; the Doric; architrave

2.4.3. Complete the following sentences: 1) The main aim of the ancient Greek architects was ...

a) to erect huge temples b) to discover rules of form and proportion 3) to built fortresses

2) The Greek derived the column from ...

a) Egypt b) Assyria c) ancient Rome

3) The Acropolis means ... a) upper town b) a plat form c) a cathedral

4) The Parthenon was built by ... a) an anonymous architect b) Imhotep c) Ictinus and Callicrates

5) The Erechtheum was also designed to serve different ... a) architects b) cities c) cults

6) The Propylae was ... to the Acropolis a) a temple b) a gateway c) a staircase

7) The Doric order has ... a) a moulded base b) a slim fluted column c) a baseless column

8) The Doric order was used in ... a) the Erechtheum b) the Parthenon c) the Propylae

9) The Ionic capitals have ... a) large volutes b) acanthus leaves c) geometrical ornament

10) The Corinthian order was ... a) the oldest b) the simplest c) the most ornate

2.5 Read the text and tell about the architecture of Residential and Public

Buildings of the Roman Empire

Text 2C

Roman Architecture

Many seeds, derived from early Grecian and Etruscan designs, had already been sown in Rome. Modern knowledge of Roman architecture derives primary from the remains scattered throughout the area of the empire. Another source of information is a vast store of records. Especially important is a book on architecture by the architect

Vitruvius “De Architectura” (27 B.C.). It consists of ten books and covers almost every aspect on architecture.

Whereas Greek architecture is tectonic, built up from logical series of horizontals and verticals, Roman architecture is plastic with much use of rounded forms (arch, vault, and dome). The Romans were more experimental than the Greeks in their construction. Modifying and expanding earlier form to suit their purpose, the Romans often used supporting columns for decorative effects, while the walls became the essential elements, and they also made extensive use of coloured marble. But the true greatness of the Romans lay in the creation of interior space.

In Roman architecture there were three types of houses: the domus or town – house; the insula or multi – storey apartment house, and the villa or country house. The domus was usually of one storey only and inward – looking, consisted of suites of rooms grouped around a central hall, or atrium (a quadrangular court) and one or more peristyle courts. The insula had several identical but separate floors and was often vaulted throughout with concrete construction. Independent apartments had separate entrances with direct access to the street. The villa was derived from the traditional farm – house and was more casual in plan than the domus.

The Romans were great builders and engineers famous for their factories, roads, aqueducts and bridges, grand thermae and amphitheaters, theatres, and temples.

The greatest surviving circular temple of antiquity, and in many respects the most important Roman building, is the Panthenon in Rome. In consists of rotunda about 142 feet in diameter surrounded by concrete walls 20 feet thick, in which are alternate circular and rectangular niches. Light is admitted through a central opening, or oculus, at the crown of the dome. The rotunda and the dome are among the finest examples of Roman concrete work. The interior was lined with marble.

The Romans also developed the Tuscan and Composite orders. The Tuscan order is a simplified version of the Roman Doric, having a plan frieze and no mutules in the cornice. The Composite order is a late Roman combination of elements from the Ionic and Corinthian orders.

The evolution of new constructive elements was aided by important technical discoveries. A part from stone Roman architecture soon began to make use of bricks, which at the peak of Roman architecture became the main building material because of their adaptability. The invention of concrete provided a material that encouraged the monumental tendencies of Roman architecture.

2.5.1 Find the false sentences using the information from the text. Correct them:

1) “De Architectura” by Vitruvius is the source of information on Roman architecture. 2) Roman architecture is tectonic, built up from series of horizontals and verticals. 3) The Romans were not so experimental as the Greeks in their construction. 4) In Rome the column was often degraded to merely decorative use. 5) There were four main types of houses. 6) The Panthenon is the greatest temple of ancient Greek architecture 7) The Romans added the Tuscan and Composite orders.

2.5.2 Give the English equivalents: руины обширный запас освещать почти все вопросы по архитектуре изменять ранее существующие нормы декоративные цели важный элемент подлинная величина анфилада комнат отдельный вход облицевать мрамором новые элементы строительства важные технические открытия основной строительный материал

2.5.3 Translate into English

Колизей Самым важным амфитеатром в Риме был Колизей, построенный в 70/75 –

82 гг. НЭ Он занимал территорию в 6 акров(2,4 га) и вмещал 50 000 зрителей. Амфитеатр имеет эллиптическую форму и высоту 57м. 80 входов в амфитеатр расположены так, что здание можно было покинуть очень быстро. Всё строение выполнено из бетона, внешняя сторона облицована травертином, а внутренняя – мрамором. Сейчас Колизей – один из наиболее знаменитых памятников древности во всём мире.

2.5.4 Choose the right term to the following definitions:

1) town – house a) domus b) dome c) porch

2) oculus a) door b) shell c) central opening of the dome

3) a quadrangular court of the house a) rotunda b) basilica c) atrium

4) country house a) villa b) thermae c) terrace

5) blocks of flats a) amphitheaters b) niches c) insulae

2.5.5 With your partner, speak on one of the following topics:

1) Ancient Greek and Roman Architecture compared 2) Roman Domestic Architecture 3) Ancient Greek and Roman Dwellings Compared

2.6 Read and translate the text. Find sentences containing completely new information

Text 2D

Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture

The architecture of Byzantium, or Eastern Roman Empire, was the culmination of Early Christian architecture. This style can be traced back to the period after 330 BC. The art characteristic of the developed Byzantine Empire had enormous influence on both East and West, spread widely and lasted throughout the Middle Ages until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453. The dominant Byzantine art was architecture. It was characterized by round arches, elaborate columns, richness in decorative elements and colour. But the chief contribution of the Byzantine style to the architecture of the world was large pendentive-supported dome.

Brick was the main material used for the construction of Byzantine churches. It was covered externally with plaster and internally with thin marble ladoes and mosaics above.

The Byzantine style reached a high point in the reign of the Emperor Justinian (527-565). He built and rebuilt 26 churches, many hospitals, bridges aqueducts, and fortress.

The outstanding masterpiece of Byzantine church architecture is Hagia or Saint Sophia in Constantinople (now Istanbul). Hagia Sophia remained unique and no attempts was thereafter made by Byzantine Builders to emulate it. Its plan may be defined as a Greek cross inscribed in a square (typically Byzantine) with a narthex at the west end. The chief feature is the huge dome, approximately 32.6 m in diameter, rising 56 m above the floor. Its carried on pendentives. There are also half-domes at two ends which are, in turn, carried by smaller semidomed exedrae. The interior surface of the edifice is richly decorated.

Among the greatest examples of Byzantine buildings are the basilican St. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna; the octagonal St. Vitale, Ravenna; St. Marco, Venice; the cathedral of St. Sophia in Kiev and others. Notes to the text:

pendentives – паруса свода или купола plaster – штукатурка to emulate – стремиться превзойти edifice – здание, сооружение exedra – экседра, вестибюль

2.6.1 Complete sentences choosing the variant corresponding to the contents of the text: 1) The Byzantine style developed after ...

a) 1453 b) 330 BC c) 527 AD

2) The Byzantine style spread widely in the ... a) East and West b) North c) West

3) The dominant Byzantine art was ... a) sculpture b) painting c) architecture

4) Byzantine churches were made mainly of ... a) stone b) brick c) concrete

5) The chief contribution of the Byzantine art the world’s architecture was ... a) pointed arch b) architectural order c) pendentives

6) Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is ... a) church b) palace c) castle

7) The Byzantine style reached its culmination in the ... a) 4th century BC b) 11th century c) 6th century

2.6.2 Find proper equivalents for the words and word combinations in italics:

1) Byzantine architecture was the culmination of Early Christian architecture. 2) It is characterized by large pendentive-supported domes, round arches and elaborate columns. 3) The Byzantine style began to influence architecture in Italy. 4) The interior surface of the edifice is richly decorated. 5) The outstanding masterpiece of Byzantine church architecture is Hagia Sophia. internal; started; huge; pillars art of building; remarkable; cupolas; ornamented; religious; high point; affect; circular; building

2.6.3 Read the text once more and tell about the main features of the Byzantine style

2.7 You are asked to make a short report on the problem of the Romanesque architecture. Use the following text and present information on: 1) subdivisions of Romanesque architecture; 2) its main features;

Text 2E The Romanesque style

The Romanesque style was a compound of many influences – Roman, Byzantine,

Viking, Celtic, Muslim. It followed the Early Christian style and preceded the introduction of the Gothic style, c.1200. The principal countries in which Romanesque architecture flourished were France, England, Italy, Germany and Spain. This style must have appeared first in Italy, in Lombardy, late in the 9th century.

Its is usually subdivided into pre – Romanesque, which includes the Lombardic, Carolingian, and Ottonian or Rhenish styles as well as Saxon and Romanesque proper beginning from c. AD 1000.

From the Roman tradition, the pre – Romanesque architects adopted characteristic features: the semicircular arch, modified and simplified from of the Corinthian column with its capital of acanthus leaves. Occasionally, at an early period, they used carved fragments of antique buildings. After 1050 various systems were developed to vault major spans: tunnel vaults in France, often pointed (Burgundy, Province) and also in Spain; groin vaults in Germany; ribbed vaults at Durham and Italy. The Romanesque period was the great age of European monasticism. The architectural work of this period there for consist almost exclusively domestic buildings have survived.

The greatest examples of this style are Benedictine abbey church at Jumieges, Normandy (1036-1066); S. Ambrogio, Milan, Italy (1140); Sompting church in Succex (11th century); Augsburg Cathedral, Germany.

2.7.1 Write the summary of the text in Russian

2.8 Read the text to find answers to the given questions

Text 2F The Gothic Style

1 Where and when did the Gothic architecture develop? This style represented the High Middle Ages in Western Europe. The architecture

of this period was termed Gothic during the Renaissance because of its association with the barbarian north. Now this term is used to describe the important international style in most countries of Europe from the early 12th century to the advent of the Renaissance in the 5th century.

2 What architectural elements characterize great Gothic cathedrals? Gothic architecture raised buildings to soaring heights, stressing the vertical

principle throughout in the compositional rhythm of all parts of the structure. At the technical level Gothic architecture is characterized by the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, the development of the exterior flying buttress, gradual reduction of the walls to a system of richly decorated fenestration. Gothic cathedrals depended for their enrichment chiefly upon sculpture and stained glass. 3 How does the classification of the Gothic phases differ in France, Germany and England?

It is generally said that in France and Germany this style is subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Gothic. The French middle phase is referred to as Rayonnant, the late phase as Flamboyant. In English architecture the usual subdivisions are Early English, Decorative, and Perpendicular.

4 What are the main features of Gothic architecture represented in the Rheims Cathedral?

The Rheims Cathedral, erected between 1211 and 1430, illustrates the main features of Gothic architecture. An examination of the facade indicates certain qualities inherent in Gothic church design. The lower portion of the facade contains huge portals which prove to be grand and imposing entrance ways. Directly above the main portal a huge rose window appears, flanked by monumental towers which reach far above the main portion of the cathedral. The towers create vertical thrusts. The rose window and the stained-glass windows along the cathedral’s sides flood the church with the tined light providing luminous richness to the interior. Minor towers with decorative pinnacles add accents to main tower, and niches containing religious statuary are incorporated in the facade.

2.9 Read the dialogue in pairs. Make up your own dialogues about other

architectural styles changing words in italics

A.: Let’s discuss the Gothic style. B.: With pleasure. Primary this was the architecture of the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, and the flying buttress, the stained-glass windows. A.: What do you mean by the flying buttress? B.: Do you mean to say that you don’t know? This is an arch or half-arch transmitting the thrust of a vault or a roof from the upper part of an outer support. A.: Oh, I see. But I think these are not isolated motifs. They act together and represent buildings raised to soaring heights. B.: You are quite right.

2.10 Make up a report on one of styles of architecture. Try to make it interesting for the audience

3 Unit 3 History of Architecture: from Renaissance to Modern Architecture

3.1 Pretext exercises 3.1.1 Warming – up 1) Did you decide to be an architect? 2) Are you sure in the choice of your future job? 3) What does the word “Renaissance” mean?

4) In what country did this style originate? 3.1.2 Read the words. Pay attention to the letters in italics [ai] time, derive, characterize, device, line, symbolize, decide, high [i] this, in, during, it, mid, building, pictorial, definition, immediate, with, skill, which, pilaster, unribbed, brilliant addition, width, treatise, dominant, linear [a:] rebirth, first, girder [ia] interior, exterior, pictorial [ai] style, by, type, pylon [i] symbol, century, early, symmetrical, harmony, body, vocabulary, carry, many 3.1.3 Read the following words. Mind their meaning treatise трактат device средство immediate прямой, непосредственный, немедленный comprehension понимание ribbed ребристый, рифленый austere строгий, простой, чистый perfection безупречность, совершенство transept поперечный неф lantern фонарь верхнего света spectator зритель, очевидец length длина width ширина height высота 3.1.4 Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms to succeed ( - ed; - ed) следовать за чем-либо, наследовать to evolve ( - ed; - ed) развиваться to derive ( - ed; - ed) происходить 32

to find (found; found) находить to cause ( - ed; - ed) вызывать, являться результатом to encourage ( - ed; - ed) ободрять, поощрять, поддерживать to become (became; become) становиться to assume ( - ed; - ed) принимать, предполагать to demolish ( - ed; - ed) разрушать, сносить 3.1.5 Find proper Russian words with the same roots as the following English words: style, classical, dominant, to characterize, order, arch, symmetrical, harmony, composition, proportion, human, perspective, expression, mass, interior, exterior, element, to formulate, column, portion, sphere, manner, facade, plan, altar, diameter, motif 3.1.6 Choose the proper English word: 1) средство a) style b) device c) composition 2) зритель a) spectator b) interior c) successor 3) ширина a) diameter b) width c) height 4) понимание a) portion b) manner c) comprehension 5) трактат a) treatise b) motif c) order 6) длина a) exterior b) length c) perspective 7) поперечный неф a) pilaster b) sphere c) transept 3.1.7 Find English equivalents for the following Russian words: A непосредственный, строгий, ребристый, развиваться, вызывать, происходить, предполагать, наследовать, разрушать, поддерживать В to assume, to encourage, ribbed, to demolish, to derive, immediate, to succeed, to evolve, austere, to cause 3.1.8 Form all possible word combinations: A architectural B buildings classical element ancient proportions symmetrical device round perspective pictorial style linear art basic arch austere composition

3.1.9 Read the following word combinations and translate them into Russian: rebirth of classical art; to derive from two sources; ancient classical buildings; to use classical orders; proportions of the human body; pictorial device of perspective; definition of architectural space; immediate and full comprehension; well–organized urban spaces; great skill; interior of buildings; linear perspective; basic element; fluted pilasters; unribbed vaults; the austere façade; the highest degree of perfection; Christian world 3.2 You are taking part in a conference “The Renaissance Art”. Read the text and choose necessary information for your report

Text 3 A

The Renaissance

This architectural style developed in early 15th century Italy during the rebirth of classical art and learning. It succeeded the Gothic as the style dominant in all of Europe after the mid 16th century into classicism. Knowledge of the classical style in architecture was derived during the Renaissance from two sources: the ancient classical buildings, particularly in Italy but also in France and Spain and the treatise “De architectura” by the Roman architect Vitruvius. Initially it was characterized by the use of the classical orders, round arches, and symmetrical composition. The Renaissance architects found a harmony between the proportions of the

human body and those of their architecture. There was even a relationship between

architectural proportions and the Renaissance pictorial device of perspective.

The concern of these architects for proportion caused that clear, measured

expression and definition of architectural space and mass that differentiates the

Renaissance style from the Gothic and encourages in the spectator an immediate and

full comprehension of the building.

Churches, palaces, gardens, and well-organized open, urban spaces are the

architectural works most often associated with this time. Great skill was expressed in

ordering the interior of buildings, frequently using the same motifs as had been

traditionally associated with the exterior.

Filippo Brune Heschi (1377-1446) is said to have created the Renaissance. In the early 15th century he formulated linear perspective, which was to become a basic element of Renaissance art. His basic vocabulary – fluted pilasters carrying entablatures, columns supporting arches, unribbed vaults which are portions of the surface of a sphere – appears in his brilliant work, Ospedade degli Innocenti (1419-51) in France. It was the first building in the Renaissance manner. The austere Tuscan Doric façade of Donato Bramante’s (1444-1514) Tempietto San Pietro in Montorio (1502) symbolized the beginning of the early 16th century High Renaissance or Cinquecento in Rome. The Italian Renaissance is assumed to have achieved the highest degree of perfection at that time. In 1505 Pope Julius II decided to demolish Old St. Peter’s and to build St. Peter’s Cathedral, the work of many architects, beginning with Bramante, whose ground plan was later changed from a Greek cross to a Latin cross. St. Peter’s Cathedral is the largest church in the high Christian world. It has 29 altars in addition to the high altar, interior length 187 m., width at front, 26,5 m., length of transept, 137 m. The dome (diameter, 42 m., height, 123 m. to the top of the lantern) was built by Michelangelo. 3.3 Exercises to the text 3.3.1 Find the false sentences using the information from the text. Correct them: 1) The Renaissance is assumed to have reinitiated classical details. 2) The Renaissance succeeded the Baroque. 3) The Renaissance style was initially characterized by the use of asymmetrical composition. 4) Great skill of the Renaissance architects was expressed in ordering the interior of

buildings.

5) It is stated that Bramante was the initiator of the Renaissance. 6) It was Filippo Brunelleschi who formulated linear perspective. 7) St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome is assumed to represent the High Renaissance. 3.3.2 Choose the right words and complete the following sentences: 1) The Renaissance developed in…

a) France b) Italy c) Russia

2) The treatise “De architectura” was a handbook of the … architects. a) Renaissance b) Baroque c) Gothic

3) The Renaissance is characterized by measured expression and definition of… a) pointed arches

b) architectural space c) curved surfaces

4) Linear perspective was formulated in the early … century. a) 14th b) 15th c) 16th

5) The plans for St. Peter’s Cathedral were prepared by… a) Brunelleschi b) Novi c) Bramante

3.3.3 Answer the following questions: 1) When and where did the Renaissance begin? 2) What were the main sources of knowledge of the classical style in architecture? 3) What was the basic element of Renaissance art?

4) Who was the first to formulate and show the Renaissance system of perspective? 5) What was the first building in the Renaissance manner? 6) What is the largest Church in the Christian world? 7) What phase of the Renaissance does the St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome represent? 3.3.4 Work in pairs. Interview your partner as an expert in Renaissance architecture 3.4. Read the text and tell about the main features of the Baroque and Rococo. Fill in the chart below

Text 3 B

Baroque and Rococo

Baroque and late Baroque, or Rococo, are terms applied to European art of the period from the early 17th century to the mid 18th century. The word “baroque” was derived from the Italian word “baroque”. This word

also meant irregular or imperfect form, especially with reference to pearl.

The Baroque style is characterized by spatially complex compositions, interpenetration of oval spaces, curved surfaces and remarkable use of decoration broken pediments, paired or coupled columns or pilasters. The Baroque art was essentially concerned with vivid colours, hidden light sources, luxurious materials and elaborate, contrasting surface textures. There was a tremendous richness of motifs-festoons of flowers and fruits, masks, scrolls, wreaths and weapons. During the Baroque

period, architecture, painting and sculpture were integrated into decorative ensembles. Architects used sculpture to support the members of a building, painters decorated the walls and vaults of churches with false architectural perspectives, sculptors introduced colour in their works in the spirit of a painter. The Baroque rapidly developed into two separate forms: the strongly Roman

Catholic counties (Italy, Spain, Portugal, Flanders, Bohemia, Southern Germany,

Australia and Poland) tended toward freer and more active architectural forms and

surfaces; in Protestant regions (England, the Netherlands and the remainder of Northern

Europe) architecture was more restrained and developed a quiet monumentality

impressive in its refinement.

The greatest works of this style are Hardouin - Mansart's Dome des Invalides, Paris; the church of Santa Susanna, Versailles; National Palace in Madrid; Royal Palace at Caserta. The Rococo is assumed to have been the late phase of the Baroque, primarily French in origin. The style was first inspired by the shell - encrusted artificial fountains and grottoes at Versailles. This style refined the robust architecture of the 17th century to suit elegant 18th century tastes. Vivid colours were replaced by pastel shades; diffuse light flooded the building volume; violent surface relief was replaced by smooth flowing masses with emphasis only at isolated points. One can find intermingling of shells, C - and S - scrolls, rocks, seaweed, ribbons and carving and irregular acanthus foliation. Churches and palaces still demonstrated an integration of the three arts, but the building structure was lightened to render interiors graceful and ethereal. Rococo architects reduced column size to a minimum. In churches, the ceilings of side aisles were raised to the height of the nave ceiling unify the space from wall to wall. The finest examples of the Rococo style are Church of Carmine, Turin, Italy

(1732); Pilgrimage Church, Steinhausen, near Biberach, Germany (1728); Saint -

Jacques, Luneville, France (1730).

Notes to the text obstacle - препятствие pearl - жемчуг interpenetration - взаимопроникновение vivid - яркий hidden - скрытый

elaborate - тщательно разработанный restrained - сдержанный refinement - утонченность wreaths - венки scrolls - завитки intermingling - переплетение seaweed - морские водоросли ribbons – ленты

Similar Features Different features

1

2

3.4.1 Choose the sentences which correspond to the contents of the text: 1) Baroque is a term applied to European Art of the early 15th century. 2) The word “baroque” was used to describe an irregular or imperfectly shaped pearl only. 3) The Baroque style was concerned with bright colours, hidden light sources and contrasting surface textures. 4) Cheap materials were used during the Baroque period. 5) The Rococo is considered to be the late phase of the Baroque. 6) The Rococo style is assumed to have appeared in France.

7) During the Rococo period there was no more integration of architecture, painting and sculpture. 3.4.2 Work in pairs. Interview your partner as an expert in Baroque and Rococo architecture. Use the following words and expressions: European art; spatially complex compositions; curved surfaces; broken pediments;

paired columns; festoons; tremendous richness of motifs; to be integrated into

decorative ensembles; vivid colours; hidden light sources; luxurious materials;

refinement; a quiet monumentally; the late phase; French origin; to suit elegant tastes;

pastel shades; smooth flowing masses; building structure; to reduce to a minimum; to be

raised to the height.

3.5 Read the text to find answers to the questions

Text 3 C

The Age of Revivals

1 Why is the 19th century called the time of urbanization in Europe and America? The Industrial Revolution, which introduced new materials and techniques, made the 19th century the time of the vast expansion of cities or urbanization in Europe and America. Then more buildings were constructed than in all previous ages added together. The total effect of all this on European towns and cities was, however, to replace the wonderful unity of the street by a chaotic miscellany of buildings, each asserting its own individuality. 2 What was the main aim of the architects during that period? The role of the architect was merely confined to decorating the building's facades. Throughout Europe nearly every past style was re-examined and reused, but as the century wore on styles of the past were no longer imitated exactly, but were looked on as a quarry from which architects could extract different elements. Richness of form and picturesqueness of effect were the principal aim. 3 For what types of buildings were different styles chosen and why? Styles began to be chosen not just for fashion but for their associative qualities: Roman for justice, Gothic for learning and churches, Byzantine mainly for churches, the Italian Renaissance for palaces and ministries, Greek for government, Venetian for commerce, Oriental for leisure, the Baroque for theatres and opera houses, Romanesque for public architecture. Nevertheless, the 19th century revival architecture was dominated by the Classic Revival, or Neoclassicism, and the Gothic Revival, or Neo - Gothic. 4 What are the main features of Neoclassicism? The center of international Neoclassicism was Rome. The cradle of Italian antiquities, it provided the stage, but the leading actors in the Neoclassical play were French, German, or English. The finest works of this style were characterized by their grandeur of scale; strict geometric organization; simplicity of forms; Greek or Roman detail; dramatic use of columns; particularly to articulate interior spaces and create urban landscapes; and a preference for blank walls and the contrast of formal volumes and textures. 5 When and how did Art Nouvean develop? A reaction against stylizations came nearer to the end of the century. It, too, was concerned with decoration more than construction and aimed at creating a style – especially a style of ornament – that owed nothing to the past. This style was known at the time under a variety of rubrics: Art Nouvean in France and Belgium; “modern style” in England; Jugendstil in Germany; Secessionsstil in Austria; “style Liberty” or “style floreale” in Italy; “modernisme” in Spain. Art Nouvean is characterized by organic and dynamic forms, curving design and whiplash lines. The curved line may be floral in origin (Belgium, France) or geometric (Scotland, Austria). This florid type of

architecture exploits craft skills, using coloured materials, grilles, balconies. Asymmetrical door – and window – frames, bow and horseshoe windows were also favoured. In the later phases of Art Nouvean, façade decoration was accompanied by a powerful treatment of the whole building. 3.6 Read the text and write the summary of it in Russian

Text 3 D

Modern Architecture

Modern architecture is the term universally applied to the style of building, which evolved a number of countries after the First World War as the International Style and which has culminated in the current design of glass, concrete and steel based on module construction presently being erected all over the world. In the early 20th century an instinctive desire of architects to break away from the confusions and contrivances of the 19th century, and their efforts to introduce a style which responded to new social needs and exploited new materials led to the changed appearance of buildings; simple rectangular outlines; avoidance of symmetry; absence of applied ornament; flat roofs and white walls, resulting from the use of reinforced concrete, now the favorite material; large windows, which new structural techniques permitted, but which were encouraged also by the spirit of the times, which believed in opening up the interiors of buildings to light and air. The development of the International Style was reinforced by two events: a

series of exhibitions at which architects from different countries saw and were

influenced by each other’s experiments and the formation of international organization

– The Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne – through which ideas could be

exchanged and mutual support enjoyed. The dominant figure in modern architecture of

the time was Le Corbusier whose works became monuments of modern architecture.

Until the 1930s, Germany was the main center of new architecture because of

the presence there of another unifying institution, the Bauhaus, a college of design,

which became synonymous with modern teaching methods in architecture.

In the years after 1945 the emphasis was on town–planning and housing. This

was the era of new towns, vast housing estates. In matters of architectural style, if

became less a question of conflict between period revival and modern design than

between buildings designed for effect and those that aimed at the creation of a modern

vernacular and a humane and harmonious environment.

The Modern Movement cannot be said to have had a clear historical end. It

always exited concurrently with other ways of designing.

3.6.1 Answer the following questions: 1) When and how did the modern art of building appear? 2) What events reinforced the development of the International Style? 3) Why was Germany the main center of new architecture? 4) What factors are there to the credit of modern architecture? 5) What are the main features of modern architecture? 3.6.2 With your partner make up a dialogue about modern architecture of your native town 3.7 Summarize your knowledge of the question under consideration. Speak on different styles of architecture

4 Unit 4 History of British Architecture 4.1 Pretext exercises 4.1.1 Warming-up

1) How did the British architecture develop? 2) What ancient British towns do you know? 3) What architectural monuments would you like to see being in Britain? 4.1.2 Read the words. Pay attention to the letters in italics [ ju] circular, monument, occupation, perpendicular [Λ] mud, hut, abundant, but, just, much, cut, supplement, hung, thus, humble, hunter, juxtaposition, structure, construct [juə ] sanctuary, during, pure [ə:] curtain, turn [dз] stage, age, large, village, arrangement [g] disregard, began, group, big, guest [ŋ] nothing, building, hang, dwelling, seemingly, capping 4.1.3 Read the words. Mind their meaning limestone известняк rude примитивный, грубый primordial исконный, первобытный sanctuary святилище juxtaposition наложение, сопоставление slab плита prop подпорка, опора, стойка precarious непрочный, ненадёжный invasion вторжение, нашествие clay глина hut хижина timber лесоматериалы hearth домашний очаг beam балка auxiliary вспомогательный shed сарай barn амбар stout крепкий, прочный mound насыпь dwelling жилище, дом linen полотно, холст humble простой, скромный wattle прут, плетень

4.1.4 Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms

to establish (-ed; -ed) устанавливать to hang (hung; hung) вешать to enrich (-ed; -ed) обогащать, украшать to scatter (-ed; -ed) разбрасывать to suppose (-ed; -ed) предполагать to admit (-ed; -ed) допускать, впускать to supplement (-ed; -ed) пополнить to spend (spent; spent) проводить to pattern (-ed; -ed) украшать узором to cut (cut; cut) разрезать to allot (-ed; -ed) предназначать

4.1.5 Find proper Russian words with the same roots as the

following English words:

history, race, characteristic, monument, civilization, sort, circular, structure, form, horizontal, perpendicular, infant, balance, group, contact, system, occupation, primitive, hall, social, master, decorate

4.1.6 Choose the proper English word:

1) вторжение a) occupation b) invasion c) juxtaposition 2) святилище a) sanctuary b) castle c) church 3) известняк a) clay b) limestone c) stone 4) плита a) curtain b) roof c) slab 5) насыпь a) mound b) fence c) wall 6) жилище a) fortification b) dwelling c) yard 7) лесоматериалы a) wattle b) linen c) timber 8) домашний очаг a) hearth b) hole c) light 9) сарай a) hut b) cave c) shed 10) опора a) fortress b) prop c) floor

4.1.7 Find English equivalents for the following Russian words:

A примитивный; украшать узором; скромный; разбрасывать; непрочный; устанавливать; исконный; проводить; предполагать; крепкий; предназначать; вырезать; пополнять

В precarious; humble; to supplement; to establish; rude; to suppose; to cut; stout; to pattern; to scatter; primordial; to spend; to allot

4.1.8 Form all possible word combinations: A circular B buildings horizontal balance perpendicular curtains precarious cities big structure harrow halls auxiliary yard large holes spacious slabs patterned props 4.1.9 Read the following word combinations and translate them

into Russian: to pass several stages; to be closely connected with the history; the

first inhabitants; dry caves of limestone; to form by a mere juxtaposition of slabs; perpendicular props; infant architects; precarious balance of the hanging stones; wattle-and-clay houses; fortificated fence; to bring into contact; major systems of fortification; scattered villages and townships; open hearth; in the middle of the earthen floor; low-roofed huts; to be protected by a stout fence; to cover with oiled linen; bright-patterned curtains; hall allotted for the master of house; flat broad stone; humble dwelling;

4.2 Read the text and tell about the early period of British architecture

Text 4 A

British Architecture in the Period of Ancient History British architecture passed several main stages in its development. It is closely connected with the history of the country. As far as historical research could establish, the first inhabitants of the British Isles were nomadic Stone Age hunters. They lived probably in the dry caves of limestone and chalk hills. An Alpine race came to the British Isles about 1700 B.C. A characteristic monument of this civilization, primordially rude and primordially majestic, is the so-called Stonehenge, a sort sanctuary erected on Salisbury Plain about 1100 B.C. or some-what earlier. This circular structure was formed by a mere juxtaposition of tall horizontal slabs, capping those perpendicular props for all the world like houses built by infant architects

reckless enough to disregard the seemingly precarious balance of the hanging stones-whence the name of the structure, the “Hanging Stones”, Stonehenge. During the invasion of Celts tribes (8-th-1st cc B.C.) fortresses were built on hilltops, towns began to appear in the more wealthy south-east, true they were at first no more than large groups of wattle-and-clay houses enriched by a sort of fortificated fence. The invasion by the Romans (1c. B.C.-5c. A.D.) brought the country into contact with the Roman civilization. Major systems of fortifications were constructed as a defense. Then came the occupation of the country by Anglo-Saxon tribes. The Anglo-Saxon had no big cities, only scattered villages and townships, that is, arrangements of the lord’s house with the wattle-and-mud huts of the villagers grouped round it. The huts were primitive affairs, of wood and clay while timber was abundant with no chimney over the open hearth but a hole in the roof to let the smoke out and to let the light in. The hearth was usually nothing more complicated than just a large flat stone in the middle of the earthen floor. Much of the smoke supposed to escape through the hole in the roof remained in the low-roofed hut and blackened the beams of the roof with soot. The walls were bare; the narrow holes cut them to admit light, admitted much of the wind and the cold as well. The lord’s house had a large yard where much of the housekeeping work was done with lots of auxiliary buildings like sheds and barns and the like inside it. It was protected by a stout fence supplemented by a sort of circular fortification, or mound. The interior arrangements were characteristic: there was always a spacious hall where most of the family’s social life was spent, where the lord had his meals with his family and his guests. The light came through narrow holes in the walls covered with oiled linen. The walls were hung with coarse but bright-patterned curtains, though quite often it was only the part of the hall allotted for the master of house and his most honoured guests that was thus decorated, the rest of the walls being bare. The hearth was nothing much more elaborate that a flat broad stone and the blackened roof beams were just as much the feature of the lord’s hall as they were of the humble dwelling.

4.3 Exercises to the text 4.3.1 Find the false sentences using the information from the

text. Correct the false sentences:

1) The first inhabitants of the British Isles lived in the dry caves. 2) Towns appeared first in the more wealthy north-east. 3) During the Roman invasion no fortifications were constructed. 4) There were no big cities during the Anglo-Saxon period. 5) The huts of the villagers were made of wattle and clay. 6) The light came trough wide windows. 7) The walls of the lord’s house were painted.

4.3.2 Complete the following sentences:

1) The first inhabitants of the British Isles were:

a) Anglo-Saxons b) nomadic Stone Age hunters c) Celts

2) The first towns looked like large groups of houses enriched by a sort of … a) hanging stones b) horizontal slabs c) fortification fence

3) The Anglo-Saxons had only scattered … a) huts b) villages and townships c) fortresses

4) The lord’s house had a large yard with lots of … a) sheds b) dwellings c) stones

5) The lord’s house was protected by … a) perpendicular props b) flat stones c) stout fence

4.3.3 Find the passage describing the Anglo-Saxon dwelling and

translate it into Russian 4.3.4 Answer the following questions:

1) Where did the first inhabitants of the British Isles live? 2) What sort of monument it the so-called Stonehenge? 3) When did the first towns begin to appear? 4) How did the dwellings of the villagers look like? 5) What were the interior arrangements of the lord’s house?

4.4 Read the text and tell about different phases of English

Gothic

Text 4 B

Medieval British Architecture

At the end of the 9th century came the colonization by the Vikings who dominated England for two hundred years. A system of strongholds dates mainly from this period.

The construction of feudal castles first started in earnest, however, with the Norman conquest. To keep the Anglo-Saxons in subjection, the Norman built castles both for symbolic (like the Durham castle commanding a view of the burnt up villages of the North) and practical purposes (like the Tower of London meant to be William’s own fortified residence).

The thick-walled castles of the feudal nobility, with round or square towers rising the whole length of the building, pierced by narrow windows that served as shooting apertures, formed a conspicuous feature of the times. Christian ideology was predominant in feudal Europe, and England was no exception to the rule. The feudal establishment was vitally interested in instilling a belief in the infallibility of the faith, in the greatness of the church. Architecture flourished after the conquest became churchbuilding also. The majority of the cathedrals and monasteries were built late in the 11th and early in 12th cc. Primarily by French architects and craftsmen in the so-called Romanesque style. They were vast affairs, usually with a tall central part. The arches were round, with a lot of brickwork decoration, beak-head edges and chevron design. The building seemed to be weighed down to the ground by the solidity of its round-arched shape, though powerful-looking, as the cathedrals were meant to be by the abbots and bishops who organized the construction. They evoked mixed feelings, however, for one couldn’t help wondering at the might of human genius that went into the building.

Later on Gothic architecture was introduced, again from Romanic countries, France first of all. It was a style harmoniously blending architecture, sculpture and pictorial art. The western facade of the cathedral buildings was in fact a sculptured surface, mostly with symbolic biblical figures and later on realistic folk-lore features.

Art historians usually distinguish three periods of Gothic architecture in England. Early English, with pointed arches and arrow-like windows and tall tapering turrets and steeples and pinnacles that seem to uplift the whole structure. An early English cathedral produces an impression of soaring into the air; it seems to be ready to take off and leave the sinful earth bellow. Salisbury cathedral is usually shown as an example of pure Early English Gothic.

Later into 13th c. the so-called Perpendicular Gothic was introduced, with a lot of parallel-placed tall perpendicular shapes and lines emphasizing the upward-directed movement of the structural rhythm; King’s College Chapel in Cambridge is often taken as a typical instance. The 14th c. brought a deterioration of the Gothic style, the so-called “Decorated Gothic” where the purity of the Gothic outline is marred, or in any case obscured, by numerous decorations making the whole somewhat gaudy or at least florid. Stained glass with religious themes was an important ingredient of Gothic church architecture.

In the long run, the Norman kings did much to centralize power and unite England into a state. There were great changes in the material life of the population.

Life was already safer and consequently could be made more comfortable for the rich than in the early Norman period when the wealthy

families had to be crowded in the darkness of grim square Norman “keeps”, fortress-homes. Now palaces and castles were built with spacious banqueting halls illuminated by wide windows with lots of light pouring in. True, there were still towers at each end, with cannons and shooting apertures.

The farms and cottages of the poor were built of logs or planks, the floors were usually bare earth and the roof made of thatch: the walls might be made of mud and timber.

Notes to the text:

to pierce - пронзать aperture - отверстие beak - клюв taper - конусообразный turret - башенка steeple - шпиль pinnacle - остроконечная башенка, шпиц gaud - безвкусное украшение keep - главная башня thatch - солома

4.4.1 Choose the sentences which correspond to the contents of

the text

1) The construction of feudal castles began mostly during the Norman invasion.

2) Medieval architecture was also churchbuilding. 3) The majority of the monasteries and cathedrals were built by

Anglo-Saxon architects. 4) Gothic architecture was brought from Romanic countries. 5) Art historians usually point out four periods of English Gothic. 6) Palaces and castles of the English nobility had big banqueting halls

illuminated by wide windows. 7) The dwellings of the poor were made of logs and planks.

4.4.2 Increase you vocabulary. Make some sentences of you own

using the following phrases:

to date from this period to be characterized by to be subdivided into to be combined with to become popular to be of great beauty (importance; complexity)

4.4.3 Ask your partner the following questions:

1) When does the system of strongholds date back? 2) When did the construction of feudal castles begin? 3) Why did the architecture flourished after the Norman conquest

become also churchbuilding? 4) Where was Gothic architecture introduced from? 5) What kind of style was Gothic? 6) What periods of English Gothic do art historians usually

distinguish? 7) What are the major monuments of Gothic architecture in England?

4.5 Read the text to find answers to the questions

Text 4 C

English Renaissance

1) What are the main features of the 16th century? The 16th century was the time when under the influence of radical

changes in the basis of the English society, i.e. in the production of material values and in human relations in the process of production, in other words, with the advent of capitalism, radical changes occurred in the spiritual life of the newly-arising nation and its new-born culture that was taking an unmistakably national shape. The process can be referred to as English Renaissance.

2) How did Renaissance change in England? Renaissance, the epoch of Humanism and the Revival of Learning,

born and nursed in Italy, after revolutionizing the culture and science of Italy and the whole Western world, finally penetrated the insular detachment of England and came softened by the distance with less shock to bring new learning, new religious issues and new art. The human being, the beauty and the joy of this life were now the center of attention.

3) What are the main phases of English Renaissance? In England one easily distinguishes three main phases of the process:

the early phase of the end of the 15th and the first half of the 16th c. and the later phase coinciding with the reign of queen Elizabeth and the life-span of Shakespeare’s death and to the beginning of the puritan revolution was the time marked by a decline of the Renaissance and crisis of Humanism.

4) What are the finest examples of English Renaissance? The earlier Tudor period was a time of transition from late medieval to

Renaissance culture. The new architecture imported from Italy had little in common with the Gothic pointed type. With the revival of classical interest in all of the art there came a tendency to return to the ancient models in building. It was only early in the 16th c. that the influence of the Italian Renaissance architecture was really felt in England in the pure classical lines of Inigo Jones (the Whitehall palace is an example) and in the prodigious fertility,

talent and inventiveness of Sir Christopher Wren who used the classic forms with great purity and correctness. After the Great fire of London he rebuilt a great number of churches and dwellings of the wealthy citizens. St. Paul’s which according to art specialists is the finest protestant cathedral in the world, is a good example of it, as well as the west towers of Westminster Abbey. Both the outstanding architects managed to profit by the new movement in architecture leaving the national foundation of English architecture intact. Most of the English early Renaissance structures are hybrid in style, often retaining Norman or Gothic features. The buildings of Oxford show this quite clearly: they are to a large extent Gothic but the gateways and parts of the building themselves abound in Renaissance decoration.

4.6 Read the text and write the summary of it in Russian

Text 4 D

English Classicism

The 18th century is the age of classicism both in art and in architecture.

The English court and nobility had cultivated a fancy for the “antique” which in their belief was a sign of wealth and power. The Adam brothers, the eminent architects of the time, proved particularly ingenious in applying the principles off classicism both in town-planning and country house design. Though they followed the traditions of their predecessor Wren, they, nevertheless, contrived to make the solid and bulky exteriors go beautifully with the elegance and graceful ease of the interiors, which, too, were strictly classical in shape. Sentimentalism was then in vogue and it was a custom with the aristocracy to spend their leisure hours at home with their own folks. This consequently heightened their interest in furniture and decorative art. The Chippendale chairs shortly found their way first to the mansions of the aristocracy and then to those of the bourgeoisie, affecting the tastes of the latter accordingly. Thomas Chippendale was a celebrated cabinet-maker who made his mark producing beautiful, elegant and remarkably comfortable furniture.

4.7 Audial practice 4.7.1 Listen to the text and render it either in English or in

Russian

Text 4 E

English Architecture of the 19th Century

In architecture the 19th century was that of Charles Barry, William Railton and Edward Baily. It was a period of romanticism, of industrial and social revolution, of the

railway. The eminent Victorians were looking back from the Middle Ages. Gothic was considered the true national style, and Tudor that of the century of England’s great glory. So when the Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire, Charles Barry rebuilt them in 1837-1867 in the Tudor Gothic style. He also built the Gothic St. Peter’s Church in Brighton. A Gothic architect William Railton built the Nelson Memorial in 1843. He had designed it as a Corinthian column with bas-reliefs of Nelson’s victories as its base, and the statue of Nelson which crowns the column was done by Edward Baily. It was only in 1867 that Landseer put his bronze lions at the foot of the column. As Barry’s later work was in the manner of the Italian Renaissance the decoration of the New Houses of Parliament was a compromise: classical in their symmetry and construction, but Gothic in appearance. Oddly enough, the Albert Hall which was being built at same time by a Royal Engineer, Captain Fowke, was classical in inspiration and simplicity, A huge cylindrical building with a terracotta frieze of the Triumph of the Arts, and a glass and iron dome.

4.8 Read the text and tell about modern English architects Text 4 F

Modern English Architecture Architecture in the beginning of the 20th c. failed to adapt new designs to new

technique and material, to steel, glass and reinforced concrete though the architects of the Edwardian decade of 1901-1910 Webb, Norman Shaw, Voysey and Mackintosh had been the most influential in Europe. In the 1930-ies the situation was reversed: the new functional architecture of the continent began to influence Britain, the new structures were stripped of ornament to emphasize the essential qualities of proportion and relation of parts to one another and the whole. It was particularly felt in Charles Holden’s designs for London underground stations and the early works of Owen Williams.

A new architectural group known as the Tecton group, founded by Berthold Lubetkin built the Highpoint Flats at Highgate a vertical garden city and Finsbury Health Center with its curved and tiled facade. Another architectural group which favored structural abstract art or formal relationship known as Unit One strove to give structural purpose to British art. Leslie Martin, C. H. Aslin, Maxwell Fry, Jane Drew and Basil Spence are the distinguished architects of post-war Britain. They, sort of, relaxed the austerities of the pre-war architecture. Their disposition of buildings was aesthetically satisfying. The Royal Festival Hall designed by Mathew and Leslie and Martin comes closest in its spirit to the first modern building the Crystal Palace.

4.9 With your partner make up a dialogue about one of the periods in the history of British architecture

4.10 Summarize your knowledge of the question under consideration. Speak about history of British architecture

5 Unit 5 Russian Architecture 5.1 Pretext exercises 5.1.1 Warming – up

Let’s have a wonderful journey around Russia 1) Are you fond of Russian architecture? Why? 2) Where can one see the finest examples of traditional Russian architecture? 3) What are the best examples of Russian architecture? 5.1.2 Read the words. Pay attention to the letters in italics [k] icon, can, carpenter, decorate, carve, cathedral, reflect, create, cubical, cabin [s] century, graceful, circular [ ] church, porch, such, which, touch, each, arch [ ] nature, structure, feature, architecture, sculpture [ n] tradition, decoration, reflection, creation, section, transfiguration, intercession, expression

5.1.3 Read the following words. Mind their meaning bell tower колокольняcarpenter плотникporch крыльцоlog-cabin избаslender тонкий, стройныйlavish щедрыйsplendour блеск, великолепиеgraceful изящныйmajestic величественный visible видимыйskill искусство, мастерствоgift дарование, талантembroideries украшениеband зд. пояс, полосаblind arch глухая (декоративная) аркаCathedral of the Transfiguration Преображенский соборChurch of the Intercession церковь Покрова 5.1.4 Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the principal forms to borrow (-ed; - ed) заимствоватьto predominate (-ed; - ed) преобладатьto create (-ed; - ed) создавать, творить

to gratify (-ed; - ed) удовлетворять, радоватьto year (-ed; - ed) стремитьсяto come down (came; come) приходить; переходитьto carve (carved; carven) вырезать, гравироватьto support (-ed; - ed) поддерживать 5.1.5 Find proper Russian words with the same roots as the following English words: icon, brilliant, traditional, natural, material, decoration, monastery, museum, harmony, silhouette, style, poetic, cubical, basic, faзade, section, vertical, column, horizontal, arch, figure, general, altar, cupola, circular, stimulate, massiveness, monumentality, expression 5.1.6 Choose the proper English word: 1) плотник a) brick layer b) builder c) carpenter 2) блеск a) splendour b) feature c) creation 3) крыльцо a) gate b) arch c) porch 4) колокольня a) church b) bell tower c) dome 5) украшения a) embroideries b) figures c) vaults 6) талант a) divinity b) power c) gift 7) изба a) structure b) log-cabin c) hut 5.1.7 Find English equivalents for the following Russian words: A изящный; преобладать; стремиться; величественный; создавать; заимствовать;

видимый; вырезать; радовать; тонкий; поддерживать; щедрый В to year; to borrow; lavish; graceful; to predominate; to carve; visible; to support;

to gratify; slender; majestic; to create 5.1.8 Form all possible word combinations: A brilliant B creation traditional structure huge decoration wooden dome masonry architecture ancient building majestic cathedral graceful bell tower decorative feature lavish element

5.1.9 Read the following word combinations and translate them into Russian: early architecture; icon painting; defensive sites; the most natural building material; beautiful carved decoration; fortress towers; wooden and masonry architecture; the few remaining examples; wooden church architecture; gracefully silhouetted multi-domed cathedral; cubical basic structure; slender columns; vertical wall section; small sculptured figures; stone embroideries; yearning for massiveness; expression of slendour; lavish decoration 5.2 Read the text and tell about early Russian architecture

Text 5 A

Early Russian Architecture

Russian borrowed its early architecture, like its icon painting, from Byzantium. From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries early towns were built on defensive sites on high river banks. From afar were visible low white walls with towers, churches with brilliant domes and bell towers. The finest examples of traditional architecture can be seen in the towns of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Suzdal, Bogolyubovo and Sergiev Posad. In Russia, timber has always been the most natural building material. Russian carpenters decorate the diverse structures they were building with beautiful carved decorations above windows and porches. One can see such decorations on log-cabins, fortress towers, huge cathedrals, churches and monasteries. Wooden and masonry architecture developed side by side in medieval Russia, one stimulating and gratifying the love for verticality and slenderness, the other satisfying a yearning for massiveness, monumentality, and lavish decoration in the expression of power and splendour. The few remaining examples of the ancient wooden structures are now in Rostov and also in the museums of wooden buildings in Novgorod, Kostroma and Suzdal. These examples show the skill and gift of their builders to harmonize the building proper with the landscape. The most majestic and famous examples of wooden church architecture may be found on the island of Kizhi in Lake Onega. Here you will be impressed by the grand and gracefully silhouetted multi-domed Cathedral of the Transfiguration and ten-domed Church of the Intercession with its bell tower. Wooden architecture predominates in Northern Russia and in some of the older settlements and towns of the Siberia, such as Tyumen. One of the best-known Russian churches in the northern style is the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (Pokrova na Nerli). Today it stands alone in the midst of green meadows, the small lake below reflecting its white walls and single dome. This church is one of the most poetic creations of early Russian architecture which ever come down to us out of the past. The church is not large, and very simple in plan, with the cubical basic structure usual for the north. It is light and graceful, the structure as a whole seems hardly to touch the ground. Each facade is made up of three sections divided vertically by slender columns, and horizontally connected by a decorative band of blind arcading of the same white stone as the wall itself. As for the

roofing, it was vaulted, so that each of the vertical wall sections ends in a blind arch, with long, narrow windows and small sculptured figures high up in the arch. The builders of the most of Vladimir and Suzdal churches used cut stones instead of brick, typical for Byzantine and Kievan churches. Also they used stone embroideries, uncommon in Byzantium. They adopted the general features of the square plan, with three altar apses and the four columns supporting a flat cupola with its circular drum. 5.3 Exercises to the text 5.3.1 Find the false sentences using the information from the text. Correct the false sentences: 1) Early Russian architecture was derived from the Byzantine architecture. 2) Early Russian towns were built on defensive sites. 3) In Russia, stone has always been the most natural building material. 4) Russian churches and cathedrals were rich decorated with carved decorations. 5) Masonry architecture was not developed in medieval Russia. 6) Wooden architecture predominates in Southern Russia. 7) The builders of the most Vladimir Churches used cut stones instead of brick. 5.3.2 Fill in the gaps with the words given below: 1) Low white walls with towers, churches with brilliant… and … were visible… . 2) Russian … were decorated with carved decorations. 3) There are some remaining examples of ancient … architecture in Rostov. 4) Vladimir and Suzdal builders widely used stone … . 5) The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl is one of the best-known … of early Russian architecture.

wooden; bell towers; creation; domes; embroideries; from afar; log-cabins.

5.3.3 Answer the following questions:

1) Where did Russia borrow its early architecture from? 2) What has always been the most natural building material in Russia? 3) Did wooden and masonry architecture develop side by side in medieval Russia? 4) What do the best examples of wooden Russian architecture show? 5) How is one of the most famous Russian churches in the northern style called? 6) Can you describe the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl? 7) What material did builders of Vladimir and Suzdal churches use? 5.3.4 Find in the text and put down key words that can be used to speak about early Russian architecture 5.3.5 Summarise your knowledge of the question under consideration. Discuss it with your partner. Use exercise 5.3.3 as a plan

5.4 You are a guide of foreign tourists who arrived in Moscow. Tell them about the best illustration of the Russian architecture in Moscow using necessary information from the text

Text 5 B

Moscow Attractions

On of the jewels of Russian architecture is the Moscow Kremlin with its cathedrals, its many towers and red-brick walls. The Kremlin is the heart of Moscow. It is the oldest historical and architectural center of the city. First Kremlin was a wooden fortress. Under Dmitry Donskoi the Kremlin was built of white stone. In 1474 Ivan III sent a mission to Italy to find the best architectural and engineering talent. They brought back with them Rodolfo Aristotele Fioravanti of Bologna who was at once an architect, an engineer, and an expert in military fortifications, Most of the other architects were northern Italians, mainly form Milan (Marco Ruffo, Pietto Solario, etc.). The Italians introduced a new concept of the fortress walls quite different in character from that of the old Russian white-stone Kremlins. Thus during the reign of Ivan III the walls of white stone were replaced by new red-brick walls and towers. Stone was given up in favour of brick. Henceforth stone was to be used for wall bases, decorative bands, cornices, and various ornamental features. The graceful rise of the walls and towers is the result not only of the fine proportions and slenderness of their architectural elements, but also of the special bricklaying technique employed. The sixteenth- century Kremlin had, on certain of its more vulnerable sides, double and triple walls battlemented and studded with towers, barbicans and drawbridges. Each tower of the Kremlin is composed of two principal parts: a massive square of circular base erected in the reign of Ivan III and a superstructure added to it at the end of the seventeenth century. The bases differ in size and proportions; but in all of them, especially in the square towers, there are certain similarities of exterior appearance as well as of their inner structure. The differences are more apparent in the superstructures, whose forms and architectural treatment are quite varied. All the five Kremlin gate towers – the Spasskaia (Saviour’s) Troitskaia (Trinity), Nikolskaia, Borovitskaia and Tainitskaia (Secret) – include the main tower with its superstructure, and a barbican tower in front covering and protecting the entrance gates. The oldest part of the Kremlin is the Cathedral Square and its three grand cathedrals. The Cathedral of the Assumption (Uspensky sobor) was built in 1475-1479. The Russian Tsars and Emperors were crowned here. The Arkhangel Cathedral (Arkhangel Cathedral (Arkhangelsky sobor, 1505-1508) was the burial place of Russian princes and tsars. The Cathedral of the Annunciation (Blagoveshchensky sobor), erected in 1484-1489 by master-builders from Pskov, was home church of Russian Tsars. It is famous for the icons painted by Andrei Rublev. The Kremlin walls enclose several palaces. The Patriarch’s Palace, built in the mid-seventeenth century for Patriarch Nicon is a museum of Russian seventeenth-

century life. On the west side of the Cathedral Square, next to Terem Palace with its golden domes, there is the Faceted Palace, designed for the imperial throne room. In the center of the Kremlin rises Ivan the Great Bell Tower, one of the most remarkable structures of the sixteenth century. It unites all the Kremlin Cathedrals into a majestic ensemble. Other notable buildings in the Kremlin include the Armoury Chamber, containing a magnificent collection of treasures, and the Palace of Congresses, the only modern structure, built in the early sixties. Just outside the Kremlin walls, on the edge of Red Square, stands the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin (Sobor Pokrova na Rvu), better known as St Basil’s Cathedral, one of the world’s most astonishing buildings. It was built by two Russian architects between 1555 and 1560 for Ivan the Terrible to celebrate his victory over the Tatar Khanate of Kazan. It is basically cross-shaped, the arms of the cross extending from a square center. The main church over which rises the central tower is covered with a tent-shaped roof and crowned with a gilt cupola. At each arm of the cross, along the principal axis is an octagonal church. Four other secondary churches (two square and two of irregular shape) are along the diagonal axis. All these elements are placed over a tall, vaulted substructure – the typical lower story of the Russian wooden churches. The pyramidal belfry at the south-east corner is separate form the church. The plan and the general massing of the elements are unusual, not only in the accepted concept of church design but in the distribution of the main masses. The main church is of stone and brisk and covered with stucco. In the seventeenth century, the entrance structure, originally white, was painted in variegated colours, the stairways were roofed over, the sheet iron covering of the cupolas was replaced with tile, and the old belfry was replaced with the present tentroofed bell tower. St Basil’s Cathedral embodies the characteristic architectural features of the wooden churches of North-East Russia, «translated» into masonry. The eight cupolas dominated by the central pyramid are all of the same general silhouette, but are different in design and colours. Notes to the text:

Trinity троицаSaviour спасительCathedral of the Assumption Успенский соборCathedral of the Annunciation Благовещенский соборFaceted Palace Грановитая палатаVirgin дева Марияgilt позолотаbarbican барбакан, навесная башняbelfry колокольня, башня 5.4.1 Write out English equivalents for the Kremlin attractions from the text 5.4.2 Write out key words describing St Basil’s Cathedral

5.4.3 Make up 7-8 questions to the text to cover the contents 5.4.4 Make up a written story about one of Moscow attractions. Use the text or additional material 5.5 You went on an excursion to St. Isaac’s Cathedral in St. Peresburg. Describe its exterior and interior using information from the text

Text 5 C

St. Isaac’s Cathedral St. Isaac’s Cathedral is a remarkable monument of Russian architecture. The history of the construction began in 1710, when the first wooden church was put up in honour of St Isaac of Dalmatia; it was on St Isaac’s Day, according to the Orthodox Calendar, that Peter I was born. The present Cathedral is the fourth that stood on this place. In the early 19th century a contest was announced for the best design of a new cathedral, in which well-known architects took part. In 1818 Alexander I approved a project submitted by A. Montferrand, a talented artist who had just arrived from Paris; however, he had little experience in architecture. The Cathedral took 40 years to be built. When putting up this gigantic structure a lot of complicated engineering problems had to be solved for the first time. In 1828, even before the walls were erected, installation of the 48 monolithic columns had begun, each weighting about 110 tons. The ideas of A.Betancourt, an engineer, made it possible to raise the 67-ton granite columns to the height of 40 metres and install them around the dome drum. St Isaac’s Cathedral is one of the largest domed structures in the world. The building, rectangular in its layout, rose 101.5 m high. Having area of 4 thousand square metres, the Cathedral can hold up to 12 thousand people. The dome is an original construction, including 3 domes; placed one over the other. The cathedral was completed in 1842, but it took 16 years more to decorate the interior with a lot of lazurite, malachite, porphyry, and other kinds of marble. The walls and vaults of the Cathedral bear paintings and mosaic works made by well-known Russian artists: C.Bryullov, F.Bruni, P.Basin, P.Shebuyev and others. On the whole more than 200 artists took part on the dйcor. Both inside and outside the Cathedral is decorated with sculptures made to the designs by I.Vitali, N.Pimenov, A.Loganovsky, P.Klodt and others. It was for the first time that the galvanoplastics method developed by B.Yakoby was used for making monumental sculptures. When you enter the Cathedral you pass through one of the porticos – note that the columns are made of single pieces of red granite and weight 80 tons (about 177,770 pounds) each. Inside the church many of the icons are exquisite mosaics. The iconostasis (the icon wall that separates the altar from the rest of the church) is decorated with 8 malachite and 2 lapis lazuli columns. The cathedral, which can accommodate 12 thousand worshipers, now serves as a museum, and services are held only on major occasions.

5.5.1 Find English equivalents in the text for the following words and word

combinations: замечательный памятник; объявить конкурс; лучший проект;

одобрить проект; представить проект; множество сложных инженерных проблем; поднять гранитные колонны; оригинальное сооружение; размещать друг над другом; украсить интерьер; сделать по проекту; впервые использовать; изысканная мозаика

5.5.2 Put questions to the following answers: 1) … ? St. Isaac’s Cathedral. 2) … ? In 1710. 3) … ? A. Montferrand. 4) … ? 40 years. 5) … ? In 1848. 6) … ? 16 years. 7) … ? Paintings and mosaic works. 8) … ? For monumental structures. 9) … ? A museum. 5.6 Audial practice 5.6.1 Listen to the text and be ready to answer the following questions: 1) Who created the Baroque in Russia? 2) Who invited Carlo Rastrelli to Russia? 3) Where did Bartolomeo Rastrelli study architecture? 4) What is Rastrelli’s masterpiece? 5) When was this project started? 5.6.2 Retell the text

Text 5 D

The Winter Palace

In Russia the Baroque was created by Bartolomeo Rastrelli. His father, famous sculptor Carlo Rastrelli was invited to Russia by Peter the Great. His sixteen-year-old son had no professional training when he came to Russia. He learned at the construction sites of St. Petersburg masters and became an architect of world renown, the designer of many magnificent palaces and churches in the Russian capital. The Winter Palace executed in the fine taste and on a gigantic scale is Rasrelli’s masterpiece. Rastrelli himself made the drawings and plans of the palace, designed the ornamentation patterns for window platbands, carvings, sculptures, lattices, parquetry, interiors and furniture. The palace building is nearly two kilometers long in perimeter.

Originally it had 1,050 chambers, 117 staircases, 1886 doors and1,945 windows. The project was started in the reign of Elizabeth, Peter the Great’s daughter who was fond of the Baroque, so the Winter Palace is lavishly adorned with columns, stucco window platbands and sculptures over the roof cornice.

5.7 Russian architecture is represented not only by remarkable monuments

of Moscow and St. Petersburg. Read the text about one of the finest Russian towns – Rostov. With your partner, make up a dialogue about architectural attractions of this town using information from the text

Text 5 E

Rostov was founded in 862. the town was growing up and becoming rich very

quickly. As Novgorod it was called “Velikii” that meant “the Great” In XIII century it became the capital of the independent knight-hood. In the XVII century the kremlin of Rostov was built. It wasn’t a fortress as kremlins in other old towns were, but it seemed to be more like a country-seat which consisted of several churches, houses and other buildings surrounded by the wall with 11 towers. All the towers are connected to the galleries in this wall and you can visit everything without walking on the ground. The churches of the kremlin are not big but they were built in a way that when the chorus sings the voices sound beautiful. One sight in Rostov is the Uspensky Cathedral (XVII century) and its tower with bells (XVII century). The cathedral was made alike to the Uspensky Cathedral in Moscow. The tower is famous for its 13 bells. The heaviest one is 3200 kg. Every bell rings its own note. There is a Red Room in the kremlin which was built for the reception of tsars, a White Room where dinners took place and one special Parting Room where metropolitans parted with honour -able guests. Now there is a Museum of folk art in the rooms. Different handicrafts are produced there. Silver shapes covered with enamel are of great value both in Russia and I the world.

5.8 You came to Russia as a tourist and you are interested in Russian architecture. Ask your friend about its brilliant works and essential features using information from the texts and your own knowledge on the subject

6 Unit 6 Famous Architects

6.1 Pretext exercises

6.1.1 Warming-up 1) What famous architects do you know ? 2) Who is your favourite architect ? 3) What works of the world famous architects can you mention ? 4) Do you agree with the statement that an architect is a contemporary of the future?

6.1.2 Read the words. Pay attention to the letters in italics [θ] authorship, authentic, seventeenth, cathedral, three, truth, theatre, third, mathematics [ð] with, there, northern, although, them, that, this, another, then, these, they, their [ kw] banquet, queen, require, quiet, quickly, quire, equal

6.1.3 Read the words. Mind their meaning evidence доказательство, подтверждение exact точный authorship авторство authentic подлинный, достоверный spirit дух vigour сила, энергия refined утонченный, изысканный courage мужество enormous огромный scarcity недостаток; редкость deviser изобретатель obvious очевидный, явный surveyor зд.: руководитель строительных работ decay разрушение, распад scheme план, проект entire целый; сплошной; полный spacious просторный, обширный piazza (базарная) площадь equal равный quire место хора(в соборе) molding лепное украшение, карниз discreet благоразумный, сдержанный modesty скромность, умеренность, сдержанность spatial пространственный notable выдающийся, заметный marvelous изумительный, удивительный

6.1.4 Read the following verbs. Mind their meaning. Pay attention to the

principal forms to intend ( -ed; -ed ) намереваться; предназначаться to prevail ( -ed; -ed ) преобладать; господствовать to approach ( -ed; -ed ) приближаться to require ( -ed; -ed ) требовать to establish ( -ed; -ed ) основывать, устанавливать to break with ( broke; broken ) порвать to imply ( -ed; -ed ) подразумевать to reveal ( -ed; -ed ) открывать, обнаруживать to breed ( bred; bred ) порождать; воспитывать to appoint ( -ed; -ed ) назначать to give ( gave; given ) давать to fail ( -ed; -ed ) потерпеть неудачу to approve ( -ed; -ed ) одобрять, утверждать to go on ( went; gone ) продолжать to owe ( -ed; -ed ) быть обязанным to write ( wrote; written ) писать to seek ( sought; sought ) искать

6.1.5 Find proper Russian words with the same roots as the following English words: tradition, association, number, classic, banquet, form, ambitious, idea, compositional, literature, character, artist, constructor, period, activity, rector, genius, problem, astronomy, mathematics, professor, talent, assistant, interest, visit, plan, restoration, grandiose, commercial, master, standard, element, colossal, career, perspective, proportion, column, decoration, delicacy, adaptation, hospital, observatory, monument

6.1.6 Choose the proper English word : 1) дух a) task b) spirit c) wonder 2) мужество a) courage b) rate c) master 3) место хора a) aisle b) quire c) nave 4) доказательство a) state b) career c) evidence 5) разрушение а) decay b) design c) dome 6) базарная площадь a) palace b) village c) piazza 7) план a) shape b) scheme c) arm 8) лепное украшение a) molding b) rebuilding c) demolishing 9) авторство a) deviser b) greatness c) authorship 10) сила a) truth b) vigour c) part

6.1.7 Find English equivalents for the following Russian words : A подлинный; огромный; подразумевать; требовать; утонченный; точный; потерпеть неудачу; быть обязанным; просторный; изумительный; обнаруживать; сдержанный; выдающийся; устанавливать; равный В notable; spacious; to fail; to establish; authentic; to imply; to owe; refined; enormous; to reveal; to require; discreet; exact; marvelous; equal

6.1.8 Form all possible word combinations : A exact B schemes Refined plan Considerable architect Famous evidence Grandiose influence Spacious courage Powerful vigour Equal tasks Traditional elements Colossal arms

6.1.9 Read the following word combinations and translate them into

Russian : the greatest architect to date; to be traditionally associated with; exact evidence of one’s authorship; prevailing architectural ideas; to be influenced heavily; scarcity of recorded works; on the part of an architect; to break with established tradition; deviser of construction; the true greatness; to be obvious even in childhood; spectacular talent; to come to notice; plans for restoration; in a state of decay; to give the opportunity; to suggest grandiose schemes; a spacious master plan; powerful influence; church authorities; to be far from the standards; to include traditional elements; to approve the plan; to make in the shape of a cross; to begin under patronage; the third largest in the world; the greatest achievement; to be notable for; plain slab of stone

6.2 Read the text and tell about Inigo Jones’ and Christopher Wren’s creative activity

Text 6 A

The Great English Architects

Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren are the greatest English architects to date. Inigo Jones’ ( 1573 – 1652 ) early years are traditionally associated with a

number of neo-classic buildings, but there is no exact evidence of his authorship. His first authentic building, and also his finest, was the Banqueting Hall in

Whitehall intended to form part of ambitious royal palace. The design of Inigo Jones

for Whitehall Palace ( 1638 ) and Queen’s Chapel ( 1623 ) in London introduced English patrons to the prevailing architectural ideas of northern Italy in the late 16th-architects such as Palladio, Serlio, and Vincenzo Scramozzi, Jones approached the Baroque spirit in his works by unifying them with a refined compositional vigour. Queen’s House is an Italian villa sympathetically reinterpreted. The upper floor loggia is very Palladian, as is also the two-armed, curved open staircase to the terrace. The proportions and the general effect are long and low and very un-Italian. It must have required considerable courage on the part of the architect to break with established tradition. It is small wonder that the influence of Inigo Jones was enormous despite the scarcity of his recorded works. It is said that Inigo Jones is to architecture what Shakespeare is to literature.

The chief task of the architect is to create buildings of character; this implies that the architect should be an artist as well as a deviser of construction. The true greatness as an artist and constructor is revealed in the works of another famous English architect Sir Christopher Wren.

The period of Wren’s activity as an architect covers the last forty years of the seventeenth century and extends for twenty years into eighteenth. Wren was born in the quiet Wiltshire village of East Kroyle. He was the son of the rector who was late to become Dean of Windsor. He was educated at Wensminster School and Wadham College, Oxford. His genius was obvious even in childhood, though then it was turned more to the problems of mathematics and astronomy.

In 1657, when Wren was 25, he was appointed Professor of Astronomy at Grasham College in London. His spectacular talents quickly came to notice of Charles II and in 1660 Wren was appointed assistant to the Surveyor General. To tell the truth, Wren never trained as an architect. His architectural career proper began under family patronage. His uncle commissioned him to design a couple of buildings at Cambridge ( Pembroke College Chapel ) and Oxford ( Sheldonian Theatre ). They are moderately successful and, at any rate, still stand. Wren’s interest in architecture was revealed after his visit to Paris in 1665. On his return to England he was asked by the King to produce plans for the restoration of old St. Paul’s which was in a state of decay. But the Great Fire of 1666 put an end to the possibilities of restoring the old cathedral. The Great Fire also gave Wren the opportunity to suggest two grandiose schemes: the rebuilding of the entire commercial heart of London to a spacious master plan with wide street, huge piazzas and long perspectives and the rebuilding of St.Paul’s. This first scheme failed because of the powerful influence of speculators and the second scheme was rejected by the church authorities as Wren suggested a Romanesque church dominated by a large rotunda covered by a dome. He wanted to make the cathedral in the shape of the so-called Greek cross with equal arms. This church would be far from the standards of usual Gothic church with quire, nave and aisles in the form of a cross with three short arms and one long arm. Wren was asked to make another plan which would include these traditional elements. This second plan was approved.

By 1666 Christopher Wren was appointed Surveyor General. It took much time of the architect. The colossal task of demolishing the old cathedral continued for 6 years. In November 1675 the rebuilding of St.Paul’s began. It was to go on for about 40 years.

Architecture, first and last and all the time, is proportion. Wren’s proportions – in his columns, his moldings, his decorations – all have delicacy. They are well-bred, well-mannered and discreet. His dome when he built it, was the thitd largest in the world. Yet such was Wren’s genius that he managed to give it an air of modesty. Wren’s greatest achievement, St.Paul’s Cathedral, London ( 1675 – 1711 ), owes much to French and Italian examples of the Baroque period; but the plan shows a remarkable adaptation of the traditional English cathedral plan to Baroque spatial uses.

Wren is also notable for his design of about 50 city buildings, marvelous for their beauty; Greenwich Observatory; Hampton Court Palace; Greenwich Hospital; Kensington Palace – the Grangery; Windsor Town Hall and others.

Wren died in 1723. He lies buried in St.Paul’s. His tomb is aplain slab of stone on which is written: “If you seek his monument, look around you”.

6.3 Exercises to the text 6.3.1 Find the false sentences using information from the text. Correct the

false sentences: 1) Jones’ early years are associated with gothic buildings. 2) Jones’ first authentic building was Queen’s Chapel in London. 3) Jones greatly influenced the development of the English architecture. 4) Christopher Wren lived and worked in the 16th century. 5) Wren’s genius was obvious even in childhood. 6) Wren studied architecture at Grasham College. 7) Wren prepared designs for restoring the St.Paul’s. 8) Wren’s first scheme was too advanced to meet with approval. 9) Christopher Wren presented English Rococo.

6.3.2 Complete the following sentences:

1) At the early stage of his creative activity Jones worked in … style.

a) gothic b) neo-classic c) rococo

2) Inigo Jones was heavily influenced by … architects. a) Italian b) Greek c) Scandinavian

3) Wren's creative activity began in the … . a) first half of the 18th century b) second half of the 17th century c) first half of the 17th century

4) At the age of 25 Wren was appointed … . a) assistant to the Surveyor General b) Surveyor General

c) Professor of Astronomy 5) St.Paul’s exhibits a brilliant example of English … .

a) Baroque b) Gothic c) Classicism

6) The rebuilding of St.Paul’s was to go on for about … . a) 4 years b) 14 years c) 40 years

7) Architecture is first of all … . a) decoration b) proportion c) perspective

6.3.3 Answer the following questions:

1) What are Jones’ early years associated with? 2) What is Jones’ first authentic and finest building? 3) What is the period of Wren’s creative activity? 4) Why is Wren considered to be a versatile man? 5) Why wasn’t Wren’s first design for rebuilding St.Paul’s met with approval? 6) How can we appreciate St.Paul’s cathedral? 7) What buildings were designed by Wren?

6.3.4 With your partner, make up a dialogue about the activity of Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren using the information from the text and your own knowledge of the subject

6.4 The year 2003 marks the 265th anniversary of Matvey Feodorovich Kazakov, one of the greatest Russian architects of the 18th century. Kazakov’s genius and prolific creativity contributed to the formation of a distinctively neo-classical style in Moscow. Read the text and tell about the works of the famous Russian architect

Text 6 B

Matvey Kazakov

Matvei Kazakov (1738-1812) was fortunate in his teachers, beginning with Dmitry Uktomsky whose school of architecture he attended, then with Peter Nikitin who directed the school after 1760. In 1768 Kazakov’s work came to the attention of Vasily Bazhenov. Thus, Kazakov was educated by the best Russian architects.

Kazakov’s first masterpiece was the Petrovskii Transit Palace (1775-82) (now Zhukovsky Air Force Academy).The palace combinated the fashion for the Gothic revival with motifs drawn from medieval Russian architecture.In 1776-87 Kazakov’s classical training produced one of the most important state buildings of Catherine’s reign – the Senate in the Kremlin. Kazakov’s task was to incorporate a new building

into the established ensemble. An accurately organised neo-classic structure was set off against the picturesque grouping and stylistic diversity of the Kremlin buildings. The Senate is crowned with a dome. The rotunda also overlooks Red-square. The rotunda was one of Kazakov’s favourite motifs. Kazakov’s skillis integrating the rotunda form into a large structure is evident in many of his designs including the Demidov mention at Petrovskoe. Kazakov applied the classical rotunda to church dezign. One of the earliest ecsamles of it is his church of the Metropolitan Philip (1777-88) on Vtoraya Meshanskaya Street(now Prospect Mira).

In addition to his imperial commissions and churches Kazakov aloso built to Moscow’s cultural and charitable institutions such as the university and the hospital. The urban context was important for the architect. The university, of 1782-93, largely destroyed in fire of 1812 and subsequently rebuilt by Domenico gillardi on Mokhovaya Street and Golitsyn Hospital of 1794-1801, now the First Municipal Hospital on Kaluzhskaya Street, are examples of it. The façade of the universitywhich faces the Kremlin with adorned with Ionic porticoes and the centre was topped with high attic, the sculpture on which made an effective show against the dome.

For all Kazakov’s prodigious output, his greatest contribution to the neo-classical décor of Moscow lay in his design of city mansions. Most typical of Kazakov’s urban houses in the three–storied mansion built in 1793-9 for merchant M. P. Gubin. Kazakov proved particulary successful in resolving the problem of creating a monument yet balanced structure within the confines of Moscow’s narrow central streets. The houses were set along the street, forming an ansamble with teir subsidiary buildings. Kazakov embellished Tverskaya Street with Y. I. Kozitskaya’s house(1790). It was remoulded into a grand department store by its later owners, the Yeliseyevs. Through the variation of individual devices Kasakov designed an astonishing range of urban houses. Thus, although the façade of A. N. Golitsyn’s house of the 1770s on Lubyanka Street lacks columns, its decoration is supplied by a balcony on elegant brackets and the delicate patterning of the window surroundings. Matvey Kazakov was an excellent teacher. In the 1780s he headed the school of architecture and devoted much time to teaching. Kazakov maintained the school under the auspices of theKremling Building Office, and in 1805 it got an official status as the College of Architecture.

Born in Moscow, Kazakov died in Ryazan in October/November of 1812 where the stick architect was taken by his family when the army of Napoleon was marching on Moscow. Matvey Kazakov could not survive the great fire of 1812 in Moscow and the destruction of his works.

6.4.1 Increase your vocabulary. Make some sentences of your own using the following phrases: to be fortunate in teachers to come to attention of somebody to incorporate buildings into the established ensemble picturesque grouping and stylistic diversity of buildings to be one of favourite motifs to be evident in many designs to make an effective show

to form an ensemble with subsidiary buildings to head the school of architecture

6.4.2 Ask your partner the following questions: 1) Whom was Kazakov educated by? 2) What was Kazakov’s first masterpiece? 3) What was one of Kazakov’s favourite motifs? 4) What was Kazakov’s greatest contribution to the neo-classical décor of Moscow? 5) What official buildings were built in Moscow by Kazakov?

6.4.3 Compare Kazakov’s residential houses and official buildings 6.5 Read the text to find answers to the questions

Text 6 C

Charles-Edouard ( Jeanneret ) Le Corbusier

1) What are the formulas of Le Corbusier’s new architecture? Le Corbusier ( 1887 – 1966 ) was the most influential and the most brilliant of

20th century architects. He published and publicized a number of total plans for cities with a centre of identical skyscrapers, symmetrically arranged in a park setting, with lower buildings and complex traffic routes between. The formulas of Corbu’s architectural typology, his “five points for a new architecture”: the slab, the split-level dwelling unit, the sunbreaker, the pilotis and the roof garden were to be the essential elements of the new aesthetic. 2) What does Le Corbusier’s “Le Modulor” mean?

He proposed the “Modulor”, a system of proportions grounded on the golden section or the Fibonacci series using the human figures as its basis, formulated the famous definition of architecture as ‘the masterly correct and magnificent play of masses brought together in light’. His comparisons with engineering constructions and with modern forms of transportation were formulated into such oft-misunderstood postulates as ‘the house is a machine for living in’ and that it should be as practically constructed as a typewriter. By this he meant not a mechanistic ‘machine aesthetic’ but rather complete rationality in plan, capacity for serial-production and function. 3) What were Le Corbusier’s expressions of luxury in architecture?

Le Corbusier’s works have become monuments of modern architecture with their general independence of terrain as well as a rich variety of interior and exterior spaces achieved by means of ‘double-height rooms, gallery floors, bridges and ramps with views into the interior as well as ‘framed’ views looking out, all expressions of a genuine luxury in architecture. 4) Why is Le Corbusier thought to be a leading figure in modern architecture?

Le Corbusier’s long period as a leading figure in modern architecture – for nearly half a century – was unique among architects of his time and is, finally, a reflection of his capacity to endow architecture with an expression which evokes the spirit of his epoch. In this sense he was at once the ‘terrible simplificateur’ in the

tradition of the rationalist enlightenment a creator of forms which endure well beyond his time.

Among his works are Villa Savoye, Poissy ( 1929 -1931 ); Pavillon Suisse, Cite Universitaire, Paris ( 1930-2 ); The Clarte apartment house in Geneva ( 1930 – 1932 ); Unite d’Habitation, Marseilles ( 1947 – 1952 ); the urban planning schemes for large North African and South American cities ( 1930s ); the Pilgrimage church of Notre Dame-du-Haut at Rouchamp ( 1950 – 1954 );the Carpenter Centre for the Visual Arts at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts ( 1961 – 1964 ); the plan of the city of Chandigarh, India ( 1950 – 1951 ), and others. Notes to the text: slab – плита split-level dwelling unit – жилая единица в разных уровнях sunbreaker – солнцерез pilotis – столбы-ходули, поднимающие здание над землей terrain – местность capacity – способность ramp – уклон, наклонная плоскость to endow – наделять to evoke – вызывать to endure – выдерживать испытание временем

6.6 Read the text and write the summary of it in Russian

Text 6 D

English Neoclassical Architects

Robert Adam is one of the outstanding representatives of Neoclassicism in

England. His executed works consisted mainly of the remodeling of existing houses, the most important of which were Osterly Park, Middlesex ( 1761 – 80 ); Syon House, Middlesex ( 1762 – 69 ); and Kenwood House, Hampstead, London ( 1767 – 69 ). At Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire ( 1765 – 70 ), He completed James Paine’s plan and added a garden front in which the central portion ( centerpiece ) is clearly derived from an ancient Roman triumphal arch, the first use of this form in domestic architecture. This use of antique forms in a new context is e recurring characteristic of Neoclassical architecture. Adam’s planning, to which he devoted considerable attention, was based on a variety of contrasting room shapes, each geometric in itself and contained within an overall geometric plan yet creating a sense of movement, variety, and surprise. Such play with shapes and spaces was to characterize Neoclassical planning, particularly in France.

Of the next generation the leading architects were George Dance the Younger, Henry Holland, and James Wyatt. Dance’s Newgate Prison, London ( 1769; demolished 1902 ), was among the most original English buildings of the century, a grim, rusticated complex combining the romantic drama of Piranesi with the discipline

of Palladio and the Mannerist details of Giulio Romano in an imaginative paradigm of Neoclassicism. Holland was architect to the Prince of Wales and his most important work in this capacity was the extensive remodeling of Carlton House begun in 1783, a refined and elegant whole with a joint debt to Adam and to France

6.7 Audial practice 6.7.1 Listen to the text and render it either in English or in Russian

Text 6 E

Louis Sullivan was the “father” of modern architecture in the United States of

America. He designed buildings with new ideas that have shaped American architecture since his time. He disapproved of classical stone columns and sculpture because they disguised buildings that were beginning to be constructed essentially of metal.

Up until one hundred years ago, the height of a building was limited by the amount of weight the walls could carry. High buildings required very thick masonry walls, which took up valuable inside floor space.

New methods, devised at the end of the 1890s, made use of metal beams and columns encased in masonry or concrete. The beam supported only the single story that rested upon it, and therefore the wall could be very thin. The weight passed to the end of each beam and was carried downward by the vertical columns to which the beams were attached. This method made higher buildings possible.

The Prudental Building, Buffalo, New York, was designed by Sullivan. The lines of the first two stories are strongly horizontal, suggesting a firm foundation for the building that rises ten stories. The windows are divided by slender, continuous bands that suggest columns supporting the floors. Flat ornamentation, invented by the architect, enriches but does not hide the structure. This is not the first building of this kind, but from such construction the skyscraper was born.

6.8 With your partner, make up a dialogue about one of the famous architects using information from the texts and your own knowledge on the subject. Don’t forget to mention:

when and where he worked what his favourite motifs in architecture are what his works are

6.9 Summarize your knowledge of the question under consideration. Tell what you think about the architecture of the future and the prospects of its development. Was the architecture of the past better in your opinion?

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7 Unit 7 Architecture. Glossary 7.1 Mind the meaning of the following architectural terms:

Aisle is the side subdivision in a church; all the subdivisions including the nave.

Altar is the most sacvet part in Christian churches.

Ambulatory is a continuous aisle in a circular building. In church, the ambulatory serves as a semicircular aisle that encloses the apse.

Apse is a semicircular or polygonal termination to or projection from a church or other public building. In most churches the apse is at one end of the building and contains the main altar.

Arcade refers to a series of arches supported by columns or piers. A passageway formed by the arches is also called an arcade.

Arch is a curved structure used to support the weight of the material above it. A stone at the top of an arch, called the keystone, holds the other parts in place.

Architrave is (1) the stone which in classic architecture is thrown from one column or pilaster to the next; (2) the moulding which in the same styles is used to ornament the margin of a door or window, opening or arch.

Band is a flat moulding or projecting strip of stone. Basilica is an oblong rectangular hall with double colonnade and apse used in ancient Rome for judicial assembles; a church built on such a plan. Bay window is a window projecting out word from the wall. It may be rectangular or polygonal. It must be built up from the ground. Bow window is similar to bay window but circular or segmental. Buttress is a support built against an outside wall of a building. A flying buttress is an arched support that extends from a column or pier to the wall. Cantilever is a horizontal projection, such as a balcony beam, which is supported only at one end. Capital in an order, forms the upper part of a column. It separates the shaft from the entablature.

Chapel is a small part or division of a large church having an altar. Clerestory is the upper story or row of windows lighting the nave of a church.

Column is (1) a vertical support or decoration of a building; in an order it consists of a shaft and a capital, and often rests on a base; (2) if standing alone it is a monument, usually made of stone. Corbel is a projecting stone (or timber) supporting or seeming to support a weight. Cornice is the uppermost part of an entablature. Crypt is the basement under a church or other building. Diptych is a painting , especially an altar-piece of two leaves, closing like a book. Entablature is the superstructure above the column where an order is employed. It is divided into the Architrave, which rests on the column, the frieze and the cornice (the projecting and crowning portion of an order or of a building). Façade is the front of a building. Flute is a shallow vertical groove. Fresco is this term, a corruption of the Italian word “affresco” or “freshly painted”, is used to describe the application of water-mixed paint to a wall freshly coated with a mixture of moist sand and slated lime. Frieze is (1) a middle part of an entablature, often sculptured and carved; (2) any band of sculptured ornament. Gable is the triangular-shaped wall carrying the end of the roof. Gargoyle is a waterspout carved from stone, usually in the form of a grotesque human being or animal, to carry of rainwater from the roof of a cathedral. Modeling is the art of fashioning objects in clay, wax, etc. Mullion is the upright bars of stone frequently employed to subdivide one window into two or more lights. Nave is (1) the central avenue of a church or cathedral; (2) the western part of a church; (3) occasionally, any avenue in the interior of a building which is divided by one or more rows of columns running lengthways. Order is (1) in classical architecture a single column or pilaster and its appropriate entablature; (2) a series of columns or pilasters with their entablature; (3) an entire decorative system. In classical architecture there are five orders. The Doric Order is the simplest one; it has baseless columns, the spreading capitals and triglyph-metope frieze above the column. The Corinthian Order is the slenderest and most ornate one. It has Ionic capitals elaborated with acanthus leaves. The Composite Order has the

capital that combines the Corinthian acanthus leaf decoration with volutes from the Ionic order. The Ionic Order is characterized by a moulded base, tall column shaft; its capitals have volutes. The Tuscan Order is a simplified version of the Roman Doric with plain frieze and no mutules in the cornice. Oriel is a window projecting like a bay or bow window not resting on the ground but thrown out above the ground level and resting on a corbel. Pediment is a triangular segment between the horizontal entablature and the sloping roof at the front of a classical-style building; a gable; an ornamental gable sometimes placed over windows, doors and other features of a building. Pendentive is a curved support shaped like an inverted triangle. Pendentives hold a dome. Pier refers to a large pillar used to support a roof. Pilaster is a rectangular column, especially one projecting from a wall which it supports; frequently used in classic architecture in combination with columns. Pinnacle is a small slender tower or turret built to ornament a roof, buttress, etc. Portico is a range of columns with their entablature (and usually covered by a pediment), marking the entrance to a building. Post and lintel is a method of construction in which vertical beams posts support a horizontal beam lintel. Rose window is a round ornamental window, usually of stained glass. Shaft is the main part of a column below the capital. Many shafts have shallow vertical grooves. Sculpture is (1) the art of fashioning objects out of clay, bone, wood, stone, etc.; (2) a piece of sculpture. Steeple is a high tower, especially one with a spire, usually on a cathedral. Transept is the area of a church or cathedral which cross the line of the nave; it forms the arms in a T- or cross-shaped church. Transom is a horizontal bar (usually of stone) across a window or panel. Triptych is a painting or carving on three panels side by side. Turret is small tower usually at the corner of a building.

Vault is an arched brick or stone ceiling or root. A barrel vault, the smallest form of a vault, is a single continuous arch. A groined vault is formed by joining to barrel vaults at right angles. A ribbed vault has diagonal arches that project from the surface. Volute is a spiral scroll of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals.