article 1 by jen fisette

7/30/2019 Article 1 by Jen Fisette

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A teacher uses the problem-diagnosis frameworks for target games (left) and for striking/fielding games (right).For this to be possible, however, the teacher's role in each

lesson and unit is criticaL The improvement of students'tactical awareness and game understanding might no t occur Without the teacher's ability to observe game play anddiagnose performance problems (Mitchell & Collier, 2009).Teachers may be able to follow th e TGFU game-practicegame format, but knowing what questions to ask, diagnosingperformance problems based on students' game play, andfostering opportunities for students to think Critically andsolve the tactical problem can be much more challenging.The Nature of Striking/Fielding and Target GamesThe games classification system is the TGFU frameworkthat organizes games based on their primary rules, whichidentify how the game is played and how winning can beachieved (Almond, 1986). There are four game categorieswithin the classification system: invasion (e.g., soccer, basketball), net/wall (e.g., volleyball, tennis), striking/fielding(e.g., softball, cricket), and target games (e.g., golf, pool).Each classification has its own goals, primary rules, andproblems to be solved (both offensively and defensively).There are additional differences among the game categories.For example, invasion an d net/wall games tend to be themost commonly taught in physical education curricula(Mitchell & Collier, 2009), whereas striking/fielding andtarget games are taught less frequently.

Striking/fielding and target games have less "flow" and aslower pace compared to invasion and net/wall games, whichdecreases the level of tactical complexity in them. The slowerpaced nature of games such as softball and golf providesstudents with more time to make fewer decisions withingame play and gives teachers more opportuni ty to observestuden t performance. In softball, the tactical decisions thatstudents need to make are situation specific. For example, onoffense, a right-handed batte r will need to determine whereto hit the ball with runners on first and second with one out.Simultaneously, defensive players should understand whereto throw the ball, move to, or cover, depending on where theball is hit. In target games, there is a greater emphasis on the

set-up and pre-shot routines-decisions t hat are made beforeskill execution even takes place. This is true for target gameswhen students are unopposed (e.g., golf, bowling) or opposed(e.g., croquet, bocce). When playing golf, students will firstneed to select a club based on the distance to the target andpotenti al barriers such as trees or bunkers, while accountingfor factors such as the "lie" and the d . During a gameof shuffleboard, students must determine whether they willtry to score or attempt to block their opponent from scoring. Regardless of the game, teachers have additional timeto observe and diagnose performance problems that occurbefore and during game play.Diagnosing and Addressing G a m e ~ P e r f o r m a n c eProblemsFigures 1 and 2 present frameworks for observing and diagnOSing game performance in striking/fielding and targetgames. These frameworks are similar to the invasion and nettwall frameworks, as they are comprehensive and designedfor all games within each game category (Mitchell & Collier, 2009). Although diagnosis problems are different instriking/fielding and target games, the first thing teachersneed to determine when observing game play is whetherthe students have a problem scoring or preventing their opponent from scoring. For example, dur ing a softball game ateacher may observe students hitting the ball without beingable to score any runs. Using the framework (figure 1) todiagnose the problem, the teacher realizes that the hittersare not hitting behind the base runner to move the runnerinto scoring position. This is not uncommon for most noviceand unskilled players, since their focus tends to be on making contact with the ball, rather than on where the ball willgo in the field. The teacher needs to determine whether theset-up (I.e., stance), pitch selection, or defensive coveragehave influenced the outcome of the batters or whether thestudents are having difficulty hitting to the right side of thefield. To solve this problem, teachers should focus on engaging students in game-like tasks that allow them to practicehitting the ball to the right side of the field, thereby moving

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Figure 1. A Framework for Diagnosing Performance Problems in Striking/Fielding Games

I Striking/Fielding GamesII

Are players able to score against their opponents? If not, is it because they have problems:

' \

/l I\(f" Scoring runs?ittingthe ball?

./ \..I ..-Instructional Focus:

Getting on baseHitting to theleft sideDefending thewickets

Defensivestrokes

\ Instructional Focus: Moving therunner

Hitting to theright sideHitting tospaces

Attacking strokes

I I Runningbetween bases!wickets?"- \

InstructionalFocus:Advancing

Base running Sliding Tagged upRunning toscoreRunning between

the wickets

IAre players able to prevent scoring by their opponents?

If not, is it because they have problems: \.. I /

Fieldingthe ball?

/InstructionalFocus:

Defending spaceby positionFielding!throwing

I / ' Getting theball to theinfield fromthe outfield?I

Instructional Focus: Defending space Base!wicketcoverage Cut-offs/relays Rackinu'0

) I Knowing where

to make theplay?./"- I

Instructional Focus: Communicating Calling the ball Informing

fielders of gamesituations Signaling i

number of outs I*Denotes instructional foci for scoring against an opponent when playing Cricket.

the runner into scoring position (even if i t means that thebatter makes an out).

At this pOint, the teacher has completed the first challengeof diagnosing the problem and conceiving the solution;however, the second challenge is to formulate thoughtprovoking questions that will lead the students themselves todetermine the problem an d its potential solutions. Devisingthe proper questions is not easy, as teachers must have thetactical understanding and content knowledge to scaffoldthe questions in a way that will allow students to figureout the problem and solutions on their own. Furthermore,since striking/fielding games are situational, determiningthe instructional focus for each potential scenario will berather difficult. This is why it is important to stop gameplay for "teachable moments" to increase students' tacticalunderstanding. The framework also accounts for Cricket, astriking/fielding game that is increasingly being taught inphysical education. For example, it is likely that players whohave difficulty scoring, but are able to defend their wickets,are unable to score due to thei r inability to hi t to open spacesto allow for running opportunities.I In target games (figure 2), the teacher can again use theframework to diagnose why students are having problemst scoring or preventing their opponent from scoring. In mosttarget games, the problem diagnosis will focus only on scoring because most target games taught in physical education

IOPERD Volume 81 No, 8 October 2010

are unopposed (e.g., golf, bowling). Because problem diagnosis and instructional foci for n o ~ s e d and opposed scoringwithin target games have many similarities, they have beencombined on the left side of the framework.

Tactical decisions in target games are made before the skillis executed, unlike in invasion and net/wall games, in whichdecisions are more spontaneous and occur during game play(Mitchell et aL, 2003). Novice golfers might have difficultyselecting a club based on the distance to the target, sincethey may be unfamiliar with the available choices and thestances that align with each club selection. For example, astudent may select a 3-iron instead of a 9-iron or pitchingwedge to chip the ball onto the green. Since they are unfamiliar with thei r club selection, they set-up for a full swinginstead of a chip shot. In bowling, students might be ableto knock down pins with their first ball, but they may havedifficulty picking up a 5-10 split. Teachers might observe thatthe students are inconsistent in their set-up and approach,which demonstrates their lack of understanding of how to approach the first and second bowls in a frame. The problem inboth of these situations is that students are having difficultydetermining how to approach a shot. Once again, teacherquestioning should guide students to think critically aboutwhat they are doing before the shot or bowl that ultimatelydetermines the end product (getting the ball on the green,or picking up the spare).

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TI Table 1. Implementing the Frameworks;Set-up .....RRE & ESP What are the rules, routines, and expectations of your lesson? How are you going to consider the equipment, space, and people for your games and situated practice?Tactical Problem What is the problem you want the students to solve?Lesson Focus What is th e focus of the lesson? How will students try to solve the tactical problem?Objective(s) What are the learning objectives of th e lesson?

.' ...... I . 'Teacher Role During Lessone s s o n S e q u ~ n c e ..

IOPERD Volume 81 NO.8 October 2010

Gamel What is the goal of th e task that you want

the students to perform? What conditions will you put on the gamethat emphasize the students having to solvethe tactical problem?

Question What questions will you ask to guide the

students in solving th e tactical problem?

Situated Practice What skill will help the students solve thetactical problem? How will you set up the task so it is game

like? What is the goal of the task that you wantthe students to perform?

What 3 teaching cues will you use to emphasize skill development?GameZ What is the goal of the task that you want

the students to perform?1 What conditions will you put on the gamet- that use the studen ts' skills from the situatedpractice while trying to solve the tacticalproblem?

Observation of Game Play What are some good and bad examples of on-the

ball skills and off-the-ball movements that alignwith the lesson focus?

Ask Thought-Provoking Questions What questions (who, what, where, when, why,

and how) will you use to guide students to offerpotential solutions to the tactical problem?

Instruction & Observation of Practice What 3 teachi ng cues will you emphasize duringth e situated practice? How will you demonstrate th e situated practice?

Wh o will demonstrate? How will you provide feedback based on the teaching cues?

Observation of Game Play How has your students' performance improvedduring the situated practice? Do the game conditions need to be changed basedon the game variability?Stopping Game Play Do you need to stop an individual student, group,or the whole class?Teachable Moments How did you use teachable moments during gameplay? What predetermined scenarios could you use before, during, or after game play that emphasize th etactical problem?

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practice based on the students' solutions to the problem.In this phase, teachers provide students with teaching cues(three are recommended) and demonstrate a game-like activity that emphasizes the solutions to the tactical problem. Forexample, in a softball lesson focusing on solving the problemof getting on base, a teacher may design a roll-and-run situated practice with four to five students playing defense andfour to five students as "rollers" (Le., batters or offensiveplayers). At each field, the students place target cones onthe left side of the field to guide the offensive players. Eachoffensive player rolls the ball to the left side of the field andimplements teaching cues such as stepping strong toward firstbase, keeping eyes on the base coach, and running throughthe bag (i f it is a force play situation). The defensive teamtries to throw the runner (Le., roller) out. After each rollerhas had a few attempts at trying to get on base, the offensiveand defensive teams switch positiOns. Teachers continue toobserve the students' performance during the practice taskand provide specific feedback based on the teaching cuesand tactical problem.

Game 2. This final phase of the game-practice-game for-mat consists of another modified small-sided game similarto Game 1. However, the goal and conditions may be alteredto include the skills that the students learned during the situated practice. Similar to the modified small-sided Game 1, thegame's goal (i.e., hit the ball to the left side of the field andreach first base safely) and conditions (Le., hitting the ball tothe left side of the field, scoring a ru n for reaching first basesafely, returning to the batting area whether safe or out, andending the inning when three runs are scored or three outsare recorded) can remain the same. However, the teacher canadd another goal for the players to try to improve their scorefrom Game 1 in Game 2. In Game 2, teachers can modify thegame further by allowing the rollers to advance to secondbase. One run can be awarded for reaching first base safelyand two runs can be given for reaching second base safely.This change in the goal and conditions challenges studentsto roll (or hit) the ball to the left side of the field; to implementthe teaching cues from the practice task when running to firstbase; and to pay attention to the base coach to see whetherthey need to run through the bag, round first base, or advanceto second. Conditions such as returning to the batting areawhether safe or out and ending the inning when three runsare scored or three outs are recorded can remain the same asprevious games when trying to solve the problem of gettingto base. Once again, teachers are active observers, looking forimprovement in students' game performance and diagnosing additional problems that arise during game play.

Another consideration when obserVing is game variabilitywithin the same class. For example, teachers might observethat the students on one field are having trouble reachingfirst base, whereas students on another field are having difficulty making an out. The problems at each of these fieldswill require separate diagnoses, and these diagnoses willinfluence the instructional foci of the next game or leSSOnin different ways.

Stopping game play to provide instruction or feedbackto students can be challenging for teachers. I f an individualstudent needs help, but the majority of the students are ontrack, then teachers might prefer to help just the individualstudent. But if several students are having difficulty with askill or movement, the teacher might consider stopping thatgroup or the entire class. Teachable moments also providethe opportunity for teachers to stop game play. For teachable moments to occur, teachers need to have a grasp of theteaching cues and spedfic tactics, in various game situations,to overcome the diagnosed problem (Light, 2003). Teachablemoments can take place during observation of game playor by using predetermined scenarios that do not necessarilyoccur during observation.ConclusionThe problem-diagnosis frameworks are designed to simplifythe challenges that teachers face in pinpointing studentperformance problems during game play. The frameworks canalso guide teachers to formulate thought-provoking questionsto enable students to determine the problems and potentialsolutions for themselves. The problem-diagnosis frameworksrecommended in this article can be used to prepare questionsfor s tuden ts, determine instructional foci, identify teachablemoments or relevant points for feedback, and for formativeand potentially summat ive assessment purposes. As teachersbecome more proficient in diagnosing problems and creating questions that foster critical thinking, they can havestudents observe and assess their peers, which can increasestudents' game understanding and overall game performance.Ultimately, the problem-diagnosis frameworks proVide teachers with observational tools that have the potential to guidetheir instructional foci as they attempt to increase students'game understanding and performance.ReferencesAlmond, L. (1986). Reflecting on themes: A games classification. In R.

Thorpe, D. Bunker, &: L. Almond (Eds.), Rethinking games teaching(pp. 71-72). Loughborough, England: University of Technology,Department of Physical Education and Sports Science.

Bunker, D., &: Thorpe, R. (1982). A model for the teaching of games inthe secondary school. Bulletin of Physical Education, 18(1), 5-8.

Griffin, L. L., Butler, J., Lombardo, B., &: Nastasi, R. (2003). An introduc-tion for teaching games for understanding. In J. Butler, L. L. Griffin,B. Lombardo, &: R. Nastasi (Eds.), Teaching games for understonding(pp. 1-14). Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and PhysicalEducation.

Launder, A. G. (2001). Play practice: The games approach to teaching andcoaching sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Light, R. (2003). Preservices teachers' responses to TGFU in an Australian University: "No room for heroes." In J. Butler, L. L. Griffin, B.Lombardo, &: R. Nastasi (Eds.), Teaching games for understanding(pp. 6778). Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education.

Mitchell, S., &: Collier, C. (2009). Observing and diagnosing student perContinues on page 56

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article 1 by jen fisette

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