asian architecture case study

Adaptation of Courtyard Design of Sky Court, Chengdu in related to Local Climate to achieve Thermal Comfort

ARC 2213/2234 Asian Architecture 1


Table of Contents Page

1.0 Abstract…………………………………………………………………… 2

2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………….. 3

3.0 Formation of Courtyard House design in response to

Local climate……………………………………………………………….4-6

4.0 Design Features of Courtyard House in order to achieve

Thermal comfort……………………………………………………………7

4.1 Courtyard Size……………………………………………………..8-10

4.2 Courtyard Orientation & Arrangement…………………………..11-12

4.3 Openings……………………………………………………………13-14

4.4 Landscaping………………………………………………………..15-16

4.5 Materiality……………………………………………………………17

5.0 Adaptation of Modern Courtyard House

(Sky Court, Chengdu)……………………………………………………...18-24

6.0 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………25

7.0 Reference…………………………………………………………………….26



1.0 Abstract

Courtyard used to be a common feature to provide thermal refuge from the

building. Especially in this densely developed environment, aspects of natural climate

control are needed to provide physical comfort of building occupants. A courtyard is a

method of providing this aspect. Courtyard had played a significant role in Chinese

architecture. It had become a basic design for most of the houses in China region.

Courtyard house developed years by years in adaptation of the local climate and

cultural beliefs of the locals. However, today in the rapidly developed China had

undergone the problem of insufficient space, enhancement and additional features are

brought in contemporary courtyard house to create better impact on thermal comfort.

Therefore, the objective of this paper mainly focus on the courtyard features adopted or

modified by the contemporary courtyard house, Sky Court in Chengdu, Southwest

China in inconsideration of the local climates to create great impact in thermal comfort.

The study will be mainly focuses on the urban architecture. This research uses library

documents and Internet sites as well as analysing building plans. Enhancements of the

courtyard features analysis are based on comparison between the modern and

traditional features regarding the impact on thermal comfort. Modified courtyard

features are elaborated separately in subtopics regarding their impacts on ventilating

the surrounding to achieve thermal comfort. The content widely explain the use of

feature in adopting the climatic factors in terms of ventilation to achieve thermal comfort.

Analysis of climatic factors such as sunlight exposure also related to ventilation in

aiding the temperature of the building to achieve ideal passive cooling idea. In

conclusion, courtyard features act as medium to allow various impacts to be

interrelated to each other in achieving better effect of thermal comfort in contrary to the

traditional courtyard house.



2.0 Introduction

In the highly developed building technology, a new trend of international

architecture is being strived between countries since 1950. The unified form of building

had swept away the regional traditional vernacular architecture. Building is more

emphasized on the style of particular period instead of the culture background and

climatic consideration. Building in urban context is mostly conditioned by HVAC

system. This had increased the energy consumption of the building, which then brought

to severe environment issues such as global warming. Therefore, climate adaptable

design should be introduced.

Courtyard house is the most well known style used in the contemporary

architecture because of it’s highly adoptability to the climate and thus provide good

ventilation and thermal performance. Knowing the adaptability of different vernacular

courtyard in response to regional climate can help in the future of modern architecture.

Therefore, this paper study is based on the essential features of traditional courtyard

house and how they’re being applied in the modernisation to achieve thermal comfort.

Research Questions:

1) How is the local climate in Chengdu, China (South West Region) and how’s the local architecture at that region?

2) What is the design features of the traditional courtyard house in ancient China

3) What define a thermal comfort environment?

4) What is the role of courtyard in contribution to thermal comfort?

5) How’s those design features of traditional courtyard adopted to Sky Court in related to local climate?



3.0 Formation of Courtyard House design in response to local climate

Dwellings are always designed in response to environmental context – climate,

since ancient times in order protect us from the vagaries of weather and provide

physical comfort. In traditional Chinese houses, varies style had been adopted in the

building form as to adapt to the local condition. This consideration of climate in

traditional dwelling can be seen in the practice of geomancy. Geomancy, also known

as Feng Shui (wind and water), which is the understanding of the nature to ensure the

building achieve harmonious state with the surrounding. Thus, knowing the

environmental climate is crucial in analysis the building features.

Chengdu, located in province of Si Chuan is situated in the South western of

China. Playing its role of Si Chuan’s capital city, Chengdu has the most population in

the province. It is located at 30.67 degrees north latitude, 104.06 degrees east

longitude. Being at the southwestern region, Chengdu is influenced by the monsoon

climate which encounters long and sweltering summer but freezing and short winter.

Annual mean is 16.14 ºC, range from -5.9 ºC to 37.7 ºC. It’s warm and temperate

climate thus received sufficient sunlight compare to the northern region with moderate

rainfall. South Asia Monsoon and East Asian Monsoon control it in summer.

Figure3.a: Cheng Du. (n.d.). Chengdu Overview. Retrieved from:http://gochengdu.cn/about/chengdu-overview



China is located in the northern hemisphere, locating near to the Pacific Ocean

and to the east of Europe, such strategic location for the monsoon to happen. As a

result, China is suffering monsoon very frequently. The wind direction changed

periodically due to different region and seasons. During the winter, most areas such as

desert zone and loess regions are suffering strong wind from north or northwest and

northeast. The origin of dwellings, which located along the Yellow river covers areas

where strong wind exist. Therefore, the best solution of protecting from the strong wind,

wall is built high, creating an enclosure on four sides, forming the traditional Chinese

architecture- courtyard house.

The courtyard, enclosed by the wall from four sided, creating a small introverted

world. The formation of the empty space in the middle is due to the explanation of Lao

Tzu in ‘Dao De Jing’, which related to geomancy (Feng Shui). The significance of

emptiness is explained in ‘Dao De Jing’: “ We put thirty spokes together and called it a

wheel; but it is on the space where there’s nothing that the usefulness of the wheel

depends. We turn clay to make vessels; but it is on the space where there’s nothing

that the usefulness of the vessels depends. We pierce doors and windows to make a

house; and it is on these spaces where there’s nothing that the usefulness of the house

depends. Therefore, we just take advantage of what is, we should recognize the

usefulness of what is not.” (Knapp, 17)

Figure3.b: China monsoon direction. Geography Practice Test. Retrieved from

http://staff.harrisonburg.k12.va.us/~cwalton/My%20Pictures/monsoons.jpg



According to Confucianism teaching, humanity should exist coherently with

nature. It maintains the comfort of the inhabitants by bringing in natural sunlight and

ventilation to the building. Throughout 2000 thousand years of China establishment,

more than the replacement of 20 dynasties, the creation of void became a thoughtful

design when there’s invasion of the changing dynasties. It protects the inner life from

outward misfortunes, living their lives in happiness throughout centuries without any

essential changes.

The empty hole in the middle of the Chinese courtyard house is known as the

most sacred location according to geomancy belief. The middle openings allowed the

sky ‘Qi’ to enter the house combined with the earth ‘Di’, forming a miniature universe.

The neutrality of both elements which are the sky that representing ‘Yin’ (Positive

energy) and earth that representing ‘Yang’ (Negative energy) is created by the middle

openings in the courtyard house. Neutralize the surrounding is significance to achieve

harmony in between the environment and human according to the book ‘I Ching’ by

Lao Tzu.

Incorporating the surrounding into building design has always been the

objective in forming courtyard house since ancient China. The courtyard house had

been the basic unit of the city throughout many years in China. Due to various

significant feature of courtyard house which very considering the surrounding; it is

incorporated into formal city planning, which arrange the courtyard formed houses in a

grid system in order to achieve a comfort live among the people.

Figure3.c: Combination of Yin and Yang.

Retrieved from http://www.penninetaichi.co.uk/index_files/Page1058.htm



4.0 Design Features of Courtyard House in order to achieve thermal comfort

Referring to ASHRAE Standard 55-2010, thermal comfort is defined as “that

condition of mind which express the satisfaction with the thermal environment and is

determined by subjective evaluation. It is also known as human comfort.

Thermal comfort is immeasurable as it is subjective depending on individual’s

definition of comfortable in relation to the thermal environment. It depends on the

relative air velocity, air temperature, metabolic rate, and thermal resistance of clothing,

air temperature and humidity in the environment. Referring to a book of Vitruvius, “Ten

Books of Architecture”, explain the essential relationship between the climate, comfort

and architecture. He mentioned that the climate, comfort and architecture could work

together to provide comfortable spaces in an uncomfortable climate surrounding.

This design strategy can be seen in Chinese courtyard house, which vary from

region in region, according to the local climate in order to achieve thermal comfort.

Courtyard house’s design features such as orientation, form, size, proportion,

landscaping, finishing materials and openings may affect the thermal performance.

Figure 4.a: Adaptive approach of thermal comfort diagram.

Retrieved November 21,2015, from http://www.new-learn.info/packages/clear/thermal/people/adaptive/index.html



4.1 Courtyard Size

In Northern area with colder climate, courtyard is built with wide opening and

normally is in one floor level. However, in Southern area with warmer climate, courtyard

is built with small and narrow openings and normally is built high. (More than one floor)

Courtyard houses of central Shanxi (North east China) were almost the same,

except some tended to be narrower- in other words to be rectangular or square. In

southeastern of Shanxi, the courtyard system was followed as the standard Beijing

courtyard house but was built in two stories. In central Shanxi, where courtyards were

built log and narrow, roofs of the wing were sloped only for one side. Most houses with

sky well are those encountering hot summer.

The degree of openness to the sky, defined as the aspect ratio serves the

formula of:

Aspect ratio = area of the courtyard floor

(Average height of surrounding walls)

The formula stated the higher the ratio, the higher exposure of courtyard. High

respected ratio (wide and shallow courtyard) served as sun collector while low respect

ratio (high and narrow) served as sun protected.

Several studies had done by Mohaisen and Gadi (2005) in finding the ideal

proportion of circular, polygonal and rectangular courtyard house. The finding had

shown that varying the proportion might deeply influence the shading and exposure

percentage of sun radiant. The study resulted that shallow courtyard has better

performance than deeper one in terms of exposure.

2

Figure 4.1.a: Circular form of courtyard. Mohaisen & Gadi (2005)

Retrieved from http://iicbe.org/siteadmin/upload/4274C0615072.pdf



During the study, recommended form for achieving low energy consumption for

cooling in summer resulted in polygonal shape of courtyard. Referring to figure 4.1.b as

shown below, shows the deeper the form, the more internal shaded areas in summer.

For winter, shallow form is preferred as more exposure area to sunlight.

The study not only involves circular and polygonal form of courtyard but also in

traditional form of courtyard in China, which is the rectangular courtyard. The outcome

showed the desired courtyard height to obtain preference thermal performance in

summer and winter is three stories in hot humid climate, two stories in hot and

temperate climate and single story in cold climate.

Figure 4.1.b: Polygonal courtyard forms. Mohaisen & Gadi (2005)


Figure 4.1.c: Rectangular form of courtyard. Mohaisen & Gadi (2005)




Therefore, northern region in China that suffers long period of cold winter and

short summer. Having minimal sunlight throughout the whole year had resulted the

courtyard to be built slightly bigger to allow excessive solar penetration into the building

during wintertime and provide protection from the strong wind during winter. Insulation

of the building is achieved by the use of 370mm thick brick wall and window with

sealed rice paper. However, in Southern region of China, climate is warmer and

temperate with excessive sun radiation. This affects the size and proportion of

courtyard to be slightly narrower and higher to prevent excessive sun radiation. Table

below shows the difference of height in northern and southern of China.

Northern China Courtyard House Southern China Courtyard House

Heilongjiang province, Northeast China

Jiang Xi province, Southeast China

Beijing Province, North China

Fujian Province, Southeast China

Shanxi Province, North China

Jiang Nan Province, Southeast China

Table 4.1.a: Courtyard house comparison between North and South China



4.2 Courtyard Orientations and Arrangement

Building need to able to adopt the hot summer and cold winter. Thus, building

should be able to keep the heat inside while during summer; building should be able to

block the heat from the outside and allow cool air to enter. This can be done in

response to the building orientation and arrangement as it affects solar penetration and

air flow into the building.

Traditional courtyard house in China is always found to be South-facing. It is

actually based on the cosmic Chinese belief in achieving the state of harmony as

stated by Confucianism.

City plan of ancient China is in a cardinal grid, which having rectangular

arrangement in four cardinal direction. The cardinal grid is formed by the cosmic

Chinese definition of the world which north is considered as the central of the world.

Therefore, emperor building had been situated at Northern part of the city. From this

central point, the building is facing south at all times. According to the cosmic Chinese,

emperor building is required to face south. This city plan had been adopted through 7

Figure 4.2.a: Cardinal Grid of the Tai’Chi Palace (Chang’an) in the central northern axis

Retrieved from: https://quadralectics.wordpress.com/4-representation/4-1-form/4-1-3-design-in-city-building/4-1-3-3-the-

squarerectangular-model/



imperial cities in Chinese history such as the Forbidden City and the City of Chang’an

as shown in the figure 4.2.a.

This had affected the orientation of the local family courtyard house, which built

according to the Forbidden City. They tend to have most of the function space to face

south. The south facing direction is also work efficiently in response to the local climate

as south direction serves the most sun exposure. High exposure to sun radiation is

essential in building during wintertime as it cool north wind.

In southern region, building tends to arrange in a compact way and higher

compare to northern region, which has spatial building area. The compact block

arrangement acts as ‘Cool Island’ as it demonstrates efficient solar control. The

grouped buildings formed shaded alleys by the overhanging roof and thus deflect the

solar rays enabling the house to be in cool state during hot summer. In northern region,

building area is built with wide coverage area and more spatial to allow excessive

sunlight due to long winter.

Figure 4.2.c: South region courtyard house with compact arrangement

Adapted from Tu Shuo Min Ju, by Q. J. Wang, 2004, China.

Figure 4.2.d: North region courtyard house with wide arrangement

Adapted from Tu Shuo Min Ju, by Q. J. Wang, 2004, China.

South

Figure 4.2.b: South oriented courtyard house

Retrieved from: http://www.plea2014.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Paper_3A_2257_PR.pdf



4.3 Openings

Air movement occurs when there’s difference in pressure or temperature

between two locations. Existing of the large opening in the middle of the courtyard

house (the courtyard) allows the occurring of pressure difference and temperature

difference. This drives natural ventilation throughout the building. However, building in

China region need to able to adopt the hot summer and cold winter. Thus, building

should be able to keep the heat inside while during summer; building should be able to

block the heat from the outside and allow cool air to enter.

Courtyard opening also known as atrium/sky well (depend on size), acts as heat

sink. The floor beneath the courtyard acts as heat storage and radiant, which receive

the heat from the surrounding, and radiant to the in contact medium through

conduction.

During the daytime, the heated air rises to the roof level and replaced by the

outside slightly cooler air into the building, forming stack ventilation. However, during

night time, the exchange of heat occurred between the roof level and the bottom of the

courtyard through convection (Hot air rises and cold air sinks). The newly formed cool

layer of air (due to the cooling night sky) sinks through the atrium and flows into the

interior of the house. The cold air flow into the house and withdraw the heat stored from

the massive interior wall and floor elements. Ventilation occurs when the exchange of

heat occurs through convection process. The cooled interior wall during nighttime is

Figure 4.3.a: Cold air formed at the roof sinks into the courtyard ground floor (night time) &

Cool air stored within the shaded wall radiates to the surrounding (day time)

Adapted from The Courtyard House as a Temperature Regulator, D. Durham

(September 1960)



then radiates to the cool the surrounding during daytime. The cycle then goes again.

Therefore, small openings near the courtyard openings is advisable to enhance cross

ventilation through the building but need to be sealed during winter time to prevent the

prevailing winds from entering the interior.

Figure 4.3.b: Stack ventilation and cross ventilation by convection within the courtyard

Retrieved from: http://www.architecturalreview.com/pictures/606x422fitpad[0]/8/5/5/1292855_TYPICAL_COURTYARD.jpg

d (night time)



4.4 Landscaping

It is written that the culture of having a built in garden with the house started

from Northern Song capital. It is not known how many gardens exist within but they

must have been breath-taking and exist in large scale. Private garden was

considerably important during the Song Dynasty and was built throughout the whole

China at that time. Some were the pond-and-hill variety, either one pond two hills such

as Fuzheng Garden or one hill with two ponds such as Huanxi Garden. Artificial

mountain was also introduced into the building at area without hills. Others were the

flower-garden type which being adopted by courtyard house nowadays as the scale is

much more smaller.

Water feature is then corporate normally in the middle of the plantation. Indeed,

water feature is as important to a geomancer’s design as are mountains. Water is as

wealth and the source of energy. All ‘Qi’ depends on transport by water. Thus, building

with water features is considered as at strategic sitting. Water feature has higher heat

capacity compare to the concrete pavement and thus able to absorb more heat during

the daytime. The evaporation of the water feature also contribute cool air to the

Figure 4.4.a: Courtyard house with water feature and vegetation

Retrieved from: http://www.blairmus.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/interior-courtyards-with-chinese-rounded-

door-also-stone-pool-garden-and-gray-clay-roof-915x607.jpg

d (night



surrounding, cooling down the temperature but might provide milder effect around the

area which suitable during summer time.

By adding vegetation into the courtyard is the most economical way in increase

thermal comfort within the courtyard, since grass require relatively high quantity of

irrigation and thus contributed to the increase in thermal comfort. By replacing the

concrete floor by vegetation provide warmer condition in winter and cooling effect in

summer. Soil and grass floor may increase the cool down the surrounding temperature

by evapotranspiration, which works at the same principle than the water ponds. The

canopy of the vegetation also provides shaded area in the courtyard that then resulted

in thermal comfort.

Figure 4.4.b: Evaporation process by vegetation in courtyard

Retrieved from: http://collections.infocollections.org/ukedu/collect/ukedu/index/assoc/sk02ce/p157a.gif

d (night time)



4.5 Materiality

Building can be insulated from quick heat transfer via the choosing of

construction material. Material, which seemed to be denser, has higher heat capacity

and thus slowing down the heat transfer process. The amount of heat that can be

stored in high heat capacity is higher than those with lower heat capacity. Usually

denser material has higher heat capacity such as brick, masonry and adobe.

Spaces with these materials help to cool down the surrounding by absorbing

heat from the surrounding during summer. In winter, these materials can prevent heat

loss to the surrounding. This can be seen in the early dwelling in dessert area in

Shanxi, China. Dwelling at this place is built using mud obtained from the surrounding

known as ’Yao Dong’, normally built within the topography, the cave. The early

courtyard house was built by brick façade with fire prevention function.

Figure 4.5.b: Yao Dong located at Shanbei, China

Retrieved from: http://m.xjlxw.com/xb/sx/mfms/7696.html

Figure 4.5.a: Brick façade of traditional courtyard house

Retrieved from: http://r-ec.bstatic.com/images/hotel/840x460/566/56644124.jpg



5.0 Adaptation of Modern Courtyard House (Sky Court, Chengdu)

Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan province is undergoing a rapid growth in

urbanisation. Urbanisation brought advantages to the growth of economics, agriculture

and etc. However, there’s side effect of the urbanisation. Referring to the journal The

Challenges of Urbanisation in Chengdu, China (n.d. December 22,2012), Chengdu is

now having the challenge of losing the traditional culture. Modern building had been

emphasized during the modernisation process. To prevent losing of the culture, local

traditional building is renovated to become another function space and building at this

region is preferably to take reference from the traditional building.

Sky Court, Chengdu took reference from the traditional courtyard house,

functions as the corporate club house which house the short-term housing, offices, and

entertainment facilities.

Figure 5.a: Overview of Sky Court, China

Adapted from Sky Courts / Höweler + Yoon Architecture. Arch Daily. 25 October 2012. Accessed 22 November 2015.

Retrieved from http://www.archdaily.com/285679/sky-courts-howeler-yoon-architecture

A

d (night time)



Locating in southwestern China, Sky Court tend to adopt traditional courtyard

house which located at the southern part of China which has the significant small size

of courtyard (sky well) arranged in a compact form. Unlike those normal courtyard

house, which has the central focus where plays as the main space of the house, Sky

Court does not have the focal space. It’s arranged in a compact form with a network of

multiple sky wells, courtyards, multiple alleys and multiple centres. Due to the site

constraint, which locates in the middle of the city, Sky Court is unable to build as in grid,

which that ancient courtyard house practiced.

The irregular arrangement help in preventing direct exposure to the sunlight suited the

local climate of long and hot summer with short cold winter. It is built refer to the typical

southern region architecture as mentioned in previous chapter. (Chapter 4) The

layering of the courtyard also enables the reflection of airflow within the courtyard. This

had not done in the ancient time which function very suitable to the urban context with

high temperature.

Figure 5.a: Irregular arrangement of Sky Court via plan drawing



A

d (night time)



Adopting the ancient southern courtyard design, Sky Court is built in great

height. This is to protect the interior of the courtyard from the exposure of the strong

summer sun penetration. Unlike the ancient roof design, Sky Court adopted inward

sloping roof, which made by ceramic tiles. Without having the overhanging eaves to

shade the pedestrian, Sky Court has a shaded courtyard. The roof design is influenced

by the Yuan Nan architecture at southern east of China. Due to the site restrain, Yuan

Nan people hardly have space to extend their roof to overhanging eaves. Therefore,

roof is built inward. Besides, referring to the book of Tu Shuo Ming Su (Q.J. Wong,

2004), Yuan Nan people have the belief of having an inward sloping roof has the

symbol of coming wealth into the family. This is because during raining days, the water

will flow inwards the courtyard, and symbolize coming wealth to the building.

Figure 5.b: High courtyard façade elevation



A

d (night time)



Surrounding the courtyard has the whole stretch of fenestration, enhancing the stack

ventilation in between the courtyard. It is adopted by the overhanging spaces around

the courtyard. However, the Sky Court is sealed with glass window. In ancient

courtyard house, some do not even have doors, but using of arch to differentiate the

inside and outside as shown in figure below.

Figure 5.c: Fenestration surrounds the courtyard



A

d (night time)

Figure 5.d: Fenestration surrounds the ancient courtyard

Retrieved from http://www.travelchinaguide.com/images/photogallery/0002000/yonghegong%2010001845tm.jpg

A

d (night time)



Material used in the fenestration is by a material called Corten. This Corten

material creates the wood-like texture in Sky Court. Corten is type of weathering steel,

which has high resistance in corrosion. The advantage of weathering steel is it forms a

stable rust is appeared to atmospheric pollutants. Different patterns will be formed by

catalyse corrosion. This material will create more interesting texture in urban area,

which contain higher intensity of pollutants, giving the building a wood-like texture. The

Figure 5.e: Fenestration of Sky Court



A

d (night time)

Figure 5.e: Fenestration material of ancient courtyard house (timber carving)

Retrieved from: http://www.chinancient.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/carved-windows-01-300x210.gif

A

d (night time)



replacement of timber material with steel is the higher resistance to urban climate

which timber might have corrode faster than steel.

Referring to the site plan above shows the existing of landscape within the courtyard.

Landscaping had been one of the significant features of traditional courtyard house,

which help in regulating the surrounding temperature.

Water feature and Vegetation

Figure 5.g: Site Plan of Sky Court



A

d (night time)

Figure 5.h: Existing of vegetation in Sky Court



A

d (night time)



Since ancient China, courtyard house is built by using high thermal mass

material like stone, brick or adobe. Due to the better thermal performance of highly

thermal mass material, Sky Court is adopted the brick as building material. The

arrangement of brick is further development into slightly in angle for further

enhancement of cross ventilation. The small openings created by the arrangement of

brick allows breezes and partial sun light penetrate into the building, forming passive

cooling and heating, environmental friendly building in this highly compact urban

context.

Figure 5.i: Brick façade of Sky Court



A

d (night time)



6.0 Conclusion

In conclusion, traditional vernacular Chinese house adapt to their site context

very well based on the local climate according to the geomancy which aim to achieve

harmony between the nature and the man. Although the whole China practice the

same courtyard house, but resulted in different style of courtyard house in response to

the local politic, economic status, people culture and mainly affected by the climate.

The adaptation of building to the surrounding is totally be forgotten when design in city.

Emphasize of urban design had been put into cost management, and efficiency.

Design without considering the context will definitely facing problem of excessive

energy assumption. Passive design is highly recommended in urban planning as it

consumes little energy and little harm to the surrounding context. Adaptation of Sky

Court, Chengdu was amazingly done by the America architect, Höweler + Yoon

Architecture. Further development of courtyard features was done, such as the

arrangement of fenestration along the courtyard and the choices of material in

consideration of site context. Modernisation is brought in to combine with the traditional

vernacular design, which will end up in an astonishing way. Design should not be

deviated between nature and human. The wisdom of the ancestors should be

continued and further enhanced to achieve the ultimate goal of every being referring to

the cosmic Chinese, which is the state of harmony.



7.0 Reference

1) Yuan, L. (2013). Wind Environment Characteristic in Chinese Vernacular Courtyard and Its Design Application. Paper presented at 47th International Conference of the Architecture Science Association, pp. 493-502 Retrieved from http://anzasca.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/7.pdf

2) Mohammad Talinggani (2014). Dwelling on Courtyard, Architecture and the Built Environment. Retrieved from http://abe.tudelft.nl/index.php/faculty-architecture/article/view/taleghani

3) Sheikh Mehreen Feroz (2014). Achieving Thermal Comfort by applying Passive Cooling Strategies to Courtyard Houses. Retrieved from http://bspace.buid.ac.ae/handle/1234/696

4) Swasti Sthapak & Abir Bandyopadhyay (2014) Courtyard House: An Overview. Retrieved from http://recent-science.com/

5) Ronald, G. K. (1992) Chinese Landscapes. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.my/books?id=wndqi4A4AIYC&dq=north+china+courtyard+and+south+courtyard+in+China&source=gbs_navlinks_sz

6) Mat, S. (2013) Environmental Design of Urban Buildings. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.my/books?id=CKS7MbLQdBkC&dq=southern+compact+building+arrangement&source=gbs_navlinks_s

7) Xu, P (1998) Feng Shui Model Structured Traditional Beijing Courtyard House. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research 15:4, 271.

8) Friedrich, R (2003) Traditional Domestic Architecture of Arab Region. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.my/books?id=dLWm6eVwnwAC&dq=south+facing+courtyard+house+advantage&source=gbs_navlinks_s

9) Paul, W. (2012) How the Rise of the Megacity is changing the way we Lived, Chengdu. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/jan/21/rise-megacity-live?CMP=twt_gu

10) Arvind Krishan (2001) Climate Responsive Architecture. Retrieved from https://books.google.com.my/books?id=3FiQnjYAEKwC&dq=heat+capacity+material+in+courtyard&source=gbs_navlinks_s

11) Limor, S., David, P., Evyatar E. (2011) The Influence of Trees and Grass on Outdoor Thermal Comfort in a Hot Arid Environment. Journal of Climatology, 31: 1498–1506. Doi: 10.1002/joc.2177

12) Daniel, D. (1960, September 8). The Courtyard House as a Temperature Regulator. The New Scientist, pp. 663-666

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