bezhta binominal word-formation in the …folk.uio.no/stevepe/midterm2016.pdf · a study in...

BINOMINALWORD-FORMATIONIN THE WORLD’SLANGUAGES

Steve Pepper, University of Oslo

Mid-term PhD evaluation, 11.11.2016

Bezhta kil.o.s hino

[iron.OBL.GEN way]

Cree pīwāpisk.o-mēskanaw

[iron.LE-road]

German eisen.bahn

[iron.track]

Greek σιδηρ.ό.δρομος

[iron.LE.road]

French chemin de fer

[way PREP iron]

Georgian რკინიგზა[iron.??.road.??]

Hebrew מסילת ברזל

[track.CON iron]

Malagasy lala.m.by

[road.PERT.iron]

Russian желез.ная дорога

[iron.ADJZ road]

Slovak želez.n.ica

[iron.ADJZ.NMLZ]

Bora túú.heju

[nose.CM(hole)]

sidir.o.dromos

rkin.i.gz.is

mesila.t barzel

želez.naja doroga

Outline

• Introduction

– Background, comparative concept, theoretical framework,

research questions

• Previous research

– Compounds, prefiguring “binominals”, lexical typology

• Data and methodology

– Method, meaning sample, data sources, language sample

• Preliminary findings

– […]

• Analysis

– Formal, semantic and statistical analyses, typological classification

Steve Pepper Binominal word-formation in the world’s languages 2

INTRODUCTION

Background

The comparative concept

Research questions

Theoretical framework


Nominal compounding

• Previous cross-linguistic studies of compounding

– Bauer (2001) – well-balanced 36 language sample

• few generalizations to report

– Guevara & Scalise (2009) – 80,000 compounds, 21 languages

• scales of preference only

– Štekauer, Valera & Körtvélyessy (2012) – 70 language sample

• scope includes derivation

• main concern: presence or absence of different types of compound

• Surprisingly few insights…

– Possible reasons

• Scope too broad

• Scope too narrow (!)


Narrowing the scope

• Object of study defined too broadly

– Attempt to cover every type of compound

• nominal, verbal, adjectival, …

• noun-noun, noun-adjective, …

• root compounds, synthetic compounds, …

• determinative compounds, coordinative compounds, …

– Complicates the typology, obscures interesting tendencies

• e.g. Mandarin’s LH verbal compounds and RH nominal compounds

• Solution

– Narrow the focus to N+N compounds

• or more precisely, determinative N+N compounds

• Wälchli (2005) has already done a good job with co-compounds

compounds

in general

noun+noun

compounds

formal narrowing


Broadening the scope

• How to define N+N compound?

– eisen.bahn [iron.path]

– sidir.o.dromos [iron.LE.road] (?)

– ? chemin de fer [way PREP iron]

– ?? želez.naja doroga [iron.ADJZ road]

• Comparative concept

– Comparative concept must be

language-independent

– Cannot be defined in purely formal terms

(Haspelmath 2010)

• Conclusion

– Employ a functional definition

binominal naming

constructions

functional broadening

Function of N+N compounds:

To name COMPLEX CONCEPTS

that involve an un(der)specified

RELATION between

TWO ENTITIES

compounds

in general

noun+noun

compounds

formal narrowing


entity: something that has separate and distinct existence and objective or conceptual reality (Merriam-Webster)

Binominal naming constructions

• Constructional schemas for naming units that consist principally

(and prototypically) of two “thing-roots”, i.e. roots that denote

physical objects (Haspelmath 2012)

• Instances of such schemas are called binominal naming units,

or binominals for short

• Not to be confused with

– binominal quantifier expressions

• Sp. un montón de amigas ‘a heap of friends’ (Verveckken 2015:3)

– expressive binominal NPs

• Eng. an angel of a child (Foolen 2004)

– type-noun binominals

• Fr. une espèce de baleine ‘a kind of whale’ (Mihatsch 2016)

• Informally:

Noun-noun compounds and their functional equivalents


• Equivalent to Type 3 (Štekauer 1998)

– forms with a complex mark in which the

determined (actional) element is not present

• Major consequence #1

– synthetic compounds are out of scope

• e.g. English truck-driver

• because the determined element is

present (DRIVE is not a thing-root)

– NVN constructions are out of scope

• e.g. Vietnamese bữa ăn sang

[meal eat morning] ‘breakfast’

• again, the determined element

(here: EAT) is present

complex form

markpresent

complexmark

determined elementpresent

determining element present

OT 1

no determining element

OT 2

nodetermined

elementOT 3

simplemarkOT 4

no markOT 5

The onomasiological perspective

Classification of

onomasiological

types


• Advocates uniform treatment of affixal and non-affixal

morphemes

– No fundamental difference between -er of banker and -man of

bankman

– Such affixes develop out of nouns (e.g. Booij 2005)

– Affixoids and bound nouns suggest a continuum rather than a

sharp distinction between lexemes and affixes

• Major consequence #2

– denominal nominalizations are in scope

• Slovak želez.n.ica [iron.ADJZ.NMLZ] ‘railway’

– noun classifier constructions are also in scope

• Bora túú.heju [nose.CM(hole)] ‘nostril’

An onomasiological view (cont.)


A different way to cut the cake

• Traditional compartmentalization of grammar

– “Compounding forms a subsystem of grammar somewhat distinct

from ordinary syntax and morphology” (Jackendoff 2010)

• Binominals offer an alternative perspective…

syntax morphology

CO

MP

OU

ND

S

BINOMINALS

eisen.bahn

[Mod.Head]

sidir.o.dromos

[Mod.LE.Head]

chemin de fer

[Head PREP Mod]

želez.naja doroga

[Mod.ADJZ Head]

želez.n.ica

[Mod.ADJZ.NMLZ]lala.m.by

[Head.PERT.Mod]

demir.yol.u

[Mod Head.POSS:3SG]

IRON

+ ROAD

= RAILWAY

constructional continuum


Seven languages, seven strategies

• Seven languages, all but one

of them spoken in Europe

• Seven strategies for

combining the meanings

‘road’ and ‘iron’ in order to

denote the meaning ‘railway’:

1. [Mod Head]

2. [Mod.LE.Head]

3. [Head PREP Mod]

4. [Mod.ADJZ Head]

5. [Head.PERT.Mod]

6. [Mod.Head.POSS:3SG]

7. [Mod.ADJZ.NMLZ]

RQ: What else is out there?


Binominal word-formation

in the world’s languages

Project goal

To investigate the strategies

employed by the languages

of the world to create

complex denotations by

combining two nominal (or

nominalizing) elements

Research questions

This is a data-driven, exploratory project, so the research

questions are necessarily rather general

What is the extent and diversity of binominal word-formation

in the world’s languages?

In what ways might binominal constructions be classified

typologically?

What generalizations can be made regarding binominal

constructions and how can these be explained?

How do the preference patterns of individual languages

correlate with areal, genetic and typological features?


Theoretical framework

• Project conception

– Cognitive Linguistics, esp. Construction Grammar

(Croft 2001; Goldberg 2006; Langacker 2008; Booij 2010)

– Contemporary typological theory (e.g. Haspelmath 2010)

• Grammatical descriptions

– Basic Linguistic Theory (Dixon 2010/2012)

• Explanatory part

– Cognitive Linguistics


PREVIOUS RESEARCH

Compounds

Prefiguring “binominals”

Lexical typology

Other


Compounding

• Typological studies

– Bauer (2001) – well-balanced 36 language sample

• few generalizations to report

– Guevara & Scalise (2009) – 80,000 compounds, 21 languages

• scales of preference only

– Štekauer, Valera & Körtvélyessy (2012) – 70 language sample

• scope includes derivation

• main concern: presence or absence of different types of compound

• Other studies• Classification of compounds (Bisetto & Scalise 2005)

• Compounding in individual languages (innumerable studies)

• Compounds vs. phrases, compounding vs. derivation (various studies)

• Semantic of compounding (e.g. Hacken 2016)


“Binominals”

• Some studies come close to the concept of binominals

– Levi (1978)

‘complex nominals’

• nominal compounds

• nominalizations

• NPs with non-predicating adjectives

– Bauer & Tarasova (2013)

‘adnominal nominal modification’

• noun-noun compounds

• associative adjectives

• possessive constructions

• neo-classical compounds

– Rainer (2013)

‘relational adjectives and

their competitors’

• relational adjectives

• genitive

• noun-noun compounds

• prepositional phrases

• attributivizers

• derivational patterns


Lexical typology, etc.

• Data-driven, onomasiological studies involving semantic

and morphological complexity

– Haspelmath & Tadmor (2009)

• World Loanword Database http://wold.clld.org

– Urban (2012)

• Analyzability and semantic associations in referring expressions:

a study in comparative lexicology

• Relevant to particular parts of the analysis

– Studies of possession and the genitive (e.g. Koptjevskaja-Tamm 2002)

– Studies of attribution (e.g. Rießler 2016)

– …

– (TBD)


DATA AND METHODOLOGY

Onomasiological method

Meaning sample

Data sources

Language sample


Onomasiological methodology

• Define a set of meanings

– Initial set: 201 “complex” meanings

– Reduced set: 100 (92% retention of variety)

• Collect translation equivalents

– online database(s)

– dictionaries

– questionnaires

• Annotate formal and semantic structure

– Identify binominals

– Identify construction types

• Analyse, classify, generalize, explain


Selecting the meanings

• Based on data in WOLD

– Each meaning classified by

semantic category

• Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb,

Function word

– Each form classified as

analysable (i.e. complex) or

unanalysable

• SQL query

– Select all meanings with semantic

category Noun and sort them in

descending order according to

the number of languages in which

they are represented by complex

(analysable) forms


– 159 meanings were complex in 16

more languages

– Supplemented by 42 meanings

after testing against French, Welsh,

Japanese, Turkish and Nizaa

A B C

1 id meaning langs

2 4-231 the nostril 35

3 14-45 the midday 32

4 4-213 the eyelid 31

5 17-26 the pupil 29

6 3-819 the spider web 29

7 2-71 the stepfather 29

8 …

Initial meaning sample (201)NOSTRIL, MIDDAY, EYELID, PUPIL, SPIDER WEB, STEPFATHER, FISHERMAN, MERCHANT, PARENTS,

STEPMOTHER, THUMB, DEFENDANT, EARLOBE, BREAKFAST, EARTHQUAKE, MURDER, NIPPLE OR TEAT,

SKULL, SPINE, WATERFALL, EARWAX, POTTER, STEPSON, YOLK, CAPTIVE OR PRISONER, DIVORCE, DRINK,

EYELASH, PLAINTIFF, BARK, SHORE, STEPDAUGHTER, TAILOR, TOE, ANCESTORS, BEGGAR, FOOD, KID,

MARRIED WOMAN, NATIVE COUNTRY, STRANGER, TEACHER, THIEF, ANXIETY, BAD LUCK, DAWN, HERDSMAN,

QUARREL, SUPPER, WRIST, YOUNG MAN, ARSON, BEEHIVE, BEESWAX, BEGINNING, BIRTH CERTIFICATE,

BLACKSMITH, BRACELET, DINNER, DOORPOST, EARRING, OLD WOMAN, PALM OF HAND, PITY, SORCERER OR

WITCH, WHETSTONE, WHIRLPOOL, WIDOWER, ANKLE, DARKNESS, DESCENDANTS, GLOVE, HOSPITAL, HOST,

LUNCH, MARRIED MAN, MEAL, PROSTITUTE, REMAINS, SCULPTOR, SHOEMAKER, SHOULDERBLADE,

SWELLING, WOMB, AFTERNOON, AIRPLANE, BOY, BRUISE, CARPENTER, COCK/ROOSTER, COLLARBONE,

COOKHOUSE, DECEIT, DISEASE, GUARD, LICENSE PLATE, MAGIC, MEETING HOUSE, MISTAKE, MOTHER-IN-

LAW (OF A MAN), NURSE, PERJURY, PESTLE, ROOF, SERVANT, TOILET, TOOL, WEDDING, WIDOW, CALF,

CHIEFTAIN, CROWD, DEFEAT, ENVY OR JEALOUSY, FARMER, FIREPLACE, FISHING LINE, FLAME, FOOTPRINT,

GRIEF, JUDGMENT, LAMB, MARE, NIECE, OLDER SISTER, SCREWDRIVER, RAILWAY, SIBLING, SPECTACLES/

GLASSES, SUNDAY, TWINS, VEIN OR ARTERY, YOUNGER SISTER, ANGER, BABY, EAST, ELECTION, END(2),

FOAL OR COLT, GIRL, HANDKERCHIEF OR RAG, IDEA, INTENTION, ITCH, NEIGHBOUR, POSTCARD, PRAISE,

QUEEN, RAINBOW, RAZOR, RIB, SCHOOL, VICTORY, WEAPONS, WEDNESDAY, WEST, YOUNG WOMAN,

YOUNGER BROTHER, SPRING OR WELL, THATCH, TREE TRUNK, ARCTIC LIGHTS, TEAR, BICYCLE, EYEBROW,

STABLE OR STALL, TRAIN, VINE, BEE, CAVE, ARMPIT, NECKLACE, POSTAGE STAMP, RAPE, NUT, BACKPACK,

BICYCLE PUMP, BOW TIE, CAPITAL CITY, DAIRY COW, FLEA MARKET, GOLD RING, HAND BRAKE, HANDBAG,

HORSESHOE, HUMMINGBIRD, KEYWORD, FIREWOOD, LIPSTICK, MAIL BOX, MILKY WAY, PADDLE WHEEL,

FREEMAN, STONE BRIDGE, SUGAR CANE, TOILET PAPER, TOOLBOX, TOOTHBRUSH, WATER PUMP, WINDMILL


NOSTRIL, MIDDAY, EYELID, PUPIL, SPIDER WEB, STEPFATHER, FISHERMAN, MERCHANT, PARENTS,

STEPMOTHER, THUMB, DEFENDANT, EARLOBE, BREAKFAST, EARTHQUAKE, MURDER, NIPPLE OR TEAT,

SKULL, SPINE, WATERFALL, EARWAX, POTTER, STEPSON, YOLK, CAPTIVE OR PRISONER, DIVORCE, DRINK,

EYELASH, PLAINTIFF, BARK, SHORE, STEPDAUGHTER, TAILOR, TOE, ANCESTORS, BEGGAR, FOOD, KID,

MARRIED WOMAN, NATIVE COUNTRY, STRANGER, TEACHER, THIEF, ANXIETY, BAD LUCK, DAWN, HERDSMAN,

QUARREL, SUPPER, WRIST, YOUNG MAN, ARSON, BEEHIVE, BEESWAX, BEGINNING, BIRTH CERTIFICATE,

BLACKSMITH, BRACELET, DINNER, DOORPOST, EARRING, OLD WOMAN, PALM OF HAND, PITY, SORCERER OR

WITCH, WHETSTONE, WHIRLPOOL, WIDOWER, ANKLE, DARKNESS, DESCENDANTS, GLOVE, HOSPITAL, HOST,

LUNCH, MARRIED MAN, MEAL, PROSTITUTE, REMAINS, SCULPTOR, SHOEMAKER, SHOULDERBLADE,

SWELLING, WOMB, AFTERNOON, AIRPLANE, BOY, BRUISE, CARPENTER, COCK/ROOSTER, COLLARBONE,

COOKHOUSE, DECEIT, DISEASE, GUARD, LICENSE PLATE, MAGIC, MEETING HOUSE, MISTAKE, MOTHER-IN-

LAW (OF A MAN), NURSE, PERJURY, PESTLE, ROOF, SERVANT, TOILET, TOOL, WEDDING, WIDOW, CALF,

CHIEFTAIN, CROWD, DEFEAT, ENVY OR JEALOUSY, FARMER, FIREPLACE, FISHING LINE, FLAME, FOOTPRINT,

GRIEF, JUDGMENT, LAMB, MARE, NIECE, OLDER SISTER, SCREWDRIVER, RAILWAY, SIBLING, SPECTACLES/

GLASSES, SUNDAY, TWINS, VEIN OR ARTERY, YOUNGER SISTER, ANGER, BABY, EAST, ELECTION, END(2),

FOAL OR COLT, GIRL, HANDKERCHIEF OR RAG, IDEA, INTENTION, ITCH, NEIGHBOUR, POSTCARD, PRAISE,

QUEEN, RAINBOW, RAZOR, RIB, SCHOOL, VICTORY, WEAPONS, WEDNESDAY, WEST, YOUNG WOMAN,

YOUNGER BROTHER, SPRING OR WELL, THATCH, TREE TRUNK, ARCTIC LIGHTS, TEAR, BICYCLE, EYEBROW,

STABLE OR STALL, TRAIN, VINE, BEE, CAVE, ARMPIT, NECKLACE, POSTAGE STAMP, RAPE, NUT, BACKPACK,

BICYCLE PUMP, BOW TIE, CAPITAL CITY, DAIRY COW, FLEA MARKET, GOLD RING, HAND BRAKE, HANDBAG,

HORSESHOE, HUMMINGBIRD, KEYWORD, FIREWOOD, LIPSTICK, MAIL BOX, MILKY WAY, PADDLE WHEEL,

FREEMAN, STONE BRIDGE, SUGAR CANE, TOILET PAPER, TOOLBOX, TOOTHBRUSH, WATER PUMP, WINDMILL

Reduced meaning sample (100)ANKLE, ARCTIC LIGHTS, BACKPACK, BEE, BEEHIVE, BEESWAX, BICYCLE, BICYCLE PUMP, BLACKSMITH, BOY,

BRACELET, BREAKFAST, CARPENTER, CHIEFTAIN, COCK/ROOSTER, COLLARBONE, COOKHOUSE, DAIRY

COW, DINNER, DOORPOST, EARLOBE, EARRING, EARWAX, EYEBROW, EYELASH, EYELID, FARMER,

FIREPLACE, FISHERMAN, FISHING LINE, FLAME, FLEA MARKET, FOAL OR COLT, FOOTPRINT, GIRL, GLOVE,

GOLD RING, HAND BRAKE, HANDBAG, HANDKERCHIEF, HERDSMAN, HOSPITAL, HOST, KEYWORD, KID, LAMB,

LICENSE PLATE, LUNCH, MAGIC, MAIL BOX, MARE, MARRIED WOMAN, MIDDAY, MILKY WAY, MOTHER-IN-LAW,

NATIVE COUNTRY, NEIGHBOUR, NIECE, NIPPLE OR TEAT, NOSTRIL, PADDLE WHEEL, PALM OF HAND,

POSTCARD, POTTER, QUEEN, RAILWAY, RAINBOW, RIB, SHOEMAKER, SHORE, SHOULDERBLADE, SKULL,

SORCERER, SPECTACLES, SPIDER WEB, SPINE, STABLE OR STALL, STONE BRIDGE, SUGAR CANE, SUNDAY,

SUPPER, TEAR, THATCH, THUMB, TOE, TOILET, TOILET PAPER, TOOL, TOOLBOX, TOOTHBRUSH, TRAIN, TREE

TRUNK, VEIN OR ARTERY, VINE, WATER PUMP, WEDNESDAY, WIDOWER, WINDMILL, WRIST, YOLK


Data sources

• World Loanword Database (WOLD)

– 41 vocabularies, one per language

– 1,460 meanings

– morpheme glosses of analysable words

• Dictionaries

– e.g. Brindle (2016)

• Language experts

– 201 meaning questionnaire completed by 20 contributors

– 100 meaning questionnaire now ready for distribution


Language sample

• Types of language sample

– probability (stratified)

• areally and genetically as unbiased as possible

• permits the broadest generalizations and predictions

• as described by Dryer (1989)

– variety

• optimized in order to illustrate diversity as fully as possible

• as described by Miestamo et al. (2016)

– convenience (opportunity)

• based primarily on the availability of data

• Current sample

– 50 languages in DB, 16 languages received, 60 promised

– Goal is 200 languages


59 languages (already collected)EURASIA

Irish (Celtic)

Welsh (Celtic)

Dutch (Germanic)

English (Germanic)

German (Germanic)

Old High German (Germanic)

Greek (Greek)

Italian (Romance)

Romanian (Romance)

Selice Romani (Romani)

Kildin Saami (Finnic)

Czech (Slavic)

Lower Sorbian (Slavic)

Polish (Slavic)

Russian (Slavic)

Lithuanian (Baltic)

Hindi (Indo-Aryan)

Archi (Lezgic)

Bezhta (Avar-Andic-Tsezic)

Oroqen (Tungusic)

Sakha (Turkic)

Ket (Yeniseian)

Japanese (Japanese)

AUSTRALIA-NEW GUINEA

Gurinji (Pama-Nyungan)

S-E ASIA AND OCEANIA

Ceq Wong (Aslian)

Malagasy (Barito)

Manange (Bodic)

Äiwoo (Malayo-Polynesian)

Hmong Daw (Hmong-Mien)

Thai (Kam-Tai)

Indonesian (Malayan)

Hawaiian (Oceanic)

Takia (Oceanic)

Sangir (Sangiric)

Chinese (Sinitic)

Vietnamese (Vietic)

NORTH AMERICA

Q'eqchi' (Mayan)

Tzotzil (Mayan)

Otomi (Otomanguean)

Yaqui (Uto-Aztecan)

(Boldface = WOLD language)

SOUTH AMERICA

Mapudungun (Araucanian)

Galibi (Carib)

Murui (Huitotoan)

Wichi (Matacoan)

Hupdë (Nadahup)

Quechua (Quechuan)

AFRICA

Swahili (Bantu)

Tarifiyt Berber (Berber)

Bandial (Atlantic)

Bainouk Gubeeher (Atlantic)

Hausa (Chadic)

Gawwada (Cushitic)

Iraqw (Cushitic)

Datooga (Nilotic)

Kanuri (Saharan)

Amharic (Semitic)

Maltese (Semitic)

PIDGINS AND CREOLES

Saramaccan (English-based)

Seychelles Creole (French-based)

17 more languages signed up at SLEEURASIABalkan Gagauz Turkish (Turkic)Ancient Greek (Greek)Piedmont Sintí (Indo-Aryan)Spanish (Romance)Slovak (Slavic)Basque (Basque)Estonian (Finnic)Finnish (Finnic)Hill Mari (Mari)Moksha (Mordvin)Kamas (Permic)

AFRICAAramaic (Semitic)

AUSTRALIA-NEW GUINEABunak (Timor-Alor-Pantar)

SOUTH AMERICACabécar (Chimchan)Bora (isolate)Harakmbut (isolate)Moseten (isolate)

28 more languages signed up at ESSLTEURASIALatvian (Baltic)Assamese (Indo-Aryan)Nepali (Indo-Aryan)Ingrian (Finnic)Hungarian (Hungarian)Khanty (Khantyic)Turkish (Turkic)

AFRICABarein (Chadic)Hadiyya (Cushitic)Sidamo (Cushitic)Hebrew (Semitic)Chuwabu (Bantu)Minianka (Kwa)Bambara (Mande)Kupsabiny (Southern Nilotic)

S-E ASIA AND OCEANIABunun (Formosan)Rukai (Formosan)Saisiyat (Formosan)Thai (Kam-Tai)

AUSTRALIA-NEW GUINEANgarnga (Mirndi)Wik-Mungkan (Pama-Nyungan)Baining (Baining)Tuwari (Walio)

SOUTH AMERICAYe'kwana (Guianan)Saliban (Jodi-Saliban)Ticuna (Ticuna-Yuri)Guarani (Tupi-Guarani)

NORTH AMERICAMixtec (Otomanguean)Seri (isolate)

Language sample as of 3/2016


Language sample as of 6/2016Language sample as of 8/2016Language sample as of 9/2016

PRELIMINARY FINDINGS

Cross-linguistic frequency

Cross-linguistic variation (EYELID)

Conceptual variation (EYELID, TRAIN)

Regional variation (Europe, S-E Asia, Central Asia, Africa, S. America)

Genetic resemblances (Germanic, Romance, Slavic)

Intra-language competition (Lower Sorbian)


Preliminary findings

• Based on WOLD 41 (+ German, Polish, French, Italian)

• Cross-linguistic frequency of binominals

– from Mandarin to Selice Romani

• Cross-linguistic variation (eyelid)

• Conceptual variation (eyelid, train)

• Regional variation

– Europe, South-East Asia, “Central Asia”, Africa, South America

• Genetic resemblance (and contact)

– Germanic, Romance and Slavic

• Intra-language competition (Lower Sorbian)


Cross-linguistic frequency


0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

Ma

nd

ari

n

Jap

ane

se

Ma

laga

sy

Ge

rma

n

Po

lish

Vie

tna

me

se

Fre

nch

Hup

Haw

aiia

n

Wh

ite

Hm

on

g

Dutc

h

OH

Ge

rma

n

Ceq

Wo

ng

En

glis

h

Ka

nu

ri

Wic

hí

So

rbia

n

Hau

sa

Th

ai

Tzo

tzil

Q'e

qchi'

Ta

kia

Oro

qen

Italia

n

Indo

nesia

n

Ke

t

Ma

na

ng

e

Kild

in S

aa

mi

OH

Ge

rma

n

Sa

kh

a

Ya

qu

i

Ira

qw

Ga

ww

ad

a

Ma

pu

du

ngu

n

Rom

an

ian

Ka

li'n

a

Be

zh

ta

Low

er

So

rbia

n

Oto

mi

Qu

ech

ua

Se

yche

lles C

reo

le

Arc

hi

Gu

rind

ji

Ta

rifiyt

Be

rbe

r

Se

lice R

om

an

i

Binominals as a percentage of complex nominals

21%

Cross-linguistic variation EYELID (1)

12 head-initial binominals (various constructions)

language word [gloss] c1 c2 construction

Ceq Wong hoʔ mɛt̃ [skin eye] skin eye Head Mod

Hawaiian lihilihi maka [rim eye] rim eye Head Mod

Indonesian kelopak mata [sheath eye] sheath eye Head Mod

Seychelles Creole lapo lizye [skin eye] skin eye Head Mod

Thai plʉ̀ak.taa [skin-eye] skin eye Head Mod

White Hmong tawv muag [skin eye] skin eye Head Mod

Kanuri fə́rtə̀ shîm.bè [root eye.G E N ] root eye Head Mod.GEN

Tarifiyt Berber aʕrua n tit’t’ [back PREP eye] back eye Head PREP CON.Mod

Lower Sorbian lapka na woku [flap PREP eye] flap eye Head PREP Mod

Hausa fáatà.r ídòo [skin.LK eye] skin eye Head.LK Mod

Malagasy hodi.màso [skin eye] skin eye Head Mod

Otomi xi-da [body_hair-eye] body hair eye Head Mod




Hup kǝwǝg b’ɔ́k [eye skin] eye skin Mod Head

Quechua ñawi kara [eye skin] eye skin Mod Head

Kali'na enu[lu].pipo [eye.skin] eye skin Mod Head

Saramaccan wójo.kókóo [eye.shell] eye shell Mod Head

Takia mala.n sklo.n [eye.3SG skin.3SG] eye skin Mod.3SG Head.3SG

Bezhta häyš ƛ’äq’e [eye:GEN roof] eye roof Mod.GEN Head

Ket dēs-d-iŋolt [eye-POSS-skin] eye skin Mod.GEN Head

Dutch oog.lid [eye.lid] eye lid Mod.Head

English eye.lid [eye.lid] eye lid Mod.Head

Kildin Saami čall’m.rūmtas [eye.brim] eye brim Mod Head

Mandarin yan3.pi2 [eye.skin] eye skin Mod Head

Archi lul-li-n dorki [eye.OBL.GEN top] eye top Mod.OBL.GEN Head

Wichí tot.telhu t’oj [POSS:IND.eye skin/hide] eye skin/hide POSS:IND.Mod Head

13 head-final binominals (various constructions)





Manange 2mi.2pʰi [eye.up] eye up N + Adv

Mapudungun wente nge [over eye] over eye Adv + N

Old High German slegi.brâwa [hit.eyebrow] hit eyebrow V + N

Oroqen yɛ:ʃa.ŋi wu.n [eye.GEN up.3SG:POSS] eye up N + Adv

Otomi yoda ['yo = ?; da = eye] ? eye ? + N

Q'eqchi' r.ix u [3ERG.back surface] back surface (opaque)

Vietnamese mí [eyelid] (monomorphemic)

7 non-binominals

Conceptual variation

EYELID

– Modifier

• eye (100%)

– Head

• skin/hide (52%)

• lid/sheath/shell (20%)

• brim/rim (8%)

• roof/top (8%)

• root/back (8%)

• body hair (4%)

TRAIN

– Head

• car, vehicle, cart (100%)

– Modifier

• electricity (8%)

• fire (46%)

• ground, land (15%)

• railway (15%)

• smoke, steam (15%)


POI: Variation in head diversity vs. modifier diversity: salience?

Regional variation (1) Europe (SAE)

English

Mod Head 44

Mod.ADJZ Head 03

Base.PL 01

Base.AGT 04

French

Mod Head 01

Head PREP Mod 35

Head Mod.ADJZ 05

Head Mod 04

Base.PL 07

Base.NMLZ 05

Base.F 02

Base.DIM 04

Polish

Mod.LE.Head 01

Mod.ADJZ Head 03

Head PREP Mod 05

Head Mod.GEN 03

Head Mod.ADJZ 19

Base.PL 01

Base.NMLZ 04

Base.F 07

Base.DIM 10

Base.AUG 01

Base.AGT 09

Base.ADJZ.DIM 01

NEG.Base 01


POI: Strikingly different patterns in three SAE languages

Regional variation (2) South-East Asia

Chinese

Mod Head 108

Base.SYN 012

Base.RED 003

Base.NMLZ 003

Hmong

Head Mod 55

Base.NMLZ 01

Vietnamese

Head Mod 44

Mod Head 10

Thai

Head Mod 49

Mod Head 02


POI: Predominance of Mod Head (or Head Mod) plus some borrowing

Regional variation (3) “Central Asia”

Archi

Mod.GEN Head 11

Mod.ADJZ Head02

Mod Head 02

Bezhta

Mod Head 08

Mod.GEN Head 11

Mod.ADJZ Head01

Mod.ABL Head 01

Mod.SUF Head 03

Ket

Mod Head 16

Mod.GEN Head 12

Mod.PRIV Head 01

Sakha

Mod Head.GEN 16

Mod Head 07

Base.AGT 06

Base.VR.NMLZ 02

Base.VR 01

Base.PROP 01

Base.NMLZ 02


POI: GEN constructions and competition (?) Mod Head vs. Mod Head.GEN

Regional variation (4) Africa

Hausa

Head.LK Mod 46

Base.ABSTR 02

Kanuri

Head Mod.GEN 25

Head Mod.ASS 02

Mod Head 03

Base.AGT 10

Base.PLACE 06

Base.PLACE2 01

Base.PLACE3 01

Base.SON 01

Berber

Head.OF CON.Mod 06

Head.3SG.OF CON.Mod 07

Swahili

Head.CON Mod 42

Head.Mod 08

CM.Base 11


POI: Variety of pertensive, genitive, construct and connective strategies

Regional variation (5) South America

Quechua

Mod.Head 20

Hup

Mod.Head 36

Base.CL 02

Kali'na

Mod.POSS.Head.POSS 1

Mod.Head.POSS 5

Mod.POSS.Head 1

Mod.Head 8

Base.DIM.DEV 4

Base.DEV 1

Wichí

Mod.Head 15

Mod.Head.LOC 02

Mod.CLF.GEN.Head 01

POSS.Mod.Head 15

POSS.Base.LOC 02

POSS.Base.AGT 01

Base.AGT 03

Mapudungun

Head.Mod 15

Mod.Head 04

Mod.VBLZ.LOC.Head 01

Mod.VBLZ.AGT.Head 02

Base.NMLZ 01

Base.LOC 01


POI: Variety of strategies, including possessives and classifiers

Genetic resemblance (and contact)


0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Germanic, Romance & Slavic

Compounds Prepositional Adjectival Derivations

POI: Confirms English / French / Polish pattern across each genus

Competition Lower Sorbian (1)

meaning word [gloss] construction

BEESWAX pcołk.owy wósk [bee.ADJ wax] Mod.ADJZ Head

DOORPOST źuri.ny słup [door.ADJ post] Mod.ADJZ Head

EARLOBE wuch.owa lapka [ear.ADJ flap] Mod.ADJZ Head

FISHING LINE wuźeń.ska šnora [?worm.ADJ line] Mod.ADJZ Head

LICENSE PLATE cysł.owa tofl.icka [number.ADJ plate:DIM] Mod.ADJZ Head

LICENSE PLATE numer.owa tofl.icka [number.ADJ plate:DIM] Mod.ADJZ Head

MOTHER-IN-LAW pśichod.na maś [future.ADJ mother] Mod.ADJZ Head

NATIVE COUNTRY wóśc.ny kraj [ancestor.ADJ country] Mod.ADJZ Head

NOSTRIL nos.owa źěrka [nose.ADJ hole] Mod.ADJZ Head

POSTAGE STAMP list.owa znam.ka [letter.ADJ sign.DIM] Mod.ADJZ Head

POSTCARD post.owa kórt.ka [post.ADJ card.DIM] Mod.ADJZ Head

THATCH słomjane kšywo [straw:ADJ roof] Mod.ADJZ Head

VINE win.owy keŕ [vine.ADJ bush] Mod.ADJZ Head

WRIST ruc.ne zgibk [hand.ADJ joint] Mod.ADJZ Head

14 adjectival constructions



EARWAX taług z wucha [wax PREP ear] Head PREP Mod

EYELID lapka na woku [flap PREP eye] Head PREP Mod

NIECE bratša źowka [brother:GEN daughter] Mod.GEN Head

NIECE sotšy źowka [sister:GEN daughter] Mod.GEN Head

2 prepositional and 2 genitival constructions




PITY lut.osć [sorrow:N.SUF] Base.ABST

FISHERMAN ryb.aŕ [fish.SUF] Base.AGT

GUARD straž.nik [guard(duty).SUF] Base.AGT

HOST gósć.inaŕ [guest.SUF] Base.AGT

POTTER gjarnc.aŕ [pot.SUF] Base.AGT

TEACHER šula.ŕ [school.AGT] Base.AGT

BABY góle.tko [child.SUF] Base.DIM

QUEEN kral.owka [king.SUF] Base.F

SCREWDRIVER šrub.owak [screw.SUF] Base.INST

FIREPLACE wogni.šćo [fire.SUF] Base.LOC

GLOVE ruka.jca [hand.SUF] Base.SUF

MERCHANT wik.owa.ŕ [market.VBLZ.SUF] Base.VRBZ.AGT

12 derivations


ANALYSIS

Formal analysis

Semantic analysis

Typological classification

Statistical analysis


Formal analysis

• Two kinds of formal analysis

– based on language-specific descriptive categories

– based on cross-linguistic comparative concepts

– cf. Haspelmath (2010)

• Language-specific analysis

– uses descriptive categories particular to the language in question

– follows “standard” grammars

– e.g. Hausa “linker”

• dóokì.n ƙárfèe [horse.LK metal] BICYCLE Head.LK Mod

• Cross-linguistic analysis

– uses comparative concepts applicable cross-linguistically

– e.g. Hausa “linker” is actually a pertensive (Dixon 2010)

– marking on the possessed (head), not the possessor (dependent)


Semantic analysis

• Focus primarily on semantic relations

• Apply an existing classification system

– probably Bourque (2014)

• Look for further evidence in support of the “two paths”

hypothesis

– (Pepper 2010, 2016)

• Consider relevance of semantic maps

– (Croft 2003)

• (TBD)


Typological classification

Formal

• Formal parameters

– synthetic, analytic

– head-marking, dependent

– etc.

• Koptjevskaja-Tamm (2002)

– possessive noun phrases in

Europe

Semantic

• Semantic parameters

– possession

– part-whole

– location

– attribution

– (TBD)


Statistical analysis

• Correlations with

– constituent order

(cf. work on Bauer36)

• Other correlations

– (TBD)

• Other statistical applications

– (TBD)


Correlations with possessor

Type A E O G N S sum

NPoss+NMod 4 0 5 0 0 1 10

NPoss+ModN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

PossN+NMod 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

PossN+ModN 1 6 0 5 3 4 19

other 1 0 1 1 3 1 7

tbd 0 0 0 0 0 0 36

Compound head /

Poss. phrase NMod ModN

NPoss 10 0

other: 7 PossN 0 19

Conclusion

• This project is just past the halfway stage

– The functionally motivated comparative concept of binominals seems to

offer much richer and more interesting variation than the formally

motivated concept of noun-noun compounds (or compounds in general)

– Binominals cut across traditional boundaries between phrases,

compounds and derivations.

– But do they challenge the compartmentalization of grammar into syntax,

morphology and lexicon, and if so, how?

• There is still much to be explored

– Not least regarding semantic relations

– And there is a pressing need for greater theoretical clarity regarding

terminology, definitions, etc.

– And I need more data…


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