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CELLULAR RESPIRATION: AEROBIC HARVEST OF FOOD ENERGY• Cellular respiration is:
– The main way that chemical energy is harvested from food and converted to ATP
– An aerobic process—it requires oxygen
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• Cellular respiration and breathing are closely related.
– Cellular respiration requires a cell to exchange gases with its surroundings.
– Cells take in oxygen gas.
– Cells release waste carbon dioxide gas.
– Breathing exchanges these same gases between the blood and outside air.
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Breathing
Cellularrespiration
Musclecells
Lungs
CO2
CO2
O2
O2
Figure 6.3
Breathing
Cellularrespiration
Musclecells
Lungs
CO2
CO2
O2
O2
Figure 6.3a
C6H12O6 CO2O2 H2O
Glucose Oxygen Carbondioxide
Water
6 66
Reduction
Oxidation
Oxygen gains electrons (and hydrogens)
Glucose loses electrons(and hydrogens)
Figure 6.UN02
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The Role of Oxygen in Cellular Respiration• Cellular respiration can produce up to 38 ATP molecules for each
glucose molecule consumed.
• During cellular respiration, hydrogen and its bonding electrons change partners.
– Hydrogen and its electrons go from sugar to oxygen, forming water.
– This hydrogen transfer is why oxygen is so vital to cellular respiration.
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Redox Reactions• Chemical reactions that transfer electrons from one substance to
another are called:
– Oxidation-reduction reactions or
– Redox reactions for short
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• The loss of electrons during a redox reaction is called oxidation.
• The acceptance of electrons during a redox reaction is called reduction.
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• During cellular respiration glucose is oxidized while oxygen is reduced.
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• Why does electron transfer to oxygen release energy?
– When electrons move from glucose to oxygen, it is as though the electrons were falling.
– This “fall” of electrons releases energy during cellular respiration.
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• Cellular respiration is:
– A controlled fall of electrons
– A stepwise cascade much like going down a staircase
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NADH and Electron Transport Chains• The path that electrons take on their way down from glucose to
oxygen involves many steps.
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• The first step is an electron acceptor called NAD+.
– The transfer of electrons from organic fuel to NAD+ reduces it to NADH.
• The rest of the path consists of an electron transport chain, which:
– Involves a series of redox reactions
– Ultimately leads to the production of large amounts of ATP
Electrons from food
Stepwise releaseof energy usedto make
Hydrogen, electrons,and oxygen combineto produce water
Electron transport chain
NADHNAD
H
H
ATP
H2O
O2
2 2
2
2
21
e e
e e
e
e
Figure 6.5
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An Overview of Cellular Respiration• Cellular respiration:
– Is an example of a metabolic pathway, which is a series of chemical reactions in cells
• All of the reactions involved in cellular respiration can be grouped into three main stages:
– Glycolysis
– The citric acid cycle
– Electron transport
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Animal cell Plant cell
Mitochondrion
Mitochondrion
High-energyelectronscarriedby NADH
High-energyelectrons carriedmainly byNADH
CitricAcidCycle
ElectronTransport
Glycolysis
Glucose2
Pyruvicacid
ATP ATP ATP
Figure 6.6
CytoplasmMitochondrion
High-energyelectronscarriedby NADH
High-energyelectrons carriedmainly byNADH
CitricAcidCycle
ElectronTransport
Glycolysis
Glucose2
Pyruvicacid
ATP ATP ATP
Figure 6.6a
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The Three Stages of Cellular Respiration• With the big-picture view of cellular respiration in mind, let’s
examine the process in more detail.
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Stage 1: Glycolysis• A six-carbon glucose molecule is split in half to form two
molecules of pyruvic acid.
• These two molecules then donate high energy electrons to NAD+, forming NADH.
Energy investment phase
Carbon atomPhosphategroupHigh-energyelectron
Key
Glucose
2 ATP 2 ADP
INPUT OUTPUT
Figure 6.7-1
Energy investment phase
Carbon atomPhosphategroupHigh-energyelectron
Key
Glucose
2 ATP 2 ADP
INPUT OUTPUT
Energy harvest phase
NADH
NADHNAD
NAD
Figure 6.7-2
Energy investment phase
Carbon atomPhosphategroupHigh-energyelectron
Key
Glucose
2 ATP 2 ADP
INPUT OUTPUT
Energy harvest phase
NADH
NADHNAD
NAD 2 ATP
2 ATP
2 ADP
2 ADP
2 Pyruvic acid
Figure 6.7-3
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• Glycolysis:
– Uses two ATP molecules per glucose to split the six-carbon glucose
– Makes four additional ATP directly when enzymes transfer phosphate groups from fuel molecules to ADP
• Thus, glycolysis produces a net of two molecules of ATP per glucose molecule.
ADPATP
P
P P
Enzyme
Figure 6.8
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Stage 2: The Citric Acid Cycle• The citric acid cycle completes the breakdown of sugar.
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• In the citric acid cycle, pyruvic acid from glycolysis is first “prepped.”
(from glycolysis) (to citric acid cycle)Oxidation of the fuelgenerates NADH
Pyruvic acidloses a carbonas CO2
Acetic acidattaches tocoenzyme APyruvic acid
Acetic acidAcetyl CoA
Coenzyme A
CoA
CO2
NAD NADH
INPUT OUTPUT
Figure 6.9
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• The citric acid cycle:
– Extracts the energy of sugar by breaking the acetic acid molecules all the way down to CO2
– Uses some of this energy to make ATP
– Forms NADH and FADH2
Blast Animation: Harvesting Energy: Krebs Cycle
3 NAD
ADP P
3 NADH
FADH2FAD
Aceticacid
Citricacid
Acceptormolecule
CitricAcidCycle
ATP
2 CO2
INPUT OUTPUT
Figure 6.10
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Stage 3: Electron Transport• Electron transport releases the energy your cells need to make the
most of their ATP.
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• The molecules of the electron transport chain are built into the inner membranes of mitochondria.
– The chain functions as a chemical machine that uses energy released by the “fall” of electrons to pump hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
– These ions store potential energy.
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• When the hydrogen ions flow back through the membrane, they release energy.
– The hydrogen ions flow through ATP synthase.
– ATP synthase:
– Takes the energy from this flow
– Synthesizes ATP
Space betweenmembranes
Innermitochondrialmembrane
Electroncarrier
Proteincomplex
Electronflow
Matrix Electron transport chain ATP synthase
NADHNAD
FADH2 FAD
ATPADP
H2OO2
H
12
HHH
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HH
HH
HH
HH
H 2
P
Figure 6.11
12
Spacebetweenmembranes
Innermitochondrialmembrane
Electroncarrier
Proteincomplex
Electronflow
Matrix Electron transport chain ATP synthase
NADHNAD
FADH2 FAD
ATPADP
H2OO2
HHHH
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
HH
HH
HH
HH
H 2
P
Figure 6.11a
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The Versatility of Cellular Respiration• In addition to glucose, cellular respiration can “burn”:
– Diverse types of carbohydrates
– Fats
– Proteins
Food
Polysaccharides Fats Proteins
Sugars Glycerol Fatty acids Amino acids
Glycolysis AcetylCoA
CitricAcidCycle
ElectronTransport
ATP
Figure 6.12
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Adding Up the ATP from Cellular Respiration• Cellular respiration can generate up to 38 molecules of ATP per
molecule of glucose.
Cytoplasm
Mitochondrion
NADH
CitricAcidCycle
ElectronTransport
Glycolysis
Glucose2
Pyruvicacid
2ATP
2ATP
NADHNADH
FADH2
Maximumper
glucose:
2AcetylCoA
About34 ATP
by directsynthesis
by directsynthesis by ATP
synthase
2 2
2
6
About38 ATP
Figure 6.13
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FERMENTATION: ANAEROBIC HARVEST OF FOOD ENERGY• Some of your cells can actually work for short periods without
oxygen.
• Fermentation is the anaerobic (without oxygen) harvest of food energy.
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Fermentation in Human Muscle Cells• After functioning anaerobically for about 15 seconds:
– Muscle cells will begin to generate ATP by the process of fermentation
• Fermentation relies on glycolysis to produce ATP.
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• Glycolysis:
– Does not require oxygen
– Produces two ATP molecules for each glucose broken down to pyruvic acid
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• Pyruvic acid, produced by glycolysis, is
– Reduced by NADH, producing NAD+, which keeps glycolysis going.
• In human muscle cells, lactic acid is a by-product.
Animation: Fermentation Overview
Glucose
2 ATP
2 NAD 2 NADH 2 NADH 2 NAD
2
2 ADP
2 Pyruvicacid 2 Lactic acid
Glycolysis
INPUT OUTPUT
2 P
H
Figure 6.14a
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• Observation: Muscles produce lactic acid under anaerobic conditions.
• Question: Does the buildup of lactic acid cause muscle fatigue?
• Hypothesis: The buildup of lactic acid would cause muscle activity to stop.
• Experiment: Tested frog muscles under conditions when lactic acid could and could not diffuse away.
The Process of Science: Does Lactic Acid Buildup Cause Muscle Burn?
Battery
Forcemeasured
Battery
Forcemeasured
Frog musclestimulated byelectric current
Solution preventsdiffusion of lactic acid
Solution allowsdiffusion of lactic acid;
muscle can work fortwice as long
Figure 6.15
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• Results: When lactic acid could diffuse away, performance improved greatly.
• Conclusion: Lactic acid accumulation is the primary cause of failure in muscle tissue.
• However, recent evidence suggests that the role of lactic acid in muscle function remains unclear.
© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fermentation in Microorganisms• Fermentation alone is able to sustain many types of
microorganisms.
• The lactic acid produced by microbes using fermentation is used to produce:
– Cheese, sour cream, and yogurt dairy products
– Soy sauce, pickles, olives
– Sausage meat products
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• Yeast are a type of microscopic fungus that:
– Use a different type of fermentation
– Produce CO2 and ethyl alcohol instead of lactic acid
• This type of fermentation, called alcoholic fermentation, is used to produce:
– Beer
– Wine
– Breads
Glucose
2 ATP
2 NAD 2 NADH 2 NADH 2 NAD
2
2 P
2 Pyruvicacid 2 Ethyl alcohol
Glycolysis
INPUT OUTPUT
2 CO2 released
Bread with airbubbles producedby fermenting yeast Beer
fermentation
2 ADP
H
Figure 6.16
Glucose
2 ATP
2 NAD 2 NADH 2 NADH 2 NAD
2
2 ADP
2 Pyruvicacid 2 Ethyl alcohol
Glycolysis
INPUT OUTPUT
2 CO2 released 2 P
H
Figure 6.16a
C6H12O6 CO2ATPO2 H2O
Glucose Oxygen Carbondioxide
Water Energy
6 66
Figure 6.UN01
C6H12O6 CO2O2 H2O
Glucose Oxygen Carbondioxide
Water
6 66
Reduction
Oxidation
Oxygen gains electrons (and hydrogens)
Glucose loses electrons(and hydrogens)
Figure 6.UN02
CitricAcidCycle
ElectronTransportGlycolysis
ATP ATPATP
Figure 6.UN03
CitricAcidCycle
ElectronTransportGlycolysis
ATP ATPATP
Figure 6.UN04
CitricAcidCycle
ElectronTransportGlycolysis
ATP ATPATP
Figure 6.UN05
C6H12O6
CO2 H2O
ATPO2
Heat
Photosynthesis
Sunlight
Cellularrespiration
Figure 6.UN06
C6H12O6 CO2 ATPO2 H2O 6 66 Approx. 38
Figure 6.UN07
C6H12O6 CO2
ATP
O2 H2O
OxidationGlucose loses electrons(and hydrogens)
ReductionOxygen gainselectrons (andhydrogens)
Electrons(and hydrogens)
Figure 6.UN08
NADH
CitricAcidCycle
ElectronTransport
Glycolysis
Glucose2
Pyruvicacid
2ATP
2ATP
NADHNADH
FADH2
2AcetylCoA
About34 ATPby direct
synthesisby directsynthesis
by ATPsynthase
2 2
2
6
About38 ATP
2 CO2 CO2
O2
H2O4
Mitochondrion
Figure 6.UN09
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Sunlight energyenters ecosystem
Photosynthesis
Cellular respiration
C6H12O6
Glucose
O2
Oxygen
CO2
Carbon dioxide
H2OWater
drives cellular work
Heat energy exits ecosystem
ATP
Figure 6.2