cell loco.odp

8/10/2019 Cell Loco.odp

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UNIT-01


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Cell StructureBiology

Classical interpretation

All living organisms are made up of one or more cells.

Cells are the basic unit of life.

All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, andorganization in living things.

The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a

building block in the construction of organisms.


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Modern interpretation

The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

The cellis the fundamental unit of structure and function in

living organisms.

All cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.

Energy flow (metabolismandbiochemistry) occurs within cells. ells contain hereditary information (!"A) which is passed

from cell to cell during cell division.
http://wiki/Cell_(biology)http://wiki/Metabolismhttp://wiki/Biochemistryhttp://wiki/Biochemistryhttp://wiki/Metabolismhttp://wiki/Cell_(biology)


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All cells are basically the same in chemical

composition in organisms of similar species.

All #nown living things are made up of oneor more cells.

$ome organisms are made up of only one

cell and are #nown as unicellular organisms.

%thers are multicellular& composed of a

number of cells.

The activity of an organism depends on the

total activity of independent cells.


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Cytology

The Study of Cells


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History of Cytology

Begins with theinvention of themicroscope

Zacharias Janssen(xyour notes! creditedwith the invention ofthe compoundmicroscope

"ate #$%%&s
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/museum/janssen.htmlhttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/museum/janssen.html


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'oert Hoo)e

Coined the term cell Did this while obsering cor!

cells

"e#lly the cell w#lls o$ de#d%l#nt cells $rom b#r!

&ublished his obser#tionsin the boo! 'icrogr#%hi#

In$luenced m#ny others


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'oert Hoo)e

(oo!e)s microsco%ew#s

not #s good #s some*es%eci#lly those o$

+eeuwenhoe!, but hew#s still #ble to m#!em#ny obser#tions #nddet#iled dr#wings.
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/museum/hooke.htmlhttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/museum/hooke.html


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"obert (oo!e

(oo!e)s dr#wings o$cor! cells

(e #lso m#de m#ny

other det#ileddr#wings o$ org#nismshe iewed with hismicrosco%e.

The $le#


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/nton #n +eeuwenhoe!

#s not the $irst microsco%em#!er but m#de some o$ thebest e#rly microsco%es

ery high m#gni$ic#tions $orthe time 2 u% to 3004

1500s


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6bsered $irst liingcells &ond w#ter #rious

bodily $luids th#t h#d

b#cteri# swimming #boutin them etc. "emember th#t the cells

(oo!e obsered werenon-liing *cor!,

7or more on how hismicrosco%e wor!ed clic!here.
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/museum/leeuwenhoek.htmlhttp://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/museum/leeuwenhoek.html


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Im#ges he drew o$b#cteri# in %l#8ueremoed $rom histeeth.

These #re the $irst!nown obser#tions o$b#cteri#

(e c#lled them#nim#lcules


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"obert Brown 1stto obsere # nucleus

in # cell *1933, The instrument is

Brown)s microsco%e The im#ge below is wh#t

Brown would h#e seenwhen he m#de hisdiscoery. These #recells $rom #n orchidle#$.

The nuclei #re the sm#ll

dots in e#ch cell The big things #re

stom#t#


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'#tthi#s Schleiden

Said that all plantsare made of cells

#*+*


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Theodore Schw#nn

S#id #ll #nim#ls #rem#de o$ cells

193:


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"udol$ irchow

/ll cells #re m#de $romother cells

19;;

Be$ore this time it h#dbeen thought th#t cellscould #rises%ont#neously $rom

non-li$e


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Cell Types

There are T,- ma.or types of cells

/ro)aryotic

0u)aryotic


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/ro)aryotic Cells

B1CT0'21

Simple

3o nucleus

3o organelles thatare surrounded ymemranes

4ost ancient cell type

5irst to evolve

4ost primitive


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Two 4a.or Types of 0u)aryoticCells

/lant

1nimal


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/lant Cells

/lant Cells

Cell wall made ofcellulose

"arge central vacuole

Chloroplasts present


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1nimal Cells

3o cell walls

3o chloroplasts

6acuoles are present7ut no large centrallylocated one8


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6isuali9ing Cells


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-rganelles

Cell parts or compartments : ;littleorgansusion time

i li i ll


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6isuali9ing Cells


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/ro)aryotic Cells Simplest organisms

Cytoplasm is surrounded y plasma memraneand encased in a rigid cell wall composed ofpeptidoglycan8

no distinct interior compartments

gram?positive : thic) single layer wall thatretains a violet dye from =ram stainprocedure

gram?negative : multilayered wall does notretain dye

Susceptiility of acteria to antiioticsdepends on cell wall structure8


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/ro)aryotic Cells Some use @agellum for locomotion

threadli)e structures protruding from cellsurface

Bacterial cell wall

Flagellin

Rotarymotor

Sheath


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0u)aryotic Cells

Characteri9ed y compartmentali9ationy an endomemrane system7 and thepresence of memrane?ound organelles8

Central vacuole : plants7 storage 6esicles (smaller!

Chromosomes ? A31 and protein

Cytos)eleton (internal protein sca>olding!

Cell walls : plants and fungi


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3ucleus


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3ucleus

'epository for genetic material

Airects activities of the cell sually single7 some cells several7 'BC none

3ucleolus : riosome su?units are made here

Surface of nucleus ound y twophospholipid ilayer memranes nuclear memrane

3uclear pores : protein gate)eepers sually proteins going in and '31 going out


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3ucleus


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Chromosomes

A31 of eu)aryotes is divided into linearchromosomes8

exist as strands of chromatin7 except during

cell division associated with pac)aging histones7

pac)aging proteins

nucleosomes


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0ndomemrane System Compartmentali9es cell7 channeling

passage of molecules through cell&sinterior8

0ndoplasmic reticulum

'ough 0' ? studded with riosomes

Smooth 0' ? few riosomes


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0ndoplasmic reticulum "argest internal memrane

Composed of "ipid ilayer Serves as system of channels from the

nucleus

5unctions in storage and secretion 'ough 0' is ;rough< ecause of associatedriosomes (sites of protein synthesis

Smooth 0' ? lac) associated riosomes :

contained emedded en9ymes7 cataly9esynthesis of carohydrate and lipidmolecules8

0ndomemrane System


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=olgi apparatus

collection of =olgi odies

collect7 pac)age7 and distriute moleculessynthesi9ed at one location in the cell andutili9ed at another location

5ront ?cis

7 Bac) :trans

Cisternae : stac)ed memrane folds

i t


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Vesiclebuddingfrom roughendoplasmicreticulum

Fusionof vesiclewith Golgiapparatus

Migratingtransportvesicle

Protein

Proteins

Transportvesicle

Golgiapparatus

isternae

Ribosome

transface

cisface

0 d S t


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0ndomemrane System 6esicles "ysosomes ? memrane?ound vesicles

containing digestive en9ymes : from =olgi 4icroodies ? en9yme?earing7 memrane?

enclosed vesicles8 /eroxisomes ? contain en9ymes that cataly9e the

removal of electrons and associated hydrogen atoms /eroxisome : named for hydrogen peroxide produced

as a y?product

0n9yme rea)s H2O2 down to water and oxygen

t l $ d l i

opyright ( The McGraw)*ill ompanies+ ,nc- Permission re.uired for reproduction or display-


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ytoplasm

Phagocytosis

Food

vesicle

Golgi

apparatus

!ysosomes

Plasmamembrane

"igestion of

phagocyti#edfood particlesor cells

$ndoplasmicreticulum

Transportvesicle

%ld or damagedorganelle

Brea&downof old

organelle$'tracellularfluid

'i


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'iosomes

'iosomes are '31?protein complexescomposed of two suunits that .oin andattach to messenger '318

site of protein synthesis assemled in nucleoli

- ll ,ith A31


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-rganelles ,ith A31

4itochondria ounded y exterior and interior memranes

interior partitioned y cristae

Chloroplasts have enclosed internal compartments of

stac)ed grana7 containing thyla)oids

found in photosynthetic organisms

4itochondria


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4itochondria/-0Powerhouse of the cell0 ) cellular metabolism

B- Structure) outer and inner membranes+ cristae- *ave their own "1/

Chloroplasts


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ChloroplastsChloroplasts are larger and more complex than

mitochondria

Grana closed compartments of stacked

membranes

Thylakoids disc shaped structure light capturing

pigment

Stroma fluid matrix

0ndosymiosis


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0ndosymiosis

0ndosymiotic theory suggests engulfedpro)aryotes provided hosts withadvantages associated with speciali9ed

metaolic activities8

Theory of 0ndosymiosis


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Theory of 0ndosymiosis

Evidence for the endosymbiont theory is


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y ythat mitochondria and chloroplastsD

? 1re appropriate si9e to e descendants of

euacteria8? Have inner memranes similar to those on

pro)aryotic plasma memranes8

? 'eplicate y splitting7 as in pro)aryotes8? A31 is circular and di>erent from the A31 of the

cellEs nucleus8? Contain their own components for A31 transcription

and translation into proteins 8

? Have riosomes similar to pro)aryotic riosomes8

? 4olecular systematics lend evidence to support this

theory8? 4any extant organisms are involved in

endosymiotic relationships8

Cytos)eleton


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Cytos)eleton 3etwor) of protein ers supporting cell shape

and anchoring organelles 1ctin laments cell movement

4icrotuules

Hollow tues 5acilitate cell movement Centrioles : arrel shaped organelles occur in pairs : help assemle animal cell&s microtuules

2ntermediate laments Stale ? don&t rea) down

Actin

Microtubules

ntermediate

filaments

Cytos)eleton


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Cytos)eleton

/lant Cells


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/lant Cells

Central vacuole often found in the center of a plant7 and

serves as a storage facility for water andother materials

Cell wall primary walls : laid down while cell is

growing

middle lamella : glues cells together

secondary walls : inside the primary cellwalls after growth

/lant Cell


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/lant Cell

1nimal Cells


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1nimal Cells 1nimal cells lac) cell walls8

form extracellular matrix provides support7 strength7 and resilience


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Modified from! http!""###$coe$unt$edu"ubms"documents"classnotes" %all&''("Chapter

)&'()&'*)&'Cell)&'Structure$ppt


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Cili#


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7l#gell#

Ty%es o$ $l#gell#


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CELL ORGANELLES


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NUC+


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>6+>I- /&&/"/TUS?C6'&+


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>6+>I-

/&&/"/TUS?


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C6'&+


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'IT6C(6ND"I/


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UNIT-03


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A!M"T"#"$%


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Com%onents o$ blood


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h#t #re blood cells@

h t d th l ! li! @


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h#t do they loo! li!e@

h#t $unctions do they %er$orm@

(ow c#n I recogniAe the di$$erent

c#tegories@


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What is blood?

Blood is the li$e-m#int#ining $luid th#t

circul#tes through the bodys


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g y

he#rt

#rteries

eins c#%ill#ries

What is the function of blood?

Blood c#rries to the body the $ollowing

nourishment*It is mostly w#ter *:3E by olume, #nd

cont#ins dissoled %roteins glucose clotting $#ctors miner#l ionshormones#nd c#rbon dio4ide*%l#sm# being the m#in medium $or
http://wiki/Hormonehttp://wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://wiki/Hormone


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% g

e4cretory %roduct tr#ns%ort#tion,.

electrolytes

hormones

it#mins

#ntibodies

he#t

o4ygenBlood c#rries #w#y $rom the body the $ollowing

w#ste m#tter

c#rbon dio4ide

UNIT 0F
http://wiki/Hormonehttp://wiki/Carbon_dioxide


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UNIT-0F

GROWTH ACTORS!nit"#$

Structure 'ech#nism /ction o$ rece%tors *cytosolic

Nucle#r 'embr#ne bound rece%tors,

/utocrine %#r#crine


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/utocrine %#r#crine ibberlins Cyto!inins /bscisic

#cid #nd ethylene.

%lant ho&mones *#lso !nown #s'hytoho&mones, #re chemic#ls th#t regul#te

%l#nt growth which in the UG #re termed

%l#nt growth subst#nces.

&l#nt hormones #re sign#l molecules


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n m n gn m u

%roduced within the %l#nt #nd occur in

e4tremely low concentr#tions.

(ormones regul#te cellul#r %rocesses in

t#rgeted cells loc#lly #nd when moed to

other loc#tions in other loc#tions o$ the

%l#nt.

(ormones #lso determine the $orm#tion

o$ $lowers

stems

le#es

the shedding o$ le#es

d h d l d i i $


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#nd the deelo%ment #nd ri%ening o$

$ruit.

&l#nts unli!e #nim#ls l#c! gl#nds th#t%roduce #nd secrete hormones.

Inste#d e#ch cell is c#%#ble o$

%roducing hormones.

Cha&acte&istics

The word hormone is deried $rom

>ree! me#ning set in motion.&l#nt

hormones #$$ect gene e4%ression#nd

tr#nscri%tion leels cellul#r diision#nd growth


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#nd growth.

They #re used toregul#te the growth

o$ culti#ted %l#nts weeds #nd initro-grown %l#nts #nd %l#nt cellsH

these m#nm#de com%ounds #re c#lled

%lant G&o(th Regulato&s

&l#nt hormones #re not nutrients but


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chemic#ls th#t in sm#ll #mounts

%romote #nd in$luence the growth

deelo%ment #nd di$$erenti#tion o$

cells #nd tissues.

(ormones #re tr#ns%orted within the%l#nt by utiliAing $our ty%es o$

moements.

7or loc#liAed moement cyto%l#smicstre#ming within cells #nd slow di$$usion o$


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stre#ming within cells #nd slow di$$usion o$

ions #nd molecules between cells #re utiliAed.

#scul#r tissues #re used to moe hormones$rom one %#rt o$ the %l#nt to #notherH

these include siee tubes th#t moe sug#rs$rom the le#es to the roots #nd $lowers

#nd 4ylem th#t moes w#ter #nd miner#l

solutes $rom the roots to the $oli#ge.


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The concentr#tion o$ hormones re8uired

$or %l#nt res%onses #re ery low *105to

10;?,.

Classes of 'lant ho&mones

)n gener#l it is #cce%ted th#t there #re

$ie m#J r cl#sses $ %l#nt h rm nes


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$ie m#Jor cl#sses o$ %l#nt hormones

some o$ which #re m#de u% o$ m#ny

di$$erent chemic#ls th#t c#n #ry instructure $rom one %l#nt to the ne4t.

The $ie m#Jor cl#sses #re


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General plant hormonesGeneral

plant hormones

/u'ins/u'ins+cell elongation,

GibberellinsGibberellins+cell elongation - cell di.ision *translated into gro#th,


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yto&ininsyto&inins+cell di.ision - inhibits senescence,/bscisic acid/bscisic acid+abscission of lea.es and fruits -

dormancy induction of buds andseeds,

$thylene$thylene+promotes senescence/ epinasty/ andfruit ripening,

Abscisic acid

/bscisic acid

+S,*(*+0*1ydroxy*&/2/2*trimethyl*3*oxo*&*cyclohexen*0*yl,*4*methyl*&/3*pentanedienoic acid56


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/ p

+S,*(*+0*1ydroxy*&/2/2*trimethyl*3*

oxocyclohex*&*en*0*yl,*4*methylpenta*&/3*dienoic acid

,dentifiers

Abbre.iations A7

A

/bscisic acid

/B/ w#s origin#lly belieed to be inoled

in #bscission.

This is now !nown to be the c#se only in #sm#ll number o$ %l#nts.


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/B/-medi#ted sign#lling #lso %l#ys #n

im%ort#nt %#rt in %l#nt res%onses toenironment#l stress #nd %l#nt %#thogens

/bscisic #cid owes its n#mes to its role in

the #bscission o$ %l#nt le#es.

In %re%#r#tion $or winter /B/ is %roduced

in termin#l buds.


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This slows %l#nt growth #nd directs le#$

%rimordi# to deelo% sc#les to %rotect the

dorm#nt buds during the cold se#son.

/B/ #lso inhibits the diision o$ cells in the

#scul#r c#mbium #dJusting to cold

conditions in the winter by sus%ending

%rim#ry #nd second#ry growth.


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Gibbe&ellins

*>/s, #re %l#nt hormones th#t

regul#te growth #nd in$luence

#rious deelo%ment#l %rocesses


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#rious deelo%ment#l %rocesses

including stem elong#tion

germin#tion dorm#ncy $lowering

se4 e4%ression enAyme induction

#nd le#$ #nd $ruit senescence

Gibbe&ellins a&e

tet&acyclic dite&'ene

acids+ The&e a&e t(o

classes based on the

'&esence of ,-

ca&bons o& .#


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ca&bons o& .#

ca&bons+ The ,-"

ca&bon gibbe&ellins/

such as gibbe&ellic

acid


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Stimul#te stem elong#tion by stimul#ting cell

diision #nd elong#tion.

Stimul#tes bolting?$lowering in res%onse to

long d#ys.

Bre#!s seed dorm#ncy in some %l#nts whichre8uire str#ti$ic#tion or light to induce germin#tion.

Stimul#tes enAyme %roduction *#-#myl#se, in


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y % y

germin#ting cere#l gr#ins $or mobiliA#tion o$ seed

reseres.

Induces m#leness in dioecious $lowers *se4e4%ression,.

C#n c#use %#rthenoc#r%ic *seedless, $ruit

deelo%ment.

C#n del#y senescence in le#es #nd citrus

$ruits.

Au0inshe term #u4in is deried $rom the >ree! word

#u4ein which me#ns to grow.

Com%ounds #re gener#lly considered #u4ins i$

they c#n be ch#r#cteriAed by their #bility to


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they c#n be ch#r#cteriAed by their #bility to

induce cell elong#tion in stems #nd otherwise

resemble indole#cetic #cid *the $irst #u4in

isol#ted, in %hysiologic#l #ctiity.

/u4ins usu#lly #$$ect other

%rocesses in #ddition to cell

elong#tion o$ stem cells but this

ch#r#cteristic is consideredcritic#l o$ #ll #u4ins #nd thus

Lhel%sL de$ine the hormone


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hel%s de$ine the hormone

*/rtec# 1::5H '#useth 1::1H

"#en 1::KH S#lisbury #nd "oss1::K,.

unctions of Au0inThe $ollowing #re some o$ the res%onses th#t

#u4in is !nown to c#use *D#ies 1::;H '#useth

1::1H "#en 1::KH S#lisbury #nd "oss 1::K,.

Stimul#tes cell elong#tion

Stimul#tes cell diision in the c#mbium#nd in combin#tion with cyto!inins in tissue

lt


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culture

Stimul#tes di$$erenti#tion o$ %hloem

#nd 4ylem Stimul#tes root initi#tion on stem

cuttings #nd l#ter#l root deelo%ment in

tissue culture

'edi#tes the tro%istic res%onse o$

bending in res%onse to gr#ity #nd light The #u4in su%%ly $rom the #%ic#l bud

su%%resses growth o$ l#ter#l buds

Del#ys le#$ senescence C#n inhibit or %romote *i# ethylene

stimul#tion, le#$ #nd $ruit #bscission

C#n induce $ruit setting #nd growth in

some %l#nts

Inoled in #ssimil#te moement tow#rd

#u4in %ossibly by #n e$$ect on %hloem


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% y y $$ % m

tr#ns%ort

Del#ys $ruit ri%ening

&romotes $lowering in Bromeli#ds

Stimul#tes growth o$ $lower %#rts

&romotes *i# ethylene %roduction,

$em#leness in dioecious $lowers

Stimul#tes the %roduction o$ ethylene #thigh concentr#tions

Cyto*inins

Cyto!inins #re com%ounds with #

structure resembling #denine

which %romote cell diision #ndh#e other simil#r $unctions to

!i ti


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!inetin.

Ginetin w#s the $irst cyto!inin

discoered #nd so n#med bec#use

o$ the com%ounds #bility to

%romote cyto!inesis *cell

diision,.

Though it is # n#tur#l com%ound

It is not m#de in %l#nts #nd is

there$ore usu#lly considered #

LsyntheticL cyto!inin *me#ningth#t the hormone is synthesiAed

somewhere other th#n in # %l#nt,.


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somewhere other th#n in # %l#nt,.

The most common $orm o$n#tur#lly occurring cyto!inin in

%l#nts tod#y is c#lled Ae#tin

which w#s isol#ted $rom corn

*Me# m#ys,.


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Stimul#tes cell diision.

Stimul#tes mor%hogenesis *shoot

initi#tion?bud $orm#tion, in tissue culture.

Stimul#tes the growth o$ l#ter#l buds-rele#se o$ #%ic#l domin#nce.

Stimul#tes le#$ e4%#nsion resulting $rom


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% g

cell enl#rgement.

'#y enh#nce stom#t#l o%ening in some

s%ecies. &romotes the conersion o$ etio%l#sts into

chloro%l#sts i# stimul#tion o$ chloro%hyll

synthesis.

$thylene *23*2

Natu&e of Ethylene


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y

its cl#ss. 6$ #ll the !nown %l#nt growth

subst#nce ethylene h#s the sim%lest

structure.

It is %roduced in #ll higher %l#nts #nd is

usu#lly #ssoci#ted with $ruit ri%ening #nd the

tri%%le res%onse */rtec# 1::5H '#useth1::1H "#en 1::KH S#lisbury #nd "oss 1::K,


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"ece%tor is # molecule $ound on the sur$#ce o$ # cell which

receies s%eci$ic chemic#l sign#ls $rom neighbouring cells or the

wider enironment within #n org#nism. These sign#ls tell # cell to

d thi $ l t di id di t ll t i

"ece%tor


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do something$or e4#m%le to diide or die or to #llow cert#in

molecules to enter or e4it the cell.

"ece%tors #re %rotein molecules embedded in either the

%l#sm# membr#ne or the cyto%l#sm o$ # cell to which one

or more s%eci$ic !inds o$ sign#ling molecules m#y #tt#ch.

/ molecule which binds *#tt#ches, to # rece%tor is c#lled #

lig#nd #nd m#y be # %e%tide *short %rotein, or other sm#ll


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lig#nd #nd m#y be # %e%tide *short %rotein, or other sm#ll

molecule such #s # neurotr#nsmitter # hormone #

%h#rm#ceutic#l drug or # to4in

UNIT-0;


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