ch21 blood
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Human Anatomy, First EditionMcKinley & O'Loughlin
Chapter 21:
Blood
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Blood Considered a connective tissue: contains
Cells
a liquid ground substance (called plasma) dissolved protein fibers.
About four times more viscous (or thicker)than water.
Temperature of blood is about 1C higherthan measured body temperature.
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Blood Whole blood can be separated:
Liquid component
cellular components machine called a centrifuge.
blood is withdrawn from a vein and collected in acentrifuge tube
tube is placed into the centrifuge, which thenspins it in a circular motion for several minutes
rotational movement separates the blood into
liquid and cellular components
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Components of Blood Erythrocytes (or red blood cells)
form the lower layer of the centrifuged blood
typically make up about 44% of a blood sample Buffy coat
makes up the middle layer
thin, slightly gray-white layer composed of cells calledleukocytes (or white blood cells) and cell fragments calledplatelets
forms less than 1% of a blood sample
Plasma straw-colored liquid that rises to the top
generally makes up about 55% of blood
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Components of Blood Erythrocytes and the components of the buffy coat
are called the formed elements.
notcells, merely fragments broken off from a larger cell
Formed elements and the liquid plasma composewhole blood.
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Functions of Blood
Transportation Transports numerous elements and compounds
throughout the body.
erythrocytes carry oxygen from the lungs to body cells andthen transport carbon dioxide from the cells back to thelungs for expulsion from the body
blood plasma
transports nutrients that have been absorbed from the GI tract
hormones secreted by the endocrine organs to their target cells
plasma
carries waste products from the cells to organs such as thekidneys, where these waste products are removed
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Functions of Blood
Regulation of Body Temp. Regulates body temperature.
plasma absorbs and distributes heat throughout
the body for cooling the blood vessels in the dermis dilate
and dissipate the excess heat through theintegument
when the body needs to conserve heat, thedermal blood vessels constrict, and the warmblood is shunted to deeper blood vessels in thebody
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Functions of Blood
Regulation of pH Levels pH is a measure of how alkaline or acidic a fluid is.
Neutral pH is measured at exactly 7.
Acidic fluids (e.g., orange juice) are between 0 and 7.
Alkaline fluids (e.g., milk) are between 7 and 14.
Blood plasma contains compounds and ions that maybe distributed to the fluid among tissues (interstitialfluid) to help maintain normal tissue pH.
Blood plasma pH is continuously regulated at a valueof7.4 the pH level required for normal cellularfunctioning.
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Functions of Blood
Maintenance of Fluid Levels Maintains normal fluid levels in the cardiovascular
system.
Prevents fluid loss. Constant exchange of fluid between the blood plasma
and the interstitial fluid.
Iftoo much fluid is absorbed in the blood, high blood
pressure results. Iftoo much fluid escapes the bloodstream and enters
the tissues, blood pressure drops to unhealthy lowlevels, and the tissues swell with excess fluid.
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Functions of Blood
Maintenance of Fluid Levels To maintain balance of fluid exchange between the
blood and the interstitial fluid, blood containscompounds (such as salts and some proteins) to
prevent excess fluid loss in the plasma.
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Functions of Blood
Protection Leukocytes (white blood cells) help guard against
infection by mounting an immune response if apathogen or an antigen is found.
Plasma transports antibodies, which are moleculesthat can immobilize antigens until a leukocyte cancompletely kill or remove the antigen.
Platelets and blood proteins protect the body againstblood loss by forming blood clots on damaged
vessels.
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Components of Plasma Complex mixture of water, proteins, and other
solutes.
When the proteins are moved from plasma, theremaining fluid is termed serum.
Watermakes up about 92% of plasmas totalvolume.
water facilitates the transport of materials in the plasma
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Plasma Proteins The next most abundant materials in plasma
are the plasma proteins.
Make up about 7% of the plasma.
6 and 8 grams of protein in a volume of100milliliters of blood (referred to as g/dl)
The plasma proteins include:
albumins globulins
fibrinogen
regulatory proteins
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Plasma Proteins Albumins Smallest and most abundant of the plasma proteins.
make up approximately 58% of total plasma proteins
Regulate water movement between the blood andinterstitial fluid.
Albumins act as transport proteins that carry ions,hormones, and some lipids in the blood.
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Plasma Proteins Globulins Second largest group of plasma proteins, forming
about 37% of all plasma proteins.
Smaller alpha-globulins and the larger beta-globulinsprimarily bind, support, and protect certain water-insoluble or hydrophobic molecules, hormones, andions.
Gamma-globulins: Also called immunoglobulins orantibodies.
Produced by some of our defense cells to protect the
body against pathogens that may cause disease.
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Plasma Proteins Fibrinogen Makes up about 4% of all plasma proteins.
Responsible for blood clot formation.
Following trauma to the walls of blood vessels,fibrinogen is converted into long, insoluble strands offibrin, which is the essence of a blood clot.
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Plasma Proteins Regulatory
Proteins Form a very minor class of plasma proteins.
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Solutes Plasma is an extracellular fluid (ECF).
it includes all body fluids that are not found insidecells
Plasma is somewhat like interstitial fluid, in that
both have similar concentrations of nutrients,waste products, and electrolytes
Concentration ofdissolved oxygen is higher in plasma
than in interstitial fluid, because the cells take up anduse the oxygen from the interstitial fluid duringenergy production.
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Solutes Difference in concentration ensures that
oxygen will continue to diffuse from the
blood into the tissues. Difference in concentration ensures that
carbon dioxide will readily diffuse from
the interstitial fluid into the blood,where it will be carried to the lungs anddischarged from the body.
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Formed Elements in the Blood Erythrocytes
make up more than 99% of formed elements
primary function is to transport respiratory gases in the
blood
Leukocytes
make up less than .01% of formed elements
contribute to defending the body against pathogens
Platelets make up less than 1% of formed elements and
help with blood clotting
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Hematocrit Percentage of erythrocytes in the blood.
Values vary slightly and are dependent on age and sex.
Adult males range between 42% and 56% .
Females range from 38% to 46%.
Childrenshematocrit ranges also vary and differ from adultvalues.
Altitude can affect the hematocrit.
body compensates by making more erythrocytes more erythrocytes in the blood can carry more oxygen to
the tissues
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Erythrocytes Mature erythrocytes lack nuclei. Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the
tissues and the lungs.
Lack of nuclei enables them to carry respiratory
gases more efficiently.
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Hemoglobin in Erythrocytes Every erythrocyte is filled with approximately 280
million molecules of a red-pigmented protein calledhemoglobin.
Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide, and isresponsible for the characteristic bright red color ofarterial blood.
Hemoglobin that contains no oxygen has a deep red
color that is perceived as blue because the bloodwithin these veins is observed through the layers ofthe skin and the subcutaneous tissue.
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Hemoglobin in Erythrocytes Each hemoglobin molecule consists offour protein building
blocks, called globins. Alpha (a) chains
Beta (b) chains.
All globin chains contain a nonprotein (or heme) group: ring shaped
an iron (Fe) ion in its center.
Oxygen binds to these iron ions for transport in the blood.
Each hemoglobin molecule: four iron ions
is capable of binding four molecules of oxygen.
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Hemoglobin in Erythrocytes Oxygen binding is fairly weak
ensures rapid attachment and detachment of oxygen withhemoglobin.
Oxygen binds to the hemoglobin
when the erythrocytes pass through the blood vessels of the lungs.
It leaves the hemoglobin
when the erythrocytes pass through the blood vessels of bodytissues.
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Erythrocyte Life Cycle No organelles, therefore can not sustain itself.
Finite life span of about 120 days.
Daily: About 1% of oldest RBCs are removed
Are phagocytized by liver and spleen.
By macrophages
Some components saved, some discarded
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Erythrocyte Life Cycle Some components saved, some discarded
Heme group:
Converted to biliverdin (green pigment)
Then converted to bilirubin In bile, produced by liver
Bile enters the digestive tract
Helps emulsify fat
Bilirubin modified and removed via urine and feces
Iron: Transported by transferrin to liver
Transferred to ferritin for storage
Ferritin can be transported to red bone marrow
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Blood Types Determined by membrane proteins in the RBC cell
membrane.
Called surface antigens (agglutinogens).
Most common group: ABO blood group
Two antigens: A and B
ABO blood types:
Type A: have the A surface antigen
Type B: have the B surface antigen
Type AB: have both the A and the B surface antigens
Type O: have neither the A or the B surface antigen.
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Blood TypesAntibodies (agglutinins) to the surface
antigens are in the plasma
ABO group has anti-A antibodies andanti-B antibodies Type A: have anti-B
Type B: have anti-A
Type AB: has neither anti-A or anti-B
Type O: has both anti-A and anti- B
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Antibodies An antibody interacts with a specific antigen.
The ABO blood group has both anti-Aand anti-Bantibodies that react with the surface antigen A andthe surface antigen B, respectively.
The antibodies in your blood plasma do not recognize
the surface antigens on your erythrocytes.
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Blood Types Rh blood type
Based on another surface antigen
Called either Rh or D
Rh positive (Rh+): has the antigen
Rh negative (Rh-): does not have the
antigen
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Blood Types Rh blood type
Antibody only present with exposure to Rh+
blood (the antigen) Only people with Rh- blood can have the
antibody
Erthryroblastosis fetalis: Rh+ antibodies in
plasma of an Rh-
mother can cross theplacenta RhoGAM: prevent antibody development
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Leukocytes
Leukocytes help initiate an immune response anddefend the body against invading pathogens.
Leukocytes are true cells in that they contain anucleus and cellular organelles.
Leukocytes also differ from erythrocytes in that theyare about 1.5 to 3 times larger, and they do notcontain hemoglobin.
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Leukocytes The five types of leukocytes are divided into two
distinguishable classesgranulocytes andagranulocytesbased upon the presence or absence
of visible organelles termed specific granules.
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Leukocytes Granulocytes Neutrophil
6070% of the total number of leukocytes
Eosinophils have reddish, or pink-orange granules in theircytoplasm. constitute about 24% of the total number of leukocytes
nucleus usually has two lobes, which are connected by a thinstrand
Basophils are 1.5 times larger than erythrocytes
least numerous of the granulocytes constitute about 0.51% of the total number of leukocytes
always exhibit a bilobed nucleus and abundant blue-violet granulesin the cytoplasm
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Leukocytes Agranulocytes Agranulocytes are leukocytes that have such small
granules in their cytoplasm that they are frequentlyoverlooked upon casual observationhence the
name agranulocyte. Agranulocytes include both lymphocytes and
monocytes.
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Leukocytes Agranulocytes -
Lymphocytes T-lymphocytes (T-cells)
manage and direct an immune response
some directly attack foreign cells and virus-infected cells
B-lymphocytes (B-cells)
stimulated to become plasma cells and produce
antibodies Natural killer cells (NK cells)
attack abnormal and infected tissue cells
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Leukocytes Agranulocytes -
Monocytes Up to three times the diameter of an erythrocyte.
Constitute about 38% of all leukocytes.
Nucleus is kidney-shaped or U-shaped.
Macrophages phagocytize bacteria, cell fragments,dead cells, and debris.
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Platelets Irregular, membrane-enclosed cellular
fragments about 2 micrometers in diameter (less than one-
fourth the size of an erythrocyte). In stained preparations, they exhibit a dark
central region.
Sometimes called thrombocytes.
Continually produced in the red bonemarrow by cells called megakaryocytes.
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Platelets Severe trauma to a blood vessel causes
the blood to coagulate, or clot.
Components in the plasma produce aweb offibrin that traps erythrocytesand platelets in the web to halt blood
flow.
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HemopoiesisAlso called hematopoiesis
Production of the formed elements of
blood
Occurs in red bone marrow
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Hemopoiesis Begins with hemopoietc stem cells
Called Hemocytoblast
Pluripotent cells
Produce two cell lines
Myloid line
Everything but lymphocytes Lymphoid line
lymphocytes
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Hemopoiesis
Influenced by a number of hormones andgrowth factors
Colony-stimulating factors: Multi-CSF: RBCs,granulocytes,monocytes, platelets
From myloid stem cell
GM-CSF: granulocytes, monocytes
From progenitor cell G-CSF: granulocytes
From myeloblast cells
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Hemopoiesis
Colony-stimulating factors: contined
M-CSF: monocytes
From monoblasts
Thrombopoietin: megakaryocytes andplatelets
Erythropoietin: hormone from the kidney,RBCs
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Hemopoiesis
Erythropoiesis: from progenitor cell
Reticulocyte: loses all organelles
Thrombopoiesis Leukopoiesis
Granulocyte maturation: from myeloblast
Monocyte maturation: from monoblast
Lymphocyte maturation: from lymphoid stem cell
B-lymphoblast
T-lymphoblast
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