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1

The Human Body:

Anatomy and Physiology

Part A

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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy the study of the structure of body partsand their relationships to one another

Gross or macroscopic

Microscopic

Developmental

Physiology the study of the function of the bodys

structural machinery

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Anatomy: Gross

Regional all structures in one part of the body

(such as the abdomen or leg)

Systemic gross anatomy of the body studied by

system

Surface study of internal structures as they relateto the overlying skin

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Anatomy: Microscopic

Cytology study of the cell

Histology study of tissues

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Anatomy: Developmental

Traces structural changes throughout life

Embryology study of developmental changes of

the body before birth

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Anatomy: Specialized Branches of Anatomy

Pathological anatomy study of structural changes

caused by disease

Radiographic anatomy study of internal structures

visualized by X ray

Molecular biology study of anatomical structuresat a subcellular level

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Physiology

Considers the operation of specific organ systems

Renal kidney function

Neurophysiology workings of the nervous system

Cardiovascular operation of the heart and blood

vessels

Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the

cellular or molecular level

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Principle of Complementarity

Function always reflects structure

What a structure can do depends on its specific form

For example: Thumb

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Levels of Structural Organization

Chemical atoms combined to form molecules

Cellular cells are made of molecules

Tissue consists of similar types of cells

Organ made up of different types of tissues

Organ system consists of different organs that

work closely together

Organismal made up of the organ systems

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Organ Systems of the Body

Integumentary system

Forms the external body covering

Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands,

hair, and nails

Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizesvitamin D

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Skeletal system

Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments

Protects and supports body organs

Provides the framework for muscles

Site of blood cell formation

Stores minerals

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Muscular system

Composed of muscles and tendons

Allows manipulation of the environment,

locomotion, and facial expression

Maintains posture

Produces heat

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Nervous system

Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves

Is the fast-acting control system of the body

Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and

glands

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Cardiovascular system

Composed of the heart and blood vessels

The heart pumps blood

The blood vessels transport blood throughout the

body

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Lymphatic system

Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen,

lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and

returns it to blood

Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream

Houses white blood cells involved with immunity

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Respiratory system

Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea,bronchi, and lungs

Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes

carbon dioxide

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Digestive system

Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,

small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, andliver

Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter

the blood

Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces

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Urinary system

Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and

urethra

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body

Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of theblood

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Female reproductive system

Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine

tubes, uterus, and vagina

Main function is the production of offspring

Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones

Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization

and development of the fetus

Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the

newborn

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Organ Systems Interrelationships

The integumentary system protects the body from

the external environment

Digestive and respiratory systems, in contact with

the external environment, take in nutrients andoxygen

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Organ Systems Interrelationships

Nutrients and oxygen

are distributed by the

blood

Metabolic wastes are

eliminated by theurinary and respiratory

systems

Figure 1.2

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Necessary Life Functions I

Maintaining boundaries the internal environment remains distinct

from the external

Cellular level accomplished by plasma membranes

Organismal level accomplished by the skin

Movement locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis), and contractility

Responsiveness ability to sense changes in the environment and

respond to them

Digestion breakdown of ingested foodstuffs

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Survival Needs

Nutrients chemical substances used for energy andcell building

Oxygen needed for metabolic reactions

Water provides the necessary environment forchemical reactions

Maintaining normal body temperature necessaryfor chemical reactions to occur at life-sustainingrates

Atmospheric pressure required for properbreathing and gas exchange in the lungs

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1

The Human Body:

Homeostasis

Part B

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Homeostasis: Control Mechanisms

The variable produces a change in the body

The three interdependent components of controlmechanisms are:

Receptor monitors the environments and respondsto changes (stimuli)

Control center determines the set point at whichthe variable is maintained

Effector provides the means to respond to thestimulus

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Stimulus:

Produceschange

in variable

1

2

3

Changedetected

by receptor

Input:

Information

sent alongafferent

pathway to

5 Response of

effector feeds

back to influence

magnitude of

stimulus andreturns

variable to

homeostasisVariable (in homeostasis)

Receptor (sensor)

Controlcenter 4 Output:

Information sent

along efferentpathway to

Effector

Homeostasis: Control Mechanisms

Figure 1.4

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Homeostasis: Negative Feedback

In negative feedback systems, the output shuts off

the original stimulus

prevents sudden and severe changes within the

body.

Example: Regulation of blood glucose levels

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Homeostasis: Negative Feedback

Figure 1.5

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Homeostasis: Positive Feedback

In positive feedbacksystems, the output

enhances or exaggerates

the original stimulus

Example: Regulation of

blood clotting

Example: Enhancement of

labor contractions by

oxytocin.

Figure 1.6

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Homeostasis: Imbalance

Disturbance of homeostasis or the bodys normal

equilibrium

Overwhelming of negative feedback mechanisms

allowing destructive positive feedback mechanismsto take over

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Anatomical Position

Body erect, feet slightlyapart, palms facing

forward, thumbs point

away from body

Figure 1.7a

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Directional Terms

Superior and inferior toward and away from the

head, respectively

Anterior and posterior toward the front and backof the body

Medial, lateral, and intermediate toward the

midline, away from the midline, and between a more

medial and lateral structure

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Directional Terms

Proximal and distal closer to and farther from the

origin of the body

Superficial and deep toward and away from the

body surface

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Directional Terms

Table 1.1

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Regional Terms: Anterior View

Axial head,

neck, and trunk

Appendicular appendages or

limbs

Specificregional

terminology

Figure 1.7a

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Regional Terms: Posterior View

Figure 1.7b

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Body Planes

Sagittal divides the body

into right and left parts

Midsagittal or medial sagittal plane that lies on

the midline

Frontal or coronal divides

the body into anterior andposterior parts

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Body Planes

Transverse or horizontal

(cross section) divides the

body into superior and

inferior parts

Oblique section cuts

made diagonally

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Anatomical Variability

Humans vary slightly in both external and internal anatomy

Over90% of all anatomical structures match textbook

descriptions, but:

Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of place

Small muscles may be missing

Extreme anatomical variations are seldom seen

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Body Cavities

Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is

divided into two subdivisions

Cranial cavity is within the skull and encases the

brain

Vertebral cavity runs within the vertebral column

and encases the spinal cord

Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera),

and is divided into two subdivisions: thoracic and

abdominopelvic

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Body Planes

Figure 1.9a

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Body Planes

Figure 1.9b

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Body Cavities

The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the

superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped

diaphragm

It is composed of two subdivisions

Abdominal cavity contains the stomach,

intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs

Pelvic cavity lies within the pelvis and contains

the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

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Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

Figure 1.10a

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Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

Figure 1.10b

O C i i

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Other Body Cavities

Oral and digestive mouth and cavities of the

digestive organs

Nasal located within and posterior to the nose

Orbital house the eyes

Middle ear contain bones (ossicles) that transmit

sound vibrations

Synovial joint cavities

Abd i l i R i

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AbdominopelvicRetions

U

mbilical Epigastric

Hypogastric

Right and left iliac or

inguinal

Right and left lumbar

Right and left

hypochondriac

Figure 1.11a

O f th Abd i l i R i

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Organs of the AbdominopelvicRegions

Figure 1.11b

Abd i l i Q d t

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Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Right upper

Left upper

Right lower

Left lower

Figure 1.12

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