chapter 1: grammar and types of grammars
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강의용 PPT Slide 자료 Course Title: The Understanding of English Syntactic Principles and Practices Instructor: Professor In-Seok Kim 연구실 : 숭인관 925 호실 연락처 : 940-4357 조교실 : 숭인관 925 호실 조교연락처 : 940-4357. Chapter 1: Grammar and Types of Grammars. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Course Title: The Understanding of English Course Title: The Understanding of English Syntactic Principles and Practices Syntactic Principles and Practices
Instructor: Professor In-Seok KimInstructor: Professor In-Seok Kim 연구실연구실 : : 숭인관 숭인관 925925 호실호실 연락처 연락처 : 940-4357: 940-4357 조교실조교실 : : 숭인관 숭인관 925925 호실호실 조교연락처 조교연락처 : 940-4357: 940-4357
Chapter 1: Grammar and Types of Chapter 1: Grammar and Types of GrammarsGrammars
1. Five major components of grammar1. Five major components of grammar a. Syntax - the grammatical principles, units, and
relations involved in sentence structure b. Lexicon - the set of individual words c. Semantics - the meanings associated with the lexicon of a language and with the units and relations in sentence structures d. Morphology - the study of word families, suffixes, and prefixes e. Pragmatics - the study of the ways our real world knowledge and beliefs affect language use and structure are explored
2. Two kinds of Grammar2. Two kinds of Grammar a. What is the definition of Grammar ?
It refers to the rules and principles which native speakers use in producing and understanding their language.
b. Descriptive Grammar
the set of generalizations formulated by grammarians who examine grammatical utterances and compare them with other logically possible strings of words
<Example Sentences>1) It's me. 2) That's her. 3) Bill Gates can complain that $15 ain't what it used t
o be. " is not, are not, has not, have not" is contract
ed into "ain't.“c. Prescriptive grammar -- grammar based on the
kind of English believed characteristic of the most educated speakers of the language
e.g.,school grammar, grammar for ESL textbooks (pedagogical grammar) and computer processing.
<Example Sentences>1) It's I. 2) It's she. 3) I'm going to try and help the victim.
==> I'm going to try to help the victim.
3. Propositional content3. Propositional content - the core meaning of a sentence which depends on syntax, lexicon, semantics
a. The inspector refused that arrested man's request because he had suspected an escape attempt.
b. The inspector refused the arrested man's request because he had made an escape attempt.
c. Your desk is a mess.d. Sorry, we're busy all week.
Implications: So, I can't see you this weekend.
So, I can't date you tonight.
Chapter 2: Propositional ContentChapter 2: Propositional Content
1. Those plums look good1. Those plums look good.. -- only one propositional content either when spoken by a child looking at a bowl of fruit or by the produce manager buying fruit for a store
2. Importance of a verb:2. Importance of a verb: the concept expressed by the verb is typically the heart of the propositional content of a sentence.
3. Semantics 3. Semantics consistconsist of word-internal semantics and word-external semantics.
1) word-internal semantics 1) word-internal semantics vs.vs. word-external semanticsword-external semantics
die - become no longer alive kill - cause to become no longer
alive (no violation of law) murder - criminally cause to become no
longer alive assassinate - criminally cause politically
prominent individual(s) to become no longer alive
2) Word-external semantics* a. A thief assassinated a dental technician last
night.
b. The cockroaches died.
c. The gas killed the cockroaches.
d. *The cockroaches died the ant.
e. The inspector gave the man his sunglasses.
f. Required noun phrases and verb meaning
3. Required noun phrases and verb3. Required noun phrases and verb
meaningmeaning a. die - a process requiring only one participant
kill - two participants (killer and victim)
give - three participants (a giver, a receiver,
a gift)
b. The verb and its noun phrases constitute not only a syntactic unit but a semantic unit (referred to as a proposition)
c. Valency1) A valency refers to the number of noun phrases t
hat a verb requires.2) No verb requires more than three noun phrases.3) No NP is used in an imperative sentence. (e.g., Run !)
d. Propositional content -- the core meaning of the clause, the content of the proposition which the clause expresses
x DIE: The dog died.x WALK: That teddy bear walks.
x KILL y: A renegade soldier (x) killed the dog (y).
x MEET y: The ambassador (x) met King Faisal (y) last week.
x AWARD y, z: The inspector (x) awarded the restaurant (y) a gold medal (z).
x GIVE y, z: That kind of behavior(x) gives our school(y) a bad reputation (z).
4. Predicates = verb + other elements of a sentence
a. *The cupboard always quarreled.b. The brothers always quarreled.
c. The critics enjoyed the show.
d. *The turnips enjoyed the show.
e. * The critics pleased the show.
f. The brothers always quarreled with Trudy about the car.
g. The brothers were always quarrelsome.
h. The brothers were always big quarrelers.
i. The husband and wife were in a quarrelsome mood.
5. Two properties of Verbs1) Valency - the number of NPs which a verb requires
2) Certain restriction on the noun phrases
5. Argument = noun phrase a. x SHOW y, z: Her friends (x) showed the inspector (y) her
letter (z). ARG X predicate ARG Y ARG Z
b. For her to arrive late again (x) showed the inspector (y) that she was unreliable (z)
6. Argument and Grammatical Relations (semantic roles)
a. x ATTACK y: x= attacker, doer, y = victim, undergoer
a. Mary attacked John.b. John attacked Mary.
c. The president offered the rebels (OBL1) military
supplies (OBL2).
d. The president offered military supplied (OBL) to
the rebels (OBL-to)
e. Jane bought a gift for her friend (OBL-for)
f. Her clothes dried on the line.
g. Chester dried her clothes on the line.
Chapter 3: Thematic Roles and Levels of Chapter 3: Thematic Roles and Levels of StructureStructure
1. Each argument must be assigned to an app1. Each argument must be assigned to an appropriate thematic role.ropriate thematic role.
doer, undergoer, experiencer role, theme role
a. My uncle painted his house in red.
b. An angry woman was about to punch the man.
c. Noel liked/was fond of/enjoyed those pink colors. (psychological state verb)
Experiencer theme
Experiencer roleExperiencer role -- an entity engaged in a mental process or state involving cognition (thinking, believing, knowing, understanding), perception (seeing, hearing, smelling) or emotion (liking, hating, fearing, being angry, trusting)
d. The colors delighted/pleased/seemed delightful to Noel.
theme experiencer
(delight, please, enchant, seem delightful, horrify, interest, frighten, gladden, get angry, deceive, etc.)
Observation:Observation: For many psychological predicates, the grammatical relation subject does not correspond to the thematic role experiencer nor the object relation to the theme.
2. No thematic role assigned to Filler "it"2. No thematic role assigned to Filler "it"a. That you leave early is important.b. * __ is important that you leave early.c. It is important that you leave early.
3. Thematic Role Assignment for Noun Phrase3. Thematic Role Assignment for Noun Phrasea. Agent - a mind possessor who acts Jane opened the drawer. *The blackboard seems to deny any responsibility for the murder.
b. Instrument – the thing with which the action is done. This iron key opened the drawer. He opened the drawer with this iron key.
d. Theme –
1) the role of the inert entity,
which is in a certain state or position or is changing its state or position
The ball rolled down the slope.
School boys rolled the ball down the slope. 2) the role assigned to clauses
Many people believed that Tom was a total liar.
e. Patient - the role of affected mind-possessing entities
They moved the injured soldier into the tent.
f. Experiencer - the one who experiences a mental state or process such as thinking, believing, understanding, seeing, hearing, fearing, hoping, being surprised
- A priest's sermon inspired many people present.
g. Source - the location from which someone or something originates
h. Goal - the location that serves or should serve as the destination
- The delegates left Seoul for New York.
- The government took over a billion dollars from the poor.
i. Benefactive - the role of the individual for whose benefit some action is undertaken
- The chef cooked a cherry pie for Jessica.
4. Thematic Roles for Nonargument Noun4. Thematic Roles for Nonargument Noun PhrasesPhrasesNoun phrases which are not arguments of predicat
es also have thematic roles.a. They waited for a help on the mountain.b. A truce will be declared for two weeks.c. Last year the farmers enjoyed a good harvest se
ason.d. The doctor's car was a Hyundai.
5. Clause Argument5. Clause Argumenta. That he was guilty of murder was
proved in court.b. *__ was proved in court that he was
guilty of murder.c. It was proved in court that he was
guilty of murder.
6. Revised Notation for Propositional 6. Revised Notation for Propositional ContentContent
x PAINT y => agent PAINT theme
Active voice: agent PAINT themePassive Voice: __ be PAINTED themea. My uncle (agent) painted his house (theme)
in red.
b. * ___ was painted his house in red.c. * It was painted his house in red.d. His house was painted.
7. Deep and Surface Structures7. Deep and Surface Structures
a. Deep structure is the level at which thematic roles are assigned.
The verbs, predicate adjective phrases, predicate noun phrases,, and prepositions assign thematic roles to the noun phrases or clauses that occur right next to them.
b. Surface structure is the level at which grammatical relations are established.
Noun phrases like the filler it can occur without having to have any thematic role.
c. Transformations - The two levels (DS and SS) are connected by the kind of moving operation -- one moving the theme argument from the position after predicate into the empty subject position.
Chapter 4: Some Properties of Chapter 4: Some Properties of Sentence StructurSentence Structuree
1.Word-order Parameter:1.Word-order Parameter:
Languages have different ways of distinguishing
subjects and objects.
A. English Word-order (SVO): a. Tom reads a book in his room. b. In his room Tom reads a book. *c. Tom a book reads. *d. A book tom reads. *e. Reads Tom a book.
B. Korean Word-order(SOV) a. Tom 이 자기 방에서 책을 읽는다 . b. 자기 방에서 Tom 이 책을 읽는다 . c. 책을 Tom 이 자기 방에서 읽는다 . d. Tom 이 책을 자기 방에서 읽는다 .
2. Three Basic Properties of Sentence2. Three Basic Properties of SentenceA. Linearity: SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OSV, OVS B. Hierarchy: Word grouping
VP (mother node)
node (sister)
expelled the officer
C. Categoriality Lexical Category: Verb, Noun, .... Phrasal Category: VP, NP, ........ a. The lawyer looked at the judge with suspicious eyes.b. Phil hit the man with a red flashlight.
The government expelled the officers from Thailand. S -------------sentence
NP VP ……….> phrasal
det N V NP det N’
N pp
p NP det N
the government expelled the officers from 0 Thailand
Practice: Draw the tree-diagram of the Practice: Draw the tree-diagram of the following sentences.following sentences.
1. A man kicked the car.2. Those crocodiles came from Egypt.3. The woman in the boat jumped into the water. 4. Carlos will visit that girl in the morning.5. A doctor with a huge hat climbed up the cliff.
S
NP VP
det N V PP
The lawyer looked P NP
det N’
N PP
P NP
det N’
AP N
A
the lawyer looked at the judge with 0 suspicious eyes
S
NP VP
det N V NP
det N’
N PP
P NP
det N’
AP N
A
0 Phil hit the man with a red flashlight
Chapter 5: Clause StructureChapter 5: Clause Structure1. Definition of clause1. Definition of clause A Clause consists of a verb phrase and
other grammatical elements.
a. Clara delayed her graduationb. I heard the rumors.c. a woman in a 1993 Jaguar sedand. I heard (that) Clara delayed her
graduation.e. That Clara delayed her graduation is not
true.
2. Difference between Finite and Non-finite 2. Difference between Finite and Non-finite ClauseClause
Finite Clause:___________________________ Non-finite Clause:_______________________a. He will go the beach with his girlfriend.b. He wants to go to the beach with his girlfriend.c. For him to graduate this May is necessary.d. She thinks she will graduate this May.e. She believes him to graduate this May.
3. Sentence and Phrase Constituents; Head of Phrases
S
NP VP
S
NP VP
N V
S
NP VP
DET N V ADV
a wolf howled mournfully
4. Extended Noun Phrases NP
DET N`
AP N
A
the lonely man
VP V NP
det N’
N S’ Comp S NP VP believed the news that she left for Lo
ndon
Practice SentencePractice Sentence1. the man in the iron mask2. the girl with a red hat3. the news that he left for London4. He believed the news that she left for London.
5. Two types of Clauses5. Two types of Clauses Intransitive vs. Transitivea. Dogs bark.b. A wolf howled mourning fully.c. The lonely ploughman talked to the cows. d. The panther climbed the tree.e. The mayor rejected the petitions.
f. Dr. Kim knew that his wife was reliable.g. Jane arrived the next day. h. The next day Jane arrived. 6. Copular Verb Clauses: be, seem, become6. Copular Verb Clauses: be, seem, becomea. This animal is a pachyderm.b. The burglar became a beggar.c. The elephant was sluggish 7. Ditransitive Clauses: give, show, sell, tell. etc.7. Ditransitive Clauses: give, show, sell, tell. etc.a. They gave him an award.b. He will lend me his umbrella.c. The generals sold the rebels many tanks.
Conversion using Oblique -toc. ___________________________________d. ___________________________________e. ___________________________________ f. They told him that he must arrive early for the
award.*g. They told that he must arrive early for the
ward to him.h. They told him to arrive early for the award.*i. They told to arrive early for the award to him.
Benefactive ditransitive clauseBenefactive ditransitive clausea. Craig baked John a coffee cake.b. Craig baked a coffee cake for John.c. The weary soldier built them a shelter.d. The weary soldier built a shelter for them.
Verb “cost” a. That party may cost you a lot of money.*b. That party may cost a lot of money to you.*c. You may be cost a lot of money by that party.
Verb “award”a. The group awarded the college two special
scholarships.b. The college was awarded two special scholarships (by
the group).*c. Two special scholarships were awarded the college
(by the group).
8. Object Complements8. Object Complementsa. The commission called the proposal a
sham. b. The proposal was called a sham (by the
commission). *c. A sham was called the proposal (by the
commission).
d. The group elected Mr. Chang president.e. ___________________________________ f. ___________________________________g. Shaw considered Jane a fool.h. Shaw considered Jane to be a fool. i. ___________________________________ j. ___________________________________
9. Subject Complements9. Subject Complementsa. She left the room very happy.b. She left the room in a good mood.
Chapter 6: Dependent ClausesChapter 6: Dependent Clauses
1. Definition of a main clause and an independent 1. Definition of a main clause and an independent clauseclause
Main clause : ________________________
Dependent clause : ____________________
a. A soft breeze rippled the lake waters
b. The aspen leaves quivered delicately.
c. for Sharon? car to break down
d. that Sharon? car had broken down
e. because Sharon? car had broken down
2. Complementizers - that, for.... to => embed2. Complementizers - that, for.... to => embedded clauses)ded clauses)
Subordinate conjunctions - because, although, since, etc. => subordinate clauses)
Clause Types
Main or Dependent Independent ClausesClauses
Embedded Subordinate Clauses Clauses (that, for… to) (because, since before, …….)
a. For Sharon’s car to break down would be unfortunate.
b. A breakdown would be unfortunate.c. The police reported that Sharon’s car had broken
down.d. The police reported the breakdown.e. *Because Sharon’s car had broken down surprised
Eric. f. * The police denied because Sharon’s
car had broken down.g. The family returned to the villa after
Sharon’s car had broken down.
h. They found the children where Sharon’s car had broken down.
i. He would only use his sister’s car if it broke down.
j. She locked the doors so as to prevent any more intrusions.
see table 6.1
Subordinator Clause Perspective
after Lee met them TIME
before Trollope died TIME
since I last met them TIME
until We meet again TIME
when You are in love TIME
while They were eating TIME
where Melville wrote it LOCATION
because Achilles was angry REASON
since You didn’t pay me REASON
as if Carl was sick MANNER
as though Jill hadn't seen him MANNER
so that We’d meet them PURPOSE
in order that Joe would confess PURPOSE
so as To avoid the police PURPOSE
in order To avoid the police PURPOSE
as (many) as Jane had COMPARISON
more than Jane has COMPARISON
(tall)-er than Jane was COMPARISON
(al)though They refused CONTRAST
even though She was rich CONTRAST
Despite (my) hating eggs CONTRAST
so (that) It was a success RESULT
if Sam had read it CONDITION
3. Tree-diagrams of dependent clauses (See P.70) S
NP VP
DET N` V S`
COM S
N
the police denied that Sharon’s car had broken down
a. That Sharon’s car had broken down astonished the mechanic.
b. The police denied that Sharon’s car has broken down.
c. We visited the Olympics, although we avoided the crowds.
d. Although we avoided the crowds, we visited the Olympics.
4. Covert subjects 4. Covert subjects a. Jane left early so as [e] to avoid the
police.b. [e] pushing him aside, Carol jumped
onto the platform.
c. [e] battered by the heavy storm, the ship limped into the harbor.
d. After [e] being battered by the heavy storm, the ship limped into the harbor.
5. Conjunction Reduction (See P. 5. Conjunction Reduction (See P. 73)73)
S`
COMP S S` S
COM S CONJ S
NP VP NP VP
V NP V NP
N` DET N` N` DET N`
N N N N
Theodora is a saint but she has no patience
S`
COMP S
NP VP
V S`
… seemed that she had resigned
… -- TH
6. Clauses embedded in Adjectival 6. Clauses embedded in Adjectival ClausesClauses
a. It was unfortunate that Sharon’s car broke down.
b. It is quite ridiculous for Harrison to go to Birmingham.
c. *His dog is dead that Sharon’s car broke down.
d. *John was compassionate for Harry to go to Birmingham.
e. We are fond those muffins.f. *Was unfortunate that Sharon’s car broke
down.
7. Predicate of Analysis of D-Structure 7. Predicate of Analysis of D-Structure Trees (P. 77)Trees (P. 77)
S`
COMP S NP VP
N` V NP NP
N N` DET N`
N N
they awarded him the money AG - GO,TH
8. Head + Embedded clause8. Head + Embedded clausea. The rumor that Sharon’s car broke down
astonished the mechanic.
b. The request for Sharon’s car to be repaired astonished the mechanic.
c. the car which/that broke downd. the mechanic who/that Sharon
employed
Chapter 7: Finite and non-finite Chapter 7: Finite and non-finite ClausesClauses
Three Types of Clauses
A. Finite: clauses with either a modal or a verb
involving past tense
B. Non-finite: infinitive verbs
verbs immediately preceded by “to”
C. Gerundives: have verbs ending with the –ing
suffix.
No overt subjects are used.
If they do, “possessive form” can be used.
1. ExamplesFinite: Tom didn’t like that his son repeated gossip.Infinitive: Tom didn’t like his son to repeat
gossipGerundivesTom didn’t like his son’s having repeated gossip. or
Tom didn’t like his son repeating gossip
a. Judy preferred to swim in an unheated pool.b. Judy preferred swimming in an unheated pool.c. Judy stopped to buy lunch.d. Judy stopped buying lunch.e. Jackson’s refusing to surrender infuriated Lee.
Tell the following sentences whether they
are grammatical
a.Tom wanted that his son told the gossip.
Reason:
b. Tom appreciated his son to tell the gossip.
Reason:
c. Tom forced his son telling the truth.
Reason:
2. Interpreting an empty element2. Interpreting an empty elementa. Carlos tried [e] to visit the Queen.b. Jane ordered Carlos [e] to visit the Queen.c. Jane promised Carlos [e] to visit the Queen.d. It’s strange [e] to be talking to you here.e. It’s strange for me to be talking to you here.f. Alexander begged the girl [e] to leave.g. They persuaded Terry [e] to drive slowly.h. They asked Terry [e] to drive slowly.
3. Clause Inflection - The I Constituent3. Clause Inflection - The I Constituent
a constituent of a larger unit consisting of I and the a constituent of a larger unit consisting of I and the verb phraseverb phrase
a. Definition of I(flection) => tense + personb. Eiko says the baby walks.c. Eiko wants the baby to walk.d. He did not believe that the group from Oregon li
ked that new play. f. Tree-diagrams
S
NP VPDiagram 7.1
S
NP PRED.P
I (NFLECTON) VPDiagram 7.2
S
NP PRED.P
I VP
[+-FINITE]Diagram 7.3
S’
COMP S
NP PRED.P
DET N’ I VP
N [+FINITE] V
O the baby PRESENT walk AG—
Diagram 7.4
S’
COMP S
NP PRED.P
DET N’ I VP
N [-FINITE] V
O the baby to walk AG—
Diagram 7.5
S’
COMP S
NP PRED.P I VP DET N’ V NP N PP [+FINITE] DET N’ P NP AP N N’ A’ N A that the group from Oregon PAST like that new play
EXP-THDiagram 7.6
Chapter 8: The structure of Chapter 8: The structure of Noun PhrasesNoun Phrases
a. the story that she had met with the senator
b. the news of her marriagec. the man in the iron maskd. a box which was delivered here
yesterdaye. a scout master fond of
marshmallows
NP
DET N’
N S’
the story that Eleanor had met with the senator
Diagram 8.1
NP
DET N’
N’ S’
N
the story that Eleanor gave to the senator
AG-TH, GO
Diagram 8.2
NP
DET N’
N’ AP
N
a scoutmaster fond of marshmallows
EXP-TH
Diagram 8.3
NP
DET N’
N’ S’
N PP
the history of Korea which has just been published
ㅡ TH
Diagram 8.4
2. Transformation of sentence
(1) A report a break-in
agent verb theme
A’s report a break – in
1) 동사의 명사형을 찾아본다 ==> report ( 동사형과 동일함 )
2) 주어를 's 격으로 처리한다 ==> A's
3) 동사의 목적어를 명사 뒤에 놓고 명사와 명사간을 연결할 수 있는 전치사 of 를 넣는다
of, on, to, at,
from, toward,
over 등
(2) the Romans destroys the city
agent verb theme
The Roman’s destruction the city
1) 동사의 명사형을 찾아본다 ==> destruction ( 동사형과 다름 )
2) 주어를 's 격으로 처리한다 ==> The Roman's 3) 동사의 목적어를 명사 뒤에 놓고 명사와 명사간을
연결할 수 있는 전치사 of 를 넣는다
of, on, to, at,
from, toward,
over 등
3) the archbishop died
patient verb
The archbishop’s death
1) 동사의 명사형을 찾아본다 ==> death ( 동사형과 다름 )
2) 주어를 's 격으로 처리한다 ==> The archbishop's
3) 동사의 목적어를 명사 뒤에 놓고 명사와 명사간을 연결할 수 있는 전치사 of 를 넣는다 .
(4) Someone (unspecified) shot the hunters
agent verb patient
the shooting the hunters
1) 동사의 명사형이 없는 경우에는 동명사를 씀 --> shooting
2) 동사의 목적어를 명사 뒤에 놓고 명사와 명사간을 연결할 수 있는 전치사 of 를 넣는다 .
3) 동명사 + of 구문 앞에 정관사 the 를 놓는다 .
of, on, to, at,
from, toward,
over 등
(5) The hunters shot someone (unspecified)
agent verb patient
The shooting the hunters
(6) someone KILL the whales
agent verb patient
the killing the whales
of, on, to, at,
from, toward,
over 등
of, on, to, at,
from, toward,
over 등
(7) They banned nuclear weapons.
agent verb theme
Their ban nuclear weapons
(8) They suspended the rules
agent verb theme
Their suspension the rules
of, on, to, at,
from, toward,
over 등
of, on, to, at,
from, toward,
over 등
Chapter 9 : Types of NounsChapter 9 : Types of Nouns Nouns
count noncount
Count count noncount noncount (common) (proper) (common) (proper) (e.g., courage) (e.g., Spain)
Singular Plural Singular Plural (house) (houses) (Musim) (Musilms)
A. Count-Nouncount Distribution
1. How many guests are coming tonight?
2. How much butter do you want ?
3. How much butter do you want today ?
4. How much man will work today ?
B. Determiners with count and noncount nouns
1. She have money in her handbag.
2. each house --each houses
every house -- every houses
few house -- few houses
both house -- both houses
several house -- several houses
C. The indefinite article- specific indefinite use1. She saw a tall tree with purple blossoms2. A young accountant interviewed her.
- generic indefinite use3. They advertised for a three-bedroom
apartment.4. A car can be very expensive
- generic predicate noun phrase
5. Toby was a deerhound6. Denver is an interesting city.7. The young couple have a baby girl.8. The wealthy orthodontist drives a 1934 Jaguar
convertible.9. The young couple are hoping for a baby girl.10. The wealthy orthodontist wants a 1934
Jaguar convertible.
- plural indefinite noun phrasesA. specific infinite use1. She saw 0 tall trees with 0 purple blossoms2. She saw some tall trees with some purple
blossoms.
B. generic indefinite use3. 0 Cars can be very expensive.4. Some cars (not all) can be very expensive.
C. generic predicate noun phrase use
5. Toby and Finster were 0 deerhounds.
6. Denver and Chicago are 0 interesting cities.
7. The candidate searched for supporters but he didn't find them.
8. The candidate searched for supporters but he didn't find any.
The definite article
1. previously identified to the addressee2. only one entity: the sun, the earth, the United
Nations3. with in a particular context family context: the father, the mother law court: the head, the judge process, event, book: the beginning, the middle,
the end things viewed as occupying space: the front, the top, the exterior
4. the entity referred to previously
a. A tall woman entered the room.
b. Oscar notices that the woman looked angry.
5. superlative use the most strongest, the most beautiful
6. the entity present at the time of the utterance
the brown jacket, the boy over there
Quantifiers, the count/nouncount distinction, and reality status
1. The hospital took every penny he had.
2. The hospital took every money he had.
3. Bradshaw had little money left.
4. Bradshaw had little pennies left.
5. Much trouble could have been avoided
if they had planned more carefully.
6. They've put too much money into that house.
7. James Warren had much money. James Warren didn't have much money. Did James Warren have much money ? James Warren had a lot of money. James Warren had much money.
8. William Tell had some money. William Tell had any money. William Tell didn't have some applies. William Tell didn't have any apples.
9. Does William have some useful skills ?
Does William have any useful skills ?
If William has some apples, I'd like them.
If William had any apples, I'd like them.
Counting Noncount Nouns
1. four bags/cubes/pounds of sugar
2. a drop/glass/gallon of water
3. two pieces of furniture
two pieces of equipment
4. Three bags of wool are in the barn.
Some problems for noun classification
1. The police are coming immediately.
2. The police is coming immediately.
3. Two police arrived on the scene, and
at once several people came forward
to report what they had seen.
4. A police arrived.
5. There should be a bond of friendship
between the Chinese and Japanese on the island.
6. The government has announced a new
initiative (American)
7. The government has/have announced a new
initiative (British)
8. The committee was arguing that their proposal was
more practical and that they should be allowed to
implement it immediately.
Chapter 10. Pronominals and ReferenceChapter 10. Pronominals and Reference 1. A pronominal and its antecedent cannot be in the 1. A pronominal and its antecedent cannot be in the
same clause.same clause.a. Tom was looking at him in the long mirror.b. Tom knew that the woman had looked at him in
the long mirror.
2. A pronominal and its antecedent cannot be in the 2. A pronominal and its antecedent cannot be in the same noun phrase.same noun phrase.
a. Tom's eloquence about him pleases Jane.b. We know nothing about a play that Kim wrote
about Shakespeare’s treatment of him. (See Tree-diagram on P. 122
NP
DET N’
N’ S’
N
a play that Marlowe wrote [e] about NP AG ㅡ TH NP N’
N’ N PP
N
Shakespeare’s treatment of him AG ㅡ TH
Diagram 10.2
S’ COMP S
NP PRED.P
NP N’ I VP
N’ N [+FINITE] V NP
N’ N N
O Orisino’s eloquence PAST please himDiagram 10.3
NP
DET N`
N` S`
N
a play that Marlowe wrote [e] about NP AG – TH NP N`
N` N PP
N
Shakespeare’s treatment of him AG - TH
c. Bob believed that he could do well in that business.
d. Bob's belief in his capabilities surprised me.e. Sandy's eloquence pleased him.
Chapter 11: Empty Noun Chapter 11: Empty Noun Phrases Phrases
and Anaphorsand Anaphors 1. Covert Noun Phrases [e] and their antecedents1. Covert Noun Phrases [e] and their antecedentsa. The director of prisons promised Peter [e] to visit
that prison.b. It's unusual [e] to see snow at this time of year.c. [e] to see snow at this time of year is unusual.d. It's unusual for anyone to see snow at this time of
year.e. For anyone to see snow at this time of year is
unusual. f. It's sad [e] to see them leave so early.
2. Anaphors2. Anaphors 1. An anaphor is a kind of ___________________
a. The cats washed themselves delicately.b. The cats thought that Joe washed themselves
delicately.c. Julian and his friend visited each other regularly.d. Julian and his friend wanted Joe to visit each other
regularly.e. Peter washes his own hair.f. I wash his own hair.g. a play that Marry wrote about Shakespeare's
treatment of himself
Quiz Items:
Tell whether the following sentence are correct
a. He(i) is a man(j) of promise.
b. He(i) loves him(j) <condition: i=j>
c. Peter(i) thinks that he(j) is greedy
<condition: i=j>
Review on Pronominals and Reference
A pronominal and its antecedent cannot be in the same local domain.
*a. {[Tom's eloquence] about him} pleases Jane.
(Tom ≠ him)
a. [Tom's eloquence about him] pleases Jane.
(Tom = him)
b. {[Bob's belief in his capabilities]}surprised me.
(Bob = his)
c. Bob believed that he could do well in that business.
d. [Sandy's eloquence] pleased him.
Observation: An anaphor ............
2. Some possible counterexamplesa. Faust persuaded Marry [e] to unite
him.b. Helen didn't try [e] to free herself.c. The biochemist believed herself to be
honest.d. Jerry resented the book about himself.
3. Counterparts in Other Languages
zibun in Japanese, ziji in Chinese and caki in Korean
a. Alice wanted the king to look at herself in the glass.
b. Alice was angry that the king just ignored herself.
c. Jane believed that Kelly knew that Wang had no confidence in himself.
d. Jane 은 Wang 이 자기에 대해 자신감이 없다는 것을 Kelly 가 안다고 믿었다 .
Chapter12: Noun Phrases and caseChapter12: Noun Phrases and case
1. *Betty to resign was unfortunate.
2. Rosa was fond Jenny.
3. I was surprised Jane to be innocent.
4. The captain persuaded the soldiers the
passenger to board the ship.
Correct the above sentence in the space given below.
1'.________________________________________
2'.________________________________________
3'.________________________________________
4'.________________________________________
5. The citizen believed she to be a murderer.
6. Tony persuaded he that his wife should sing.
7. The citizen considered that her has killed
Caligula.
8. For them to arrive so late was unfortunate.
9. That they arrived so late was unfortunate.
10. They arrived late.
11. The police believed that they had left.
12. The police believed them to be leaving.
13. Emily was anxious for them to leave.
14. Ivan would like (for) them to leave.
15. The police believed for them to be going.
16. Emily was anxious them to leave.
17. Ivan would like very much them to leave.
18. the daughter the composer
19. the daughter of the composer
20. She was anxious the man to leave.
21. She was anxious [e] to leave.
22. She was anxious for [e] to leave
23. It is unusual [e] to find such artists in
a place like this.
24. The laborers tried [e] to earn their suppers.
25. [e] to struggle against this tyranny is a duty.
26. The fireman was given a fried chicken. Ian was cooked a young chicken.
27. A fried chicken was given the fireman. A young chicken was cooked Ian.
28. The fireman was given a fried chicken to.
29. They elected George president. They called the man a fool.
passivepassive
a.___________________________________
b.____________________________________
30. Associated Press reported this morning that the government had been overthrown.
31. Associated Press reported the story this morning.
32. Associated Press reported this morning the story.
32. passive form of 30
___________________________________
33. It was reported this morning that story.
Chapter 16: Understanding Chapter 16: Understanding TenseTense
1. 12 tense approach (p. 189)1. 12 tense approach (p. 189) 1. Simple Present: I wash 2. Simple Past: I washed 3. Simple Future: I will wash 4. Present Progressive: I am washing 5. Past Progressive: I was washing 6. Future Progressive: I will washing 7. Present Perfect: I have washed
8. Past Perfect: I had washed
9. Future Perfect: I will have washed
10. Present Perfect Progressive:
I have been washing
11. Past Perfect Progressive:
I had been washing
12. Future Perfect Progressive:
I will have been washing
2. TNS2. TNS MODAL have (be) (be) V… to <-en> <-ing> <-en>a. The cows should have been being milked at that ti
me.b. They reported the cows to have been being milked
at that time.
3. Absolute Time Reference (relative to now)3. Absolute Time Reference (relative to now)a. Jerry left the house at three o'clock.b. Susan was cleaning her hunting rifle.
4. Relative Time Reference4. Relative Time Referencea. Mary had already left when Tom
telephoned. (relative to some time prior to now)
b. The murderer will have been arrested when she arrives next week. (relative to some time after now.)
Chapter 17: Understanding Aspect
1. Definition of Aspect1. Definition of Aspect It refers to the general name given
to verb forms used to signify certain ways in which an event is viewed or experienced.
2. Two aspects = perfect and 2. Two aspects = perfect and progressiveprogressive
a. Henry is eating the pumpkins. b. Henry was eating the pumpkins. c. Henry has eaten the pumpkins. d. Henry had eaten the pumpkin e. Henry may have been being
very careful about the publicity.
f. Sam believed Henry to have been being very careful about the publicity.
2. Four functions of the present 2. Four functions of the present tense-perfect aspect combinationtense-perfect aspect combination
A. past indefinite usage The perfect aspect refers to events
recent enough to be new and relevant to the present, through connecting the present to the past events.
a. The Canadian prime minister has taken his family to visit New Jersey.
b. George Washington has taken Jenny to visit the State of Liberty.
c. The Canadian prime minister has taken his family to visit New Jersey on May 29, 1993.
d. The Canadian prime minister has taken his family to visit New Jersey last Friday.
*e. I have gone to have my hair cut yesterday.
B. State Usage
The present aspect can be used to report the existence of a stable state of affairs over a continous period of time up to the present.
a. Seoul has been the capital of Korea for many centuries.
b. Seoul was the capital of Korea for many centuries.
c. King Sejong has been dead for almost six centuries.
C. Change of State The perfect aspect refers to a present
state of affairs that has changed from an earlier state as the result of a past event.
a. The two schools have merged.b. The owners have agreed to sell the
property.c. Christ has been chosen as the new
director.
D. Recurrent event usage The present perfect aspect is used
with predicates that refer to actions that are habitual or can be reported more than once.
a. Jonathan has visited his cousins daily.b. The valley has been flooded every
year since 1979.
3. Past Time Reference in 3. Past Time Reference in NonfiniteNonfinite ClausesClauses
a. She believes that Judy was born at midnight on March 25.
b. She believes Judy to have been born at midnight on March 25.
*c. She believes that Judy has been born at midnight on March 25.
4. Progressive Aspect and the Stative-4. Progressive Aspect and the Stative-
Dynamic ContrastDynamic Contrast
a. Emily is being tactless.
b. Emily is tactless.
c. Emily is being a reckless idiot.
d. Emily is a reckless idiot.
e. Holly Brown is tall now.
*f. Holly Brown is being tall now.
5. Other Functions of Progressive Aspect5. Other Functions of Progressive Aspecta. Tomorrow she is leaving for London. When future adverbs accompany present tense progress
ive forms, the sentences are interpreted as referring to future time → a present plan for future action.
b. Tomorrow she leaves for London.
→ a tiger kind of scheduling
*c. Tomorrow she knows Kelly.
→ stative predicates/present
d. Jason cooked an omelette.
→ dynamic predicates/past
e. Jason was cooking an omelette.
→dynamic predicates/progressive
6. Tree-diagram of Constituent Structures6. Tree-diagram of Constituent Structures
a. have been watching
VP
V VP
V VP
V
have be watch
<-en> <-ing> AG-TH
Diagram 17.1
b. The students may have been watching the orchestra. S’
COMP S
NP PRED.P
DET N’ I VP
V VP
V VP N [+FINITE] V NP
M DET N’
N
O the students may have be watch the orchestra <-en><-ing>AG-TH
c. The measure has been passed by a large majority.
S’
COMP S
NP PRED.P
I VP
V VP PP
[+FINTE] V NP
TNS V NP
O … PRESENT have be pass the measure by a large majority <-en><-en> —TH
1. What is the difference between 1. What is the difference between these two sentences ?these two sentences ?
1) Last year we could have visited the White House.
2) Last year we were able to visit the White House.
2. Two Modalities: Action and Belief2. Two Modalities: Action and Belief
Chapter 19: Modal Meaning and Use
3) The plumber may come this afternoon.
4) "Elvira, maybe one of us should stay here. The plumber may come this afternoon ."
"Elvira, I've checked our bank account and we have a few thousand dollars left. The plumber may come this afternoon."
5) You must now go to the barracks office.
6) You may now go to the barracks office.
7) The economic crisis must be getting worse in Peru.
8) The economic crisis may be getting worse in Peru.
3. Action Modality3. Action Modality
9) A
The doctor leaves at noon.
Lily drives to Pittsburgh every day.
Clarissa studies economics at Florida State.
10) B
The doctor must leave at noon.
Lily must drive to Pittsburgh every day.
Clarissa must study economics at Florida State.11) The doctor should leave at noon. ought to
12) Lily should drive to Pittsburgh every day. ought to
13) Clarissa should study economics at Florida State. ought to
14)Clarissa must/should/ought to study economics at Florida State.
15) Clarissa will study economics at Florida State.
16) When you will take the garbage out, I will do
the dishes.
17) She won't pay unless you send her a more
detailed statement.
18) If Carol changes her mind, Arthur will meet with her.
19) If Carol changes her mind, Arthur is going to meet with her.
20) I am going to take the early morning train tomorrow.
21) The car is going to be serviced this afternoon.
22) The class may leave at two o'clock.
23) The class can leave at two o'clock.
4. Negation and Action Modality4. Negation and Action Modality
24) "Lily must not/ought not to/should not drive to Pittsburgh every day," her father told me.
25) "It is obligatory for Lily not to drive to Pittsburgh every day," her father told me.
5. FOR CLAUSES IN THE ACTION 5. FOR CLAUSES IN THE ACTION MODALITY:MODALITY:
A negative in an obligation modal clause has narrow scope, that is, it negates only the action, not the obligation.
26) Lily may not drive to Pittsburgh every day.
27) Lily cannot drive to Pittsburgh every day.
"It is not permissible for Lily to drive to Pittsburgh every day," her father told me.
6. FOR CLAUSES IN THE ACTION 6. FOR CLAUSES IN THE ACTION MODALITY:MODALITY:
A negative in an obligation modal clause has narrow scope, that is, it negates only the action, not the obligation.
A negative in a permission modal clause has board scope, that is, it negates the permission.
28)"It is permissible for Lily to drive Pittsburgh every day," her father told me.
29) "It is obligatory for Lily to drive to Pittsburgh every day," her father told me.
30) "It is not permissible for Lily to drive to Pittsburgh every day," her father told me.
31) "It is obligatory for Lily not to dirve to Pittsburgh every day," her father told me.
32) "You may/can go to that ball, Cinderella," her stepmother told her.
33) " You must go to that ball, Cinderella," her stepmother told her.
34) "You may not/cannot go to that ball, Cinderella," her stepmother told her.
35) " You must not go to that ball, Cinderella," her stepmother told her.
36) "It is obligatory for you not to go that ball, Cinderella," her stepmother told her.
37) "It is not obligatory for you to go to that ball, Cinderella," her stepmother told her.
38) Cinderella need not go to that ball.
39) Cinderella doesn't have to go to that ball.
7. Relative Strengths in the Action Modality7. Relative Strengths in the Action Modality
40) Shall we dance, have a picnic, or just hang around the pool hall?
41) We shall overcome.
42) No nation shall seek to dominate others to serve selfish needs.
43) Get married before the end of the year!
(You shall get married before the end of the year.)
You will get married before the end of the year.
You're gonna get married before the end of the year.
You must get married before the end of the year.
You have to get married before the end of the year.
You had better get married before the end of the year.
You should get married before the end of the year.
You ought to get married before the end of the year.
You may get married before the end of the year.
You can get married before the end of the year.
44) You must be back from lunch by one o'clock.
45) You have to be back from lunch by one o'clock.
46) By Friday you must have/ought to have/should have completed two more assignments.
47) Applicants must have/ought to have/should have worked at least three years in a similar position.
48) The electrician should have/ought to have installed the phone yesterday.
49) She was permitted to leave early.
50) Clark is going to be allowed to approve smaller construction projects.
51) The Chief Justice was obliged to excuse herself from the Morton case. After that incident, they will have to fire him.
8. Action Modality and Speech Acts8. Action Modality and Speech Acts
52) It's cold in here.
53) Does Jeaves have to clean the glasses before she leave?
54) Can Aristotle lift 1500 pounds?
55) Should she be in bed before eight?
56) Will you stop hiding the truth from me?57) Would you (please) hold open that door for me?
58) Can you see me at three o'clock?
59) Could you (please) not make so much noise?
60) Can we (please) go home now?
61) May I see you again?
62) Could our group look after the vegetable garden?
9. Belief Modality9. Belief Modality
63) I don't see Maude here. She must have left early.
64)Look at all those reporters around Glenna. She must be very important. Jan's article didn't appear in this month's magazine. It must be appearing in next month's issue. (Compare : It must appear in next month's issue.)
65) I don't see Maude here. She may have left early.
Look at all those reporters around Glenna. She may be very important.
Jan's article didn't appear in this month's New Yorker. It may be appearing in next month's issue. (Or : It may appear in next month's issue.)
66) Certain evidence obliges the speaker to believe that Maude left early.
67) Certain evidence permits the speaker to believe that Maude left early.
68) The police will be at the airport tomorrow.
69) Sebastian will be reading his poetry in Istanbul next week.
70) The police will be at the airport right now.
71) Sebastian will be reading his poetry in Istanbul at this very moment.
72) The police are at the airport right now.
73) Sebastian is reading his poetry at this very moment.
74) The police will be at the airport right now.
75) The police must be at the airport right now.
76) Sebastian will be reading his poetry in Istanbul at this very moment.
77) Sebastian must be reading his poetry in Istanbul at this very moment.
78) The police are going to be at the airport right now.
79) Sebastian is going to be reading his poetry in Istanbul at this very moment.
80) Stuart has been making too many speeches. He is going to lose his voice if he doesn't rest it more. The baby's temperature has dropped. She's going to be all right.
10. Other obligation Modals in the belief Modal10. Other obligation Modals in the belief Modalityity
81) Look over there! That must be Cyril Cusack.
82) Look over there! That(just) HAS to be Cyril Cusack.
83) The second act should be more exciting, Albert.
84) The second act ought to be more exciting, Albert.
85) I don't see Maude here. She might/could have left early.
Look at all those reporters around Glenna. She might/could be very important.
Jan's article didn't appear in this month's magazine. It might/could be appearing in next month's issue. (Or : It might/could appear in next month's issue.)
11. Relative strengths in the Belief Modality
86) It is cold outside now.
It will be cold outside now.
It's gonna be cold outside now.
It HAS to be cold outside now.
It would to be cold outside now.
It must be cold outside now.
It should be cold outside now.
It ought to be cold outside now.
It could be cold outside now.
It may be cold outside now.
It might be cold outside now.
12. Negative and Interrogative in the Belief 12. Negative and Interrogative in the Belief ModalityModality
87) She must not have liked that movie.
She may not have liked that movie.
88) She can't have liked that movie.
89) I'm not sure the enjoyed that movie.
I don't believe you like that man, do you?
Perhaps they don't like anchovies in their pizza.
Presumably they didn't meet him at the airport.
90) *Must she be tall?
*May she be tall?
91) Can Charmay be too tired already?
Could/couldn't Charmay be too tired already?
Might/mightn't Charmay be too tired already?
92) Is it possible that Charmay is too tired already?
13. Belief Modality and Time Reference13. Belief Modality and Time Reference
93) The 1957 book was going to be very successful. Already the bookstore chains had placed huge orders. The new policies were bound to be unpopular.
94)
It HAD to have been cold outside then.
It would have been cold outside then.
It must have been cold outside then.
It should have been cold outside then.
It could have been cold outside then.
It ought to have been cold outside then.
It may have been cold outside then.
It might have been cold outside then.
95)
(If we had known), we would have come to the airport.
Kennedy would have served another term if he had not been assassinated.
14. Summary
Chapter 20:Prepositions, Particles, and Prepositions, Particles, and
Multiword VerbsMultiword Verbs
1. Liliana waited for him by the canal.
2. You must be at the station by five o'clock.
3. Shirley won their votes by promising to revitalize the cities.
4. Havel was nominated by the majority party.
5. Since you'll be passing the office, Cecilia, would you stop by and Robert these letters?
6.Sumukti denounced the incompetent engineers.
AGENT THEME
7. The incompetent engineers were denounced by Sumukti.
THEME AGENT
8. Nina punctured the can with a sharpened screwdriver.
INSTRUMENT
9. Nina went to the ball with the handsome Prince lgor.
COMITATIVE
10. Nina and the handsome Prince Igor went to the ball(together).
11. With Cyril strumming his ukulele, Emma began to dance.
12. It was borrowed from Glen an given to Gretta for her baby. SOURCE GOAL BENEFACTIVE
13. He borrowed the money for a new car.
14. LOCATION/TIME POSITION : in the garden, at the clinic, on the roof, on Friday, in 1967, at noon, before leaving
15. LOCATION/TIME GOAL : to BANGKOK, toward freedom, into bankruptcy, until evening, to the end of the day
16. LOCATION/TIME SOURCE : from the wholesaler, from Yokohama, from March 1997
17. LOCATION/TIME PATH : along the street, through the tunnel, across Manhattan, during the performance
18. MANNER : with a flourish, in a persuasive tone
19. CONTRAST : despite the rough terrain, in spite of her obstinacy
20. In what kind of car are they traveling [t]?
21. To whom did you say that [t]?
22. From which wholesaler will you purchase the rugs [t]?
23. Until when can I keep this book [t]?
24. What kind of car are they traveling in [t]?
25. Who did you say that to [t]?
26. Which wholesaler will you purchase the rugs from [t]?
27. James looked at his sister.
28. James looked to his sister for support.
29. James looked for his sister.
30. Roberta was always listened to.31. The radioactive waste has been disposed of.
32. Jennifer was looked to for support.
33. To whom did James look for support [t]?
34. At/for whom did James look [t]?
35. On whom does James rely [t]?
36. To whom dies James listen [t]?
37. *James looked at anxiously his sister.
38. James looked anxiously at his sister.
39.*James relied on heavily his sister.
40. James relied heavily on his sister.
41. They plied their Roman guests with food and drink.
42. The Italian troops provided the refugees with
warm blankets.
43. The gossip robbed him of his reputation for integrity.
44. Those officials deprived the refugees of the privacy.
45. With what refreshments did they ply their Romance
guests [t]?
46. We climbed up the slope toward him.
47. We climbed up toward him.
48. Jack and Jill fell down the hill.
49. Jack and Jill fell down.
50. Huggins passed the chocolate mousse through
the hatch and we cheered.
51. Huggins passed the chocolate mousse through
and we cheered.
52. Seagulls flapped lazily above us.
53. Seagulls flapped lazily above.
54. The captain looked up and saw a huge albatross
circling overhead.
55. Now that my application has been accepted,
I think that things are really looking up.
56. Teresa really came through for me that time.
57. Jerry Stoneham looked up the number in the directory and whistled in surprise, for it was the same number that he had found in the dead man's diary.
58. What number did Jerry Stoneham look up [t]?
59. *Up what number did Jerry Stoneham look [t]?
60. Jerry Stoneham looked it up in the directory.
61.
bring back return drive out expel
bring up raise give up surrender
call off cancel forsake
call over summon leave out omit
check out investigate turn down refuse
do in kill turn out evict
62. Guess what! I ran into an old friend last night.
63. Rita will stand by you, Jim. You know that.
64. The minute he saw his rival, he went for him.
65. I'd jump at that chance to play Queen Gertrude in that production.
66. Robert came across an old photograph of Laura in the desk drawer.
67. *Into which old friend did you run [t] last night?
68. *By whom will Rita stand [t]?
69. *For whom did he go [t]?
70. *At what would you jump [t]?
71. *Across what did he come [t] ?
72. *I ran an old friend into last night.
73. *Rita will stand you by Jim.
74. *The minute he saw his rival, he went him for.
75. *I’d jump it at.
76. *Robert came it across in the desk drawer.
77.
cut down on "reduce"
drop in on "visit casually"get away with "violate a rule without punishment"
go back on "violate an agreement"
go through with "finish, complete"
keep up with "stay level with"
78.
look down on "despise"
make up for "compensate"
put up with "tolerate"
run out of "have no more"
run up against "meet as an obstacle"
stand up for "defend”
79. *With what crime did he get away [t]?
V`
V PP
wait for me
AG-TH
DIAGRAM 20.1
V` V PRT
throw up AG- DIAGRAM 20.2
VP
V` V` NP
V PRT N` N call up Shelia DIAGRAM 20.3
Chapter 21: Operators, Chapter 21: Operators, Interrogatives, and Interrogatives, and
NegativesNegatives1. The definition of Operator and three main 1. The definition of Operator and three main
functionsfunctions(1) The operator precedes the negative and
combines with it when the negative is contracted to "n't".
a. He will not agree to this.b. He has not agreed to this.c. He wouldn’t agree to this.
(2) The operator is moved around the subject to the initial position in yes/no questions, leaving its trace [t].
a. Will he [t] agree to this ?b. Has he [t] agreed to this ?c. Wouldn’t he [t] agree to this ?
(3) The operator appears in the tag phrases of interrogative sentences.
a. He will not agree to this, will he ?b. He has not agreed to this, has he ?c. He would agree to this, wouldn’t he ?d. He would have agreed to this, would haven’t he ?
(4) Emergency operator “DO” is needed when when auxiliary verb is not available.
a. Does he go to Jenny tonight ?b. He doesn't go to Jenny tonight ?c. He goes to Jenny tonight, doesn’t he ?a’ I go not to school here b’ Go I to school here ? c’ Go I not to school here ?
2. Operators and D-structure 2. Operators and D-structure a. he PRESENT have <-en> visit Janeb. he PRESENT have <-en> [t] visit Janec. has he [t] visited Jane ? <operator
fronting>
S’
Q S’
COMP S
I NP PRED.P
[+FINITE] N’ I VP
N’
has he [t] visited Snodgrass AG-TH
Diagram 21. 3
a. Could he look at the drawing once more ? He past (could) look at the drawing once more ?
b. Was the world economy seriously affected by the new tariffs ?
the world economy past be <en> seriously affect by
c. Was the economist honest ? the economist past be honest ?
3. Negative Questions3. Negative Questionsa. Hasn't Curtis been baking gooseberry pies ?b. *Has Curtis not been baking gooseberry pies ?c. Has not Curtis been baking gooseberry pies ?
Affix hoppingOperator fronting
S’
Q S’
COMP S
I NP PRED.P
[+FINITE] N’ I VP
V VP N’
hasn’t Curtis [t] been baking gooseberry pies AG-TH
Diagram 21. 6
4. Polarity4. PolarityA1. She should bring no money with you.A2. She shouldn't bring any money with her.A3. She should bring some money with her.A4. *She should bring any money with her.
B1. He's talking to nobody.B2. He's not talking to anybody.B2. He's talking to somebody.B4.* He's talking to anybody.
No <quantifier>, Nobody <NP>, Never (Adverb)
C1. Pedro no longer buys antiques. C2. Pedro doesn't buy antiques any longer. C3. Pedro still buys antiques. C4. *Pedro buys antiques any longer. D1. He has never talked to them. D2. He hasn't ever talked to them. D3. He has already talked to them. D4. *He has ever talked to them. Summary_________________________________
_________________________________________
Negative polarity forms occur in interrogative sentences
a. Does she have any money ?
b. Has he ever talked to them ?
c. Will Pedro buy antiques anymore ?
d. Will anyone come to that meeting ?
Chapter 22: Interrogatives and
WH-Movement1. Operator fronting and Wh Movement1. Operator fronting and Wh Movementa. Joseph will bring Stella's mother from Spain.b. Joseph will bring who(m) from Spain ?c. Will Joseph [t1] bring who(m) from Spain ?
d.Who(m) will Joseph [t1] bring[t2]from Spain ?
See Tree-Diagram 22.1 (P. 270)
S`
Q S`
NP COMP S
N` I NP PRED. P
N [+FINITE] N` I VP
N V NP PP
who(m) will Joseph [t] bring [t] from Spain
Diagram 22. 1
S`
Q S`
NP COMP S
NP N’ I NP PRED. P
N’ N [+FINITE] N` I VP N N V NP PP
whose mother will Joseph [t] bring [t] from Spain AG-TH
Diagram 22. 2
S`
Q S`
NP COMP S
N` I NP PRED. P
N [+FINITE] N` I VP
N V NP PP
Who will [t] [t] bring Stella’s mother from Spain AG-TH
Diagram 22. 1
a. Joseph will bring whose mother from Spain ? b. Will Joseph [t] bring whose mother from Spain ?c. Whose mother will Joseph [t] bring from Spain ?
*Tree-diagram Practice a. Where will Joseph [t] bring Stella mother from [t] ? b. From where will Joseph [t] bring Stella mother [t] ?c. What could he have done ?
2. Interrogatives in some other languages2. Interrogatives in some other languages Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai languages do not have oChinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai languages do not have o
perators to be fronted.perators to be fronted. 영희가 무엇을 방에서 먹었느냐 영희가 무엇을 방에서 먹었느냐 ??
3. Embedded interrogatives3. Embedded interrogativesa.When could Dr.Lee [t] go to YoungsanFamilyPark [t] ?b. Dr. Kim asked when Dr. Lee could go to Youngsan Famil
y Park [t].c. Why did they [t] choose New York [t]?d. I was wondering why they chose New York [t]e. What did Dante [t] want [t]f. Beatrice asked what Dante wanted [t].
Chapter 23: Embedded Chapter 23: Embedded Clauses and Noun Phrase Clauses and Noun Phrase
MovementMovement1. Embedded clauses function semantically as 1. Embedded clauses function semantically as
arguments of predicates. arguments of predicates. a. It was alleged that someone had ordered two
hostages to pick up the money. b. It was alleged that two hostages had been
ordered [t] to pick up the money.c. Two hostages were alleged [t] to have been
ordered [t] [e] to pick up the money.
d. It was hard to prove that rapid deforestation was causing serious erosion.
e. That rapid deforestation was causing serious erosion was not hard [e] to prove [t].
2. Complement clause arguments and 2. Complement clause arguments and
Types of HeadsTypes of Headsa. The prosecutor believed that Jane had
negotiated with the terrorists.
VP V’
V S’
COMP S
believe that Crenshawe had negotiated with the terrorists.
EXP-TH AG-TH
Diagram 23.1
b. The prosecutor was certain that Jane had negotiated with the terrorists.
AP A’
A S’
COMP S
certain that Crenshawe had negotiated with the terrorists.
EXP-TH AG-TH
Diagram 23.2
c. The administer had deceived them in that Jane had negotiated with the terrorists.
PP P’
P S’
COMP S
in that Crenshawe had negotiated with the terrorists.
EXP-TH AG-TH
Diagram 23.3
d. John knew about the prosecutor’s belief that Jane had negotiated with the terrorists.
NP
NP N’
N S’
COMP S
the prosecutor’s belief that Crenshawe had negotiated with the terrorists.
Diagram 23.4
e. noun head with complement the fact that Jane had met the terrorists. that rumour that Jane had met the terrorist
s. the order (for Jane) to meet the terrorists this plea (for Jane) to meet the terrorists your refusal [e] to meet the terrorists this attempt [e] to meet the terrorists
The <fact > that Jane has met the terroristsThe <fact > that Jane has met the terrorists
< rumor, news >< rumor, news >
3. Covert Complementizers: that, for3. Covert Complementizers: that, fora. Sellars claims (that) Paramount will accept his
offer.b. Sellars needs (for) Paramount to offer him a siz
able advance.c. It was important for a public hearing to be anno
unced [t].d. It was important [e] [e] to announce the public h
earing.
Chapter 24: Predicates andChapter 24: Predicates and Clause Arguments Clause Arguments
1. Common error types1. Common error typesa. *He wants that I go.b. *When he had finished to eat .....c. *They refused helping their neighbors.d.* I never forget to see that accident.
2. Semantic Contrasta. Jerry tried [[e] screamed].b. Jerry tried [[e] to scream].
c.* Jerry tried [that she screamed].d. The hunter forgot [[e] to lock the door]. f. The hunter forgot [[e] locking the door]. Difference between the nonfinite clause and the
gerundive clause
3. Forward-Oriented Predicates3. Forward-Oriented Predicatesa. Gary wanted [[e] to leave].b. *Gary wanted [that he leaves].c. *Gary wanted [[e] leaving].d. They advised her [[e] to support the legislation].e. She was reluctant [[e] to support the
legislation].
f. It will be impossible [for her to support the legislation].
g. Caesar was eager [[e] to leave before winter].
4. Complement Clause4. Complement Clause 에 동사원형을 쓰는 에 동사원형을 쓰는 Forward Oriented Predicates: require, demand, Forward Oriented Predicates: require, demand,
recommend, prefer, suggest recommend, prefer, suggest a verb unmarked a verb unmarked tensetense
a. We required [that she leave at once].b. We required her [[e] to leave at once].c. We preferred [that you spend the holidays with
Sheila].d. We preferred [(for) you to spend the holidays
with Sheila].
e. We suggested [that Harry invest in tin]. f. *We suggested Harry [[e] to invest in tin].
Important point to remember: Such verbs as "require, demand, recommend, prefer, suggest" requires a verb unmarked for tense.
5. Reactive Predicates5. Reactive Predicatesa. Gladstone intended [[e] to support the
legislation].b. Gladstone [[e] supporting the legislation].
In sentence (a), there is no indication of whether in fact Gladstone ever supported the legislation. In sentence (b), the combination of a reactive verb and a gerundive complement indicates that the action described in the gerundive was realized - he did support the legislation.
c. List of reactive predicates abhor discover remember resist appreciate dislike renounce resume avoid enjoy repel rethink consider forget repent ridicule deny regret repudiate scrutinize detest reject resent watch
d. Jenny hopes [[e] to leave early]. ==> plan
as an potential event
e. Jenny hopes [[that he left/will leave
early]=> wish
f. Tom persuaded/convinced Jane [[e] to
leave at once]. ===> cause someone to
intend to take some action
g. Ton persuaded/convinced Jane that the
ship was close by. ==> cause someone to
believe something0
h. A special class of verbs (believe, discover,
think, prove, assume. fancy, consider, etc.)
1) She believed [that Caesar had betrayed
them].
2) She believed [Caesar to have betrayed
them.
3) Dr. Fin advised that congressman [[e] to
study Korean].
4) Dr. Fin believed [the congressman to be a
liar].
I. Aspectual predicates 1) nonfinite or gerundive used: begin, continue, cease,
start (1) Kelly began eating at 3 o'clock. (2) Kelly began to eat at 3 o'clock. (3) Kelly ceased eating at 3 o'clock. (4) Kelly ceased to eat at 3 o'clock. (5) Kelly continued eating at 3 o'clock. (6) Kelly continued to eat at 3 o'clock. (7) Kelly started complaining at 3 o'clock. (8) Kelly started to complain at 3 o'clock.
2) only gerundive used: finish, postpone. give up, stop, commence, go on, keep on, break off, put off, leave off, take up
(1) *When we had finished to eat, we cleaned all up and went back.
(2) *My father stopped to smoke two years ago and now he is fat.
(3) The judge went on to denounce the lawlessness of youth today.
(4) The judge went on denouncing the lawlessness of youth today.
3) Embedded clauses and gerundives in subject position
(1) For Jane to steal a new car was foolhardy
astonished the salesman.
was of great significance.
was the last straw.
(2) That Jane stole a new car was foolhardy
astonished the salesman.
was of great significance.
was the last straw.
(3) Jane's stealing a new car was foolhardy
astonished the salesman.
was of great significance.
was the last straw.
Chapter 25: Relative ClausesChapter 25: Relative Clauses
1. Restrictive Relatives and Gaps1. Restrictive Relatives and Gapsa. Victoria knew that she was a great teacher.b. The teacher [who(m) O they are sponsoring
[t]] bought a new instrument.c. The teacher [O that they are sponsoring [t]]
bought a new instrument.d. The teacher [O O they are sponsoring [t]]
bought a new instrument.
S”
NP S’
N’ COMP S
N
who(m) that sentence
2. D-structure of the house [which that they 2. D-structure of the house [which that they went to [t]]went to [t]]
a. the house [to which that they went [t]] b. the house [which O they went to [t]] c. the house [O that they went to [t]] d. the house [O O they went to [t]] e. the house [to which O they went [t]] f. the house [O that they went [t]] g. *the house [O O they went [t]]
The man [that Jocelyn claimed [that Elizabeth said [thatshe wouldn’t marry who(m)]]] is my nephew
See the diagram on the next slide
S’
S’COMP S NP PRED.P
O the man’s is my nephew
S’ COMP S that Joceyn claimed S’ AG-TH S’ COMP S that Elizabeth said S’ AG-TH S’ COMP S that she would not marry who(m) Diagram 25.3 AG-TH
관계대명사 주격적 사용법a. *I met the lawyer O [t] argued with you.b. I met the lawyer who [t] argued with you.c. I met the lawyer that [t] argued with you.
3.Difference between Appositive and 3.Difference between Appositive and Restrictive Relative clausesRestrictive Relative clauses
a. The bankers who had cooperated with the drug lords were put in jail.
b. The bankers, who had cooperated with the drug lords, were put in jail.
c. The women arrived who wanted to run for the Senate.
d. *The women arrived, who wanted to run for the Senate.
e. The bankers O that the police had arrested had cooperated with the drug lords.
f. *The bankers, O that the police had arrested, ........ g. The bankers O O the police had arrested had
cooperated ........... h. *The bankers, O O the police had arrested, had
cooperated ........
4. Free Relatives (headless relatives)4. Free Relatives (headless relatives)
a. Osborne will deny what they are saying about him. b. Osborne will deny whatever they are saying about
him. c. The bookstore has ordered whichever book that
selected. d. The doctor will prescribe whatever medical
treatments are needed. e. She will find this difficult however clever she thinks
she is.
The end of lecture Notes