chapter 1 introduction…do we remember economics 201??
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![Page 1: Chapter 1 Introduction…Do we remember Economics 201??](https://reader037.vdocuments.pub/reader037/viewer/2022110207/56649d6c5503460f94a4c1d2/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Chapter 1
Introduction…Do we remember Economics 201??
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What was Microeconomics?
• Two parts:
• What type of Behavior?
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What are some major changes in the economy
that have happened in the last six months?
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Objectives met in Econ 201
• Role of prices– Why do we have prices?– How are prices determined?– Who determines prices?
• Supply and Demand– How do we draw them?– What changes each?
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• Competitive markets
– What makes us competitive?– Sports…football vs. tennis
• Differing market Characteristics– Control over prices– Number of firms/customers
• Analyze real-life situations– Why did the minimum wage change?– Why are gas prices so high?– Why do businesses have sales?– Why do doctor visits cost so much?
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Definition of Economics
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Scarcity
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Remember…
• Microeconomics deals with individual units
• Science of Choices
• Cost vs. Benefits
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Macroeconomics
• Aggregated economic quantities
• Extension of Microeconomics
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What groups are we interested in?
• Consumers
• Firms
• Workers
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Positive vs. Normative Economics
• Positive
• Normative
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Positive or normative??? If a statement is normative, change it to a positive
statement.
• The government should provide free tuition to all college students.
• An effective way to increase the skills of the workforce is to provide education to all potential workers.
• The government must provide job training if we are to compete with other countries.
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Overview
• Positive
• Normative
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Market
• Two sides
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Who is who??
• Buyers_____________ in the consumer market_____________ in the labor market
• Sellers_____________ in the consumer market_____________ in the labor market
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So…
• ________________ interaction of buyers and sellers determine the price
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Competitive Markets
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Noncompetitive Markets
• Oligopoly
• Monopolies
• Monopsonistic
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Real vs. Nominal Prices
• Real
• Nominal
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How convert??
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Example
• 1970 CPI = 38.8
• 1999 CPI = 167
• Was there a little or much inflation??
• Milk prices were $1.05 in 1999 and $0.65 in 1970
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Market can be explained in two ways…
• Geographic
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• Range of products
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Why important to look at??
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Chapter 2
You can’t escape….
Supply and Demand
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Before we can do Micro we must know how the market works
• Buyers
• Sellers
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Individual vs. Market
• Individual
• Market
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Determinates of DemandDeterminates of Demand
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Change in Demand vs. Change in Quantity Demanded
Change in Demand vs. Change in Quantity Demanded
• Change in Demand
• Change in Quantity demanded
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Change in Demand versus Change in Quantity Demanded
Change in Demand versus Change in Quantity Demanded
a
Price
0 Quantity Demanded
A change in demand(a s hift in the
demand curve)
Price
0 Quantity Demanded
B
A
A change inquantity demanded(a movement along
the demand curve , D )
DD
D
(b)(a)
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Change in DemandChange in Demand
• SHIFT LEFT??
• SHIFT RIGHT??
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Shifts in the Demand Curve Shifts in the Demand Curve
a
Price (dollars )
30
0 500 700
Rightward s hiftin demand curve
(increas e in demand)
Quantity Demanded of Blue Jeans
Part (a)
DD
A B
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Shifts in the Demand Curve Shifts in the Demand Curve
a
Price (dollars )
30
0 450 650
Leftward s hiftin demand curve
(decreas e in demand)
Quantity Demanded of Blue Jeans
Part (b)
DD
B A
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Change in price of related goods
Change in price of related goods
• Substitutes
• Compliments
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Substitutes Substitutes
a
Part (a)SUBSTITUTES
Price
Quantity Demanded of Coca-Cola
Price
Quantity Demanded of Peps i-Cola
00
If Coca-Cola andPeps i-Cola ares ubs titutes , ahigher price forCoca-Cola leads to . . .
DPC1
DPC2
Qd1Qd 2
P1
P2
DCC
A
B
. . . a rightwards hift in the demandcurve for Peps i-Cola.
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Complements Complements
a
COMPLEMENTSPart (b)
Price
Quantity Demanded of Tennis Rackets
Price
Quantity Demanded of Tennis Balls
00
If tennis rackets andtennis balls arecomplements , a higherprice for tennisrackets leads to . . .
DTB 2
DTB1
DTR
Qd1Qd2
P1
P2
A
B
. . . a le ftwards hift in the demandcurve for tennis balls .
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ExamplesExamples• The housing market: Consumer’s income
increases
• The sugar market: Saccharine is found to lead to cancer
• The jelly market: The price of peanut butter increases
• The beer market: The price of beer decreases
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Determinates of SupplyDeterminates of Supply
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Change in Supply vs. Change in Quantity Supplied
Change in Supply vs. Change in Quantity Supplied
• Change in Supply
• Change in Quantity Supplied
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Change in Supply versus Change in Quantity Supplied
Change in Supply versus Change in Quantity Supplied
a
Price
0 Quantity Supplied
A change in s upply(a s hift in thes upply curve)
Price
(b)(a)
0 Quantity Supplied
A
B
SS S
A change inquantity
(a movement alongthe s upply curve ,S )
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Change in SupplyChange in Supply
• SHIFT LEFT??
• SHIFT RIGHT??
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Shifts in the Supply Curve Shifts in the Supply Curve
aa
Price (dollars )
0
Quantity Supplied of Good X
Rightward s hiftin s upply curve
(increas e in s upply)
Part (a)
S
S
200 300
5A B
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Shifts in the Supply Curve Shifts in the Supply Curve
a
Part (b)
0
Quantity Supplied of Go od X
Price (do llars )
15050
S1S2
Leftward s hiftin s upply curve
(de creas e in s upply)
5B A
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Examples
• The computer printer market: Ink cartridges become less expensive
• The car market: Robots are taken away from production lines
• The taco market: Six more Taco Bell stores open
• The jellybean market: The price of jellybeans decreases
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Question???Question???• Can the supply curve ever be vertical?
• First…what does a vertical curve indicate about the relationship between price and quantity supplied?
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Equilibrium• Also called the ______________
• Disequilibrium
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At Disequilibrium can have…• Shortage
• Surplus
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Market Mechanism
• The ability for price to increase or decrease until hit equilibrium or where the market clears
• What causes this?
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Do Shortage and Scarcity refer to the same thing???
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Remember..• Equilibrium price and quantity are
determined by the_____________ of supply and demand
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What happens to equilibrium price and quantity???
• Increase D and S constant?• Decrease D and S constant?• D constant and increase S?• D constant and decrease S?• D increase and S decreases by equal amounts?• D decrease and S increases by equal amounts?• D increases more than S decreases?• D increases less than S decreases?
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Empirically
quantityandpricemequilibriuisWhat
PQ
PQ
s
d
51
28
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Can check results graphically
• Qd = 8 – 2P
– ____ is the intercept– ____ is the slope
• Qs = 1+ 5P– ____ is the intercept– ____ is the slope
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ElasticityElasticity
© South-Western College Publishing 1998
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Elasticity
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P
QEd
%
%
Elasticity of ONE point
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Elasticity between two points
2
2
2
2
21
21
21
21
21
21
PPPP
QQQQ
PPP
QQQ
E
dd
dd
dd
d
d
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So…
• What if Ed = 3?
• Shouldn’t it be negative?
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Elasticity of demand can yield 5 basic results
1. Numerator > Denominator
2. Numerator < Denominator
3. Numerator = Denominator
4. Numerator = 0
5. Denominator = 0• Each has a specific name and result
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Elastic
• Ed > ________
• ___________ CURVE
• What are some examples of an elastic good???
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Inelastic
• Ed < ________
• ____________CURVE
• What are some examples of an inelastic good?
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Unit Elastic
• Ed = ______________
• Change in price brings a ____________ change in quantity demanded
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Perfectly Elastic
• Ed =
• Price increases and quantity demanded goes to __
• Extreme• Examples???
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Perfectly inelastic• Ed = _____________
• % change in quantity demanded __________ in response to a change in price
• Extreme
• Examples???
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Aren’t demand curve downward sloping?
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How does a change in price affect Total Revenue of a Firm?
• Revenue depends on _________
• Michael Jordan and Nike shoes
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What is total revenue??
• Total revenue =
• Firm uses to decide if to produce more or less
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examples
• Elastic demand
– Price increase
– Price decrease
• Inelastic demand
– Price increase
– Price decrease
• Unit elastic demand
– Price increase
– Price decrease
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Price elasticity of demand and a straight line
• Demand is _________
• Along the line elasticity ___________
• But…remember SLOPE is ____________
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Point P Qd
A 8 3
B 7 4
C 6 5
D 5 6
E 4 7
F 3 8
G 2 9
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Determinates of price elasticity of demand
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Price Elasticity of Supply
2
2
2
2
21
21
21
21
21
21
PPPP
QQQQ
PPP
QQQ
E
ss
ss
ss
s
s
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Classification is like demand• Es > 1
• Es < 1
• Es = 1
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Any extreme elasticities???
• Es =
• Es =
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Elasticity and taxes
• If government levies a tax on a product who pays the tax??
• Producers?? Consumers?? Share??
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Two types of taxes
• Proportional
• Percentage
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How find??
• Find equilibrium price
• Supply shifts left in the amount of the tax
• Find new equilibrium
• Find point of second equilibrium on ORGINAL supply curve
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Who pays more of the tax??
• Perfectly inelastic demand
• Perfectly elastic demand
• Demand more elastic than supply
• Supply more elastic than demand
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Summary
• Ed > Es
• Ed < Es
• Ed = Es
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Chapter 3
Consumer
Preference
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Consumer Behavior
• How individuals choose a good at a given price and income level
• What makes demand for some goods more sensitive than others?
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How do we analyze this behavior?
• Examine Indifference Curves
• Look at Budget constraint
• Trace out individual demand using previous
• Aggregate individual demand to get market demand
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Market Basket
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Assumptions
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How measure preferences?
• Indifference Curves
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• Indifference Curve Map
• Downward sloped– What if positively sloped?
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Market Basket
Food Clothing
A 20 30
B 10 50
D 40 20
E 30 40
G 10 20
H 10 40
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Indifference Curves cannot cross
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Marginal Rate of Substitution
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What happens to the slope?Market Basket Clothing Food
A 16 1
B 10 2
C 6 3
D 4 4
G 3 5
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Diminishing Marginal Utility
• Convex
• Why?
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Polar Cases
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What is the MRS?
• Horizontal portion– MRS =
• Vertical portion– MRS =
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IC can show which good you prefer
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Now…
Utility and Budget Constraints
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Two types of value for a good
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How do you measure utility?
• Construct an artificial measure called a ___________
• REMEMBER:
• Sum of the utility gained by consuming a market basket = ______________
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Marginal Utility
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Thus…
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Remember…
• Along an IC utility is _______
• The additional utility from consuming an additional unit of one of the goods is called??
• So…we can used ________ to re-define the slope of the Indifference Curve
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How do we compare MU of different units?
• Example: What is the MU of an apple vs. an orange?
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Decision Making Process
• If the ___________ relative to its _______ is greater than the ____________ relative to its __________ we should buy more of A and less of B
• Compare ___________ of each good
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Example• MUorange = 30
• MUapple = 20
• Income = $20
• Buy 10 oranges for $1 each and 10 apples for $1 each
• Good??
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Consumer Equilibrium
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What was the consumer equilibrium condition?
• Also called _________________
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Utility Function
• U(F,C) = F + 2C
• What is the utility of a market basket with 5 units of food and 3 units of clothing?
• What is the marginal utility if the market basket changes to 4 units of clothing?
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Important
• U1=50 and U2=100
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Why?• Ordinal Utility
• Cardinal Utility
• ________ is preferred but hard to get data on
• Do you prefer an apple or a banana??
• By how much do you prefer it???
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Budget Constraint
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So..• Thus a ___________ shows all possible
combinations of those goods that may be purchased given a certain amount of _______________ of the goods
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Example
• Price of y = 80
• Price of x = 100
• Income = 1200
• Draw the budget constraint
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Slope of the Budget Constraint
• Slope =
• But wasn’t slope ???
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The Budget Constraint
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What changes the Budget Constraint?
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How do they change the budget constraint?
• Income?
• Price?
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Examples
• Consumer’s income increases
• Price of y increases
• Consumer’s income decreases
• Price of X decreases
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Empirically• Income = PcC + PfF
– Income = 45– Price of Clothing = 2– Price of Food = 3– What is the slope of the budget constraint?– How does the budget constraint change if the
income changes to 120?– How does slope change if the price of Clothing
changes to 5 with an income of 45?
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What happens if…
• Prices double
FP
P
P
IC
c
f
c
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How about if…
• Income and Prices double
FP
P
P
IC
c
f
c
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Combining IC and BC
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At Tangency Slopes are Equal
• What is the slope of the BC?? IC??
• So equilibrium is at …
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Maximization of Utility must have two conditions met
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Corner Solution
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Chapter 4: Individual and Market
Demand
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Goal• Investigate individual consumer demand
• What information do we have?
• Use individual information to find the market demand curve
• Measure Consumer Surplus
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IC, BC and Demand Curve?
• Can use the IC/BC relationship to derive the demand curve for good x, good y, or both
–
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Starting with IC and BC• Pc=2• Pf=1• I=20• Draw the Budget Constraint and optimal
bundle with food on the x-axis• Pf changes to 2• Draw the new Budget Constraint and
optimal bundle
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Properties of the Individual Demand Curve
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Drawing the good x demand curve• Vary the price of x
• Find optimal quantity of x
• Take quantity and price information down to plot the demand curve
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Examples
• Demand curve for Y with price increase
• Demand curve for X with price decrease
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Remember…this is a change in price so
only a movement along the demand
curve
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Price-Consumption Curve
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How can goods be related?
• Substitute:
• Compliments:
• Independent:
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How know??
• Downward sloped portion
• Upward sloped portion
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Change in Income
• Causes two things:
• Pf=1, Pc=2, Income=20 draw BC and optimal bundle with food on the x-axis
• Income changes to 10
• Income changes to 40
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Example
• Demand curve for Y with an increase in income
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Income Consumption Curve
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Normal and Inferior Goods• Normal
• Inferior
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When price of a good decreases
• Two things happen
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Substitution Effect
• When the price of a good decreases relative to the prices of other goods people buy _______ of it
• Portion of the change in Qd is attributed to the change in price
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Income Effect
• If a person’s real income increases due to a price decrease he/she can buy ________ of that product or other products given _____________
• The portion of the change in Qd that is attributed to the change in income due to the change in the price
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To graphically break up the effects
• Price decrease causes a rotation on the BC
• Look at what would we have bought with this new income level (new BC) at our old Utility level
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• Old optimal bundle to new optimal bundle is the ______________
•
• Old optimal bundle to new tangency on original IC is __________________
• New tangency on original IC to new optimal bundle is ________________
The Result is Three Points
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So…• Two effects of price decrease of food
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Effects• Total Effect
• Substitution Effect
• Income Effect
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Types of good (for a price decrease)• Normal Good
• Inferior Good
• Giffen Good
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Normal Good Continued• Initial price =
• Final price =
• Initial slope =
• Final slope =
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So…
• Need to get to original utility level to split out _________________
• Can’t change price because ______________
• Parallel shift of the BC allows ___________________________________
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Breakdown
• Income effect
• Substitution effect
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Inferior Good
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Giffen Good
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Market Demand
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Demand
Price A B C MARKET
1 6 10 16
2 4 8 13
3 2 6 10
4 0 4 7
5 0 2 4
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So…• Demand is not always _____________
• Does demand become more or less elastic when a new firm enters?
• Why?
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Consumer Surplus• The difference between
______________________________________________________________
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Concert Tickets: Everyone wants to by 2 ticketsOne for self and one for their date. Market sets
Price at $14
What does the demand curve look like??
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What is everyone’s Consumer Surplus?
• Need area of the respective rectangles
• Andy is willing to pay $20
• Barbara is willing to pay $19
• Eugine is willing to pay $14
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Why look at consumer surplus?
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Changes in Supply affect Consumer Surplus
• Decrease in the number of sellers
• Increase in the price of relevant resources
• Advance in technology
• A per-unit tax placed on producers/seller
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Network Externalities• Usually assume demand is determined by
price, preferences, price of other goods….but all of the individual
• Two types
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Bandwagon Effect
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Why is market demand more elastic?
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Snob Effect
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Chapter 5
Choice Under Uncertainty
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Adding in Reality
• So far assumed prices, incomes and other variables are know with certainty
• Why do we use credit cards?
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Objectives• Quantify risk
• Examine peoples preferences towards risk
• Examine how we can reduce risk
• How people choose the amount of risk to undertake
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Risk is about Choices
• After graduate you are offered two jobs– Salary– Commission
• Your choice of the job will show your ________
• Consumer Behavior defines _______________
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Probability helps quantify risk• Probability is the _____________ a
situation will happen
• Objective Probability
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• Subjective Probability
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• So…. Two events
– Success with a probability of .25
– Failure with a probability of .75
– Buy shares before exploration starts for $25
• What do you do??? Buy or pass up???
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Expected Value• Also called ________________
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What is the expected value?
• P(success) = .25
• P(failure) = .75
• Value of success = $40
• Value of failure = $20
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Do we buy the stock??• Buy shares for $25
• Indifferent between buying it or not
• If buy for $20
• If buy for $30
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Example
• 100% certainty the previous company will be successful what is EV?
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Another example
• Two part time jobs – Job A = commission based– Job B = Salary based
• Two ways to work– Hard– Lazy
• Need to determine which job to take
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Work hard Lazy
Probability income Probability income
A .50 2000 .50 1000
B .99 1510 .01 510
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Mean-Variance
• Looks at variability in payoffs
• X = ACTUAL VALUE
• EXP = EXPECTED VALUE
• Higher variation _______________
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Work hard Lazy
Probability income Probability income
A .50 2000 .50 1000
B .99 1510 .01 510
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Can also measure with variance
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Now add $100 to each payoff in Job A
Work hard Lazy
Probability income Probability income
A .50 2100 .50 1100
B .99 1510 .01 510
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• EV(A)?
• Variance (A)
• Std deviation (A)
• EV(B)=
• Variance =
• Std deviation =
• Which job do you chose?
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Decision
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Consumer Preference Toward Risk
• Assume consumer knows all probabilities for one good
• Need _________________
• What was the shape of the IC??
• Utility functions are ________________
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Earn U(x)
10,000 10
15,000 18
16,000 24
20,000 28
30,000 30
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Earn U(x) MU(x)
10,000 10
15,000 18
16,000 24
20,000 28
30,000 30
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Which Job is better?
• Option 1– Income = $15000– U(x) = 18 from Curve
• Option 2– $30,000 with Probability =.5– $10,000 with Probability =.5
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Can find EV and EU
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Expected Utility
• U(x) from curve is _________________
• U(x) from formula is _____________-
• What is expected utility?
• Which job do you take???
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Risk Averse
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Two options• Job 1
• Income=$20000
• Assured Utility = 16
• Where do you get assured utility?
• Job 2
• Income = $10000; Pr=.5
• Income = $30000; Pr=.5
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Find EV and EU
• EV =
• EU =
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Risk Averse
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Risk lovers
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• EV =
• EU =
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Risk Neutral
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• EV =
• EU =
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Risk Premium
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Risk Aversion and IC
• IC are _________________– Why?
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Reducing Risk
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Diversification• “Don’t put all you eggs in one basket”
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Insurance
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Value of Information
• How much will you pay?
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How many suits will we sell for this season??
• If Q=100 then P=$180 per suit• If Q=50 then P=$200 per suit• Sell each suit in store for $300• Can return unsold suits to warehouse for ½ Price• Pr(sell 100) = .5; Pr(sell 50) = .5
Profits Sales of 50 Sales of 100
Expected Profits
Buy 50 suits
5,000 5,000 5,000
Buy 100 suits
1,500 12,000 6,750
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If buy 100 suits
• EV with complete information
• EV with incomplete information (buy 100 suits)
• Value of complete information
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Chapter 6
Moving from the Consumer Side to the Seller Side and
….Production
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Production• Want to look at production behavior
• What are the questions to address?– How much capital to employ?– How much labor to employ?– Should we build a new plant or hire new
workers to increase production?
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Look at physical relationship between inputs and outputs
• Production Technology
• Inputs
• Outputs
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Inputs vs. Outputs
• What are the inputs/outputs of a– Bakery?
– College?
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Production Function
• Indicates ___________ produced for very specified combination of ______________
• Also called ________________
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Q = F (K, L)
• ___________________
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How differ from IC??
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Short Run vs. Long Run
• SR
• LR
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One variable input
• Average Product of Labor
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Marginal Product of Labor
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L K Total Output
APL MPL
0 10 0
1 10 10
2 10 30
3 10 60
4 10 80
5 10 95
6 10 108
7 10 112
8 10 112
9 10 108
10 10 100
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To find APL and MPL from graph
• APL
• MPL
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Important Points of Graphs
• When APL is upward sloping
• When APL is downward sloping
• Called the _____________________
• Point of intersection between APL and MPL _________________________________
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Intersection of APL and MPL
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Law of Diminishing Returns doesn’t mean lower quality of
worker
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What if technology increases?
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Labor Productivity• Found through __________ because fairly easy
to find
• Why need??
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Change over the the LR
• K and L are __________
• Use __________to analyze combinations of K and L that will produce the same level of output
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Diminishing Returns in both L & K
How see???
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How see?
• Hold K constant
• Hold L constant
• Diminishing returns to labor in _______
• Diminishing returns to capital in __________-
• Why???
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What else??
• How do we substitute the goods for each other?
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MRTSKL
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K L
1 7 1
2 4 2
3 3 3
4 2.5 4
What is the MRTSKL between each point?
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So…
• MRTS becomes __________
• Labor becomes ___________ as gain more
• Give up _________ to maintain constant output level
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Diminishing MRTS
• Shows isoquants are ___________
• Shows any input _____________
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MRTS and MR are related
• Additional output from increases in labor is:
• Reduction in output from decreases in capital is:
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• To keep output constant the sum must be equal to
0
• Rearrange to:
• So increase labor causes MPL and MPK which causes the isoquant __________________
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Special Case Production Functions
• Perfect Substitutes
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Perfect Compliments
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Returns to Scale
• Why are some firms small and some large?
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Increasing Returns to Scale
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Decreasing Returns to Scale
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Another way to see…• Q = (K/L) + L multiply by 2 and resolve
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Constant Returns to Scale
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Knowing Q=2K+3L
• What is the MPL?
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Remember…
• MRTS is the ______________
• Now we want to bring into the graph the price of inputs to determine optimal cost
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Chapter 7
The Cost of Production
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So far…• Bring in Cost of Production to find…
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How differ from Consumer Theory?
• Consumer theory wanted highest IC could reach given their BC
• Production theory wants highest isoquant can reach with isocost
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Two types of Cost• Economic
• Accounting
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Other costs to consider• Opportunity Costs
• Sunk Costs
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Short Run
• K is _______ and L ____________-
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Other costs of importance…Other costs of importance…
• Average Variable Cost (AVC)
• Average Fixed Cost (AFC)
• Average Total Cost (ATC)
• Marginal Cost (MC)
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Example…
• Remember the rate at which costs increase depend on the nature of
the production process
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Another Example
• With diminishing returns in labor, what happens to labor as increase output???
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• So…MC for labor would be
• The MPL is
• The inverse of this is
• So…MC for labor can be re-written as
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So…
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Can also see diminishing return by looking at MC
MC
---
50
28
20
14
18
20
25
29
38
58
85
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Law of diminishing returns also links AVC and APL
• What is the TVC of labor?
• What is the AVC of labor?
• What was APL?
• So…
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• Since wages are seen as fixed there is an
_________________ between AVC and APL
• APL=5 and W=30 per hour– Each hour output increases by _______ on average– How much will each unit cost?
– Each unit will take _________ to make
• Direct link between ___________________ and the _______________
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What do the curves
look like??
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Why does the space between the AVC and ATC decrease??
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Average-Marginal Rule
• If MC is above AVC and ATC
• If MC is below AVC and ATC
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From Average-Marginal Rule can infer…
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How do we find these curves from the Total curves?
• AVC?? ATC??
• MC??
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Cost Minimization Input Choice
• Two input variables
• Both can be rented or bought in the market– What are their prices?
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Isocost Line
• Includes all possible combinations of _________ that can be purchased given ___________
• Or…as a straight line
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What is the slope???
• Ratio of
• Says give up a unit of labor and get ____ units of capital so that TC stays the same
• w=10 and r=5 what is the slope?
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How choose inputs???• If want output level of Q1 how can we produce at
minimum cost?
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Changes of isocost line
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Increase price of labor
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What are the slopes???• Isoquant?
• Isocost?
• At tangency the slopes are ___________
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example
• w = $10
• r = $2
• Firm chooses inputs so that MP of labor and capital both labor and capital equal 10
• Are we at minimum cost?
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Only minimize cost when production of
additional units ____________________________________
_____
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Switching to the Long Run
• Now…K and L are both _______________
• Can plot out optimal choices for K and L
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In SR constrained by capacity…
• Why??
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Short Run vs. Long Run
• Short Run assumes _________________
• Each plant size has a unique ______________ associated with it
• LRATC combines all the _____________
• Which points???
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Why?
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Isn’t the LRATC curve smooth??
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Shape of LRATC
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Economies of Scale
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Constant Returns to Scale
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Diseconomies of Scale
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Long-Run Average Total Cost Curve (LRATC) Long-Run Average Total Cost Curve (LRATC)
a
Average Cos t (dollars )
Quantity of Output
Dis economiesof Scale
Cons tantReturnsto Scale
SRATC1
SRATC2
SRATC3 SRATC4
SRATC5
SRATC6
SRATC7
Economiesof Scale
A B
LRATC
Minimumeffic ient s cale
Part (b)
0
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How can we measure economies of scale?
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3 cases
• MC > AC
• MC < AC
• MC = AC
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Are economies, diseconomies, and constant returns to scale in SR, LR, or both???
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Is this the same as diminishing returns?
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Minimum Efficient Scale for Six Industries Minimum Efficient Scale for Six Industries
a
14.16.63.41.91.40.2
%RefrigeratorsCigarettesBeer brewingPetroleum refiningPaintsShoes
INDUSTRY
MES AS APERCENTAGEOF U.S.CONSUMPTION
SOURCE: F. M. Scherer, AlanBechens te in, Erich Kaufer, and R. D.Murphy, The Economics of MultiplantOperation (Cambridge , Mas s .: HarvardUnivers ity Pres s , 1975), p. 80.
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Where would you expect to find less firms? (using MES)
• Why??
• _______ SHOE companies (MES = .2)
• __________ REFRIGERATOR companies (MES = 14)
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Efficient Number of Firms
• Cigarette firm’s MES = 6.6
• Petroleum firm’s MES = 1.9
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Chapter 8Profit Maximization and
Competitive Supply
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Profit Maximization and Competitive Supply
• Extremes– Perfect Competition
– Monopoly
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Perfect CompetitionPerfect Competition• Assumptions
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Questions to address
• What output level does the firm use?
• How does the choice of output determine the market supply?
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MR, MC and Profit Maximization
• _______________ and ______________ are the same thing
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R(q)
C(q)RevenueCost
Quantity
Quantity
Profit
A B C
Profit
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Revenue Curve
• What is the revenue when output = 0?
• Curve increases at an increasing rate, then decreasing rate, then negative rate
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Price Taker
• What is R(q) of producing q units?
• What is AR?
• What is MR? Units revenue
1 P
2 2P
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Demand Curve• Industry
• Individual Market
• Demand Curve is also __________ curves
• Why?
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Why horizontal??• What happens to elasticity as increase the
number of substitutes for the good?
• How many substitutes exist for a homogenous good?
• What type of elasticity does this demand have?
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What if assumptions don’t hold?
• Difference small?
• Difference big?
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When will firm produce??
• Produce as long as ________
• Do not produce if ______________
• Maximize profit where ____________
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Profit Maximization Rule
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Since…
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Four Cases: Produce or not?• Price equals ATC
• Price above ATC
• Price below AVC
• Price below ATC but above AVC
• Each case must start with _____________
• What was that rule???
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Price equals ATC
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Price above ATC
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Price below AVC
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Shut Down Rule
• If ____________-- should shut down
• Why?
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Price below ATC but above AVC
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What Should a Firm Do in the Short Run?
What Should a Firm Do in the Short Run?
a
Pric e
Co ntinue topro duce
Shut downNo
Ye s
Is it aboveAVC?
Co ntinue topro duce
Ye s
No
Is it aboveATC?
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Perfectly Competitive Firm's Short-Run Supply Curve
Perfectly Competitive Firm's Short-Run Supply Curve
a
Cos t
Quantity0
Firm’sShort-run
Supply Curve
MC
AVC
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How find the market supply curve?
• What is the individual firm’s supply curve?
• _______________- all individual supply curves to get the market supply curve
• Why are market supply curves upward sloping??
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Job Security and fixed costs?
• Is this the Short Run or Long Run?
• Increases in __________________ means more job security
• Why?
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Which firm has more job security?
Firm X Firm Y
TC 600 600
TVC 400 500
TFC 200 100
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Firm ______ has more job security!!
• Unions know this so usually negotiate more benefits for workers before wages
• Why??
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Will there be the same number of firms in the short and long runs?
• If there is a profit
• If there is a loss
• If there is normal profit
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Long Run Competitive Equilibrium
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Summary of Incentives present at Long Run Equilibrium
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What if increase demand at LR competitive equilibrium??
• Equilibrium price will ________
• What caused this increase in price?
• Existing firms ____________ Quantity
• Why?
• Why?
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• Do you think this would lead to profits or
losses?
• What would this do to the number of firms in the industry?
• What does this increase in firms do to supply?
• What happens to equilibrium price?
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Wow…1. Industry in LR equilibrium2. Demand increases (both firm and market)3. Equilibrium price increases4. Firms gain profits from increase5. New firms enter to get profits6. New firms cause supply to increase7. Equilibrium price decreases8. Firm demand curve decreases to reflect
new market price
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Is ending equilibrium price higher or lower than original???
• Three types of industries
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Constant Cost Industry
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How can profits be reduced?
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Connecting equilibrium points on market graph gives you…
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Increasing Cost Industry
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Decreasing Cost Industry
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What if demand decreases??
• Demand Shift _______
• Equilibrium Price ___________
• Firms suffer ___________
• Supply shifts ___________
• Equilibrium Price _________-
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Perfect Competition
• Resource Allocative Efficiency
• Productive Efficiency
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Chapter 10
MONOPOLY
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Assumptions
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Two types of Monopolies
• Government monopolies
• Market monopolies
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Price maker
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Demand Curve
• What does the demand curve look like??
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What differs here from Perfect Competition??
• Price doesn’t equal ________!!!
• Monopolist’s demand curve and marginal revenue curves are __________
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ExamplePrice Quantity
DemandTR MR
10 1
9 2
8 3
7 4
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Goal
• Profit Maximization
• What is the profit maximization rule?
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Three cases
• P > ATC
• P < ATC
• P=ATC
• Where is AVC??
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Differences between monopoly and perfect competition
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Similarities
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Long Run Profits
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Monopolies are inefficient compared to Perfect Competition
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Chapter 11
Pricing with Market Power
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Does monopolist have to charge same price to everyone?
• Called _________________________
• Three types– First degree– Second degree – Third degree
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Perfect Price discrimination
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Bulk Pricing
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Group Pricing
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Why Price Discriminate?
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Why doesn’t everyone price discriminate?
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Does a monopolist exhibit resource allocative efficiency?
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So does one person paying high prices mean that another can pay low prices??
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Would firms rather be a monopoly?
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Chapter 12
Monopolistic Competition and
Oligopolies
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Monopolistic CompetitionFour Assumptions
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Examples
• What about cereals??
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Monopolistic is combination of Perfect Competition and Monopoly
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Why most likely????
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Still have three cases
• P = ATC
• P > ATC
• P < ATC
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Differs from perfect competition…
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The more we differentiate our
product the closer we get to _______.
If we can’t differentiate our product we are
closer to ________.
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Oligopoly
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OligopolyFour assumptions
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How find???
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So…
• High concentration ratio?
• Small concentration ratio?
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Question…
How do firms react to actions of other firms??? Important since they are
interdependent!
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Three theories
• Kinked Demand Curve Theory
• Price Leadership Theory
• Cartel Theory
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Kinked Demand Theory
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Demand Curve
• Flatter above kink
• Steeper below kink
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Why kinked
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So…
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Criticisms
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Price Leadership Theory
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So…
• Dominate firm
• Fringe Firm
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Dominate Firm does not have to be the
________!!! It could be the one with the _____________!!
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How derive demand curve?
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From Demand Curve
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Cartel Theory
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Problems for a cartel
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Why Cheat???
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The Government tries to keep some cartels together
• Farmers
• Airlines
• Each tends to increase _______________
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Game Theory
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Prisoner’s dilemma
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Prisoner's Dilemma Prisoner's Dilemma
a
Bob’sChoices
Nathan’s Choices
NotConfess
Confess
Confess
Not Confess
Nathan pays $2,000
Bob pays $2,000
Nathan pays $5,000
Bob pays $500
Nathan pays $500
Bob pays $5,000
Nathan pays $3,000
Bob pays $3,000
1 2
3 4
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Cartels and Prisoner's Dilemma Cartels and Prisoner's Dilemma
a
Firm B’sChoices
Firm A’s Choices
Hold toAgreement
BreakAgreement
BreakAgreement
Hold toAgreement
A earns $50,000 profits
B earns $50,000 profits
A earns $5,000 profits
B earns $100,000 profits
A earns $100,000 profits
B earns $5,000 profits
A earns $10,000 profits
B earns $10,000 profits
1 2
3 4
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Characteristics & Consequences of Market Structures
Characteristics & Consequences of Market Structures