closed system aquac global review

OnbehalfofTheCoastalAllianceforAquacultureReform

ii GlobalAssessmentofClosedSystemAquaculture

TableofContents1.Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1

2.StudyOverview ...................................................................................................................................... 2

3.TrendsinAquaculture ........................................................................................................................... 3

4.TechnologiesandtheirDeployment ...................................................................................................... 6

5.SpeciesGrownUsingClosedContainmentAquaculture ..................................................................... 38

6.VolumeandValueofFishGrowninClosedSystemAquaculture ........................................................ 42

7.OverviewofFactorsInfluencingtheEconomicsofCSA....................................................................... 49

8.AssessmentofKeyEcologicalInteractions .......................................................................................... 52

9.EnvironmentalLifeCycleandEnergyIssues ........................................................................................ 59

10.SummaryAccountofStrengthsandChallengesofEachTechnology ............................................. 61

11.Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................ 64

12.Glossary.............................................................................................................................................. 66

13.CompanyDirectory ............................................................................................................................ 67

14.Referencesandwebpages ................................................................................................................ 71

1 GlobalAssessmentofClosedSystemAquaculture

1. IntroductionEcoPlan Internationalwas retainedby theDavidSuzukiFoundationandtheGeorgiaStraitAlliance toprovideareview of commercial closed system aquaculture (CSA) technologies throughout theworld, emphasizing thosetechnologies and speciesmost relevant to British Columbia. The focus of the report is on finfish, though it isacknowledgedthatconsiderableliteratureandsuccessfulexamplesexistfortheuseofclosedsystemaquaculturefor growing seaweeds, shellfish, crustaceans, and other invertebrate species, as well as for pharmaceuticalproduction.ThisreportwascompiledtoprovideinformationtoaidinassessingtheeconomicandtechnicalgrowthpotentialofaquacultureintheCSAsector.Itlooksatavarietyoftechnologiesandmethodsusedincommercialproductionaswellasseveralemergingtechnologies,highlightingsomeofthemajoradvantagesanddisadvantagesofeach.The study demonstrates that numerous examples exist around the world of commercially successful CSAoperationswherefinfisharegrowntoharvestsize. ThemajorfishareNiletilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),trout(Oncorhynchus mykiss), Arctic char (Salnelinus alpinus), Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), turbot(Scopthalmusmaximus)1, barramundi (Lates calcarifer)2, seabream (Sparus aurata)3 and sea bass (Centropristisstriata)while other species are important in specific locations, such as eel (Anguilla anguilla) in Europe, andcatfish(Ictaluruspunctatus)4intheUnitedStates.DeterminingproductionlevelsforfishrearedinCSAisdifficultastradedatadoesnotgenerallydisaggregatebetweenpenornetfarmedandCSAfarmedfish.WhileinEuropeindividual countrieswill place ecolabels to identify their CSA farmed fish, they arenot distinguished in tradeinformation. Some fish, such as trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and turbot (Scopthalmus maximus) are almostubiquitously farmed in CSA; however others, such as seabream, can be either. Also, countries such as theNetherlandsemployCSAforallfarmedfishregardlessofspeciesduetolegislationandenvironmentalregulations.Thereportwascompiledthroughaseriesofliteraturesearchesinacademicandprofessionaljournals;webbasedanddatabasesearches,andthroughinterviewswithbothcommercialcompaniesandresearchers.Thestudywasalso restricted to literature thatwas available in English and interviews favoured those individualswho had acommercialperspectiveaswellas researchknowledge. This studycannot thereforebe takenasanexhaustiveaccount of CSA. To avoid confusion with respect to colloquial names, Latin names are provided alongsidecolloquialnames.Aglossaryhasalsobeenincludedinthereportforreference.InthecasethatLatinnamesarenotknown,thecolloquialnameisgivenwithreferencetothegeographiclocationofitsuse.Allunitshavebeenconverted tometric and all currency is inUS dollars, unless otherwise stated. Also, note thatUS currency hasfluctuateddramaticallyoverthepastyear.AllcostsinUSfiguresarethereforetakenasanaverageofthelocalUScurrencyconversionratefortheyearofpublicationusingwww.oanda.com/convert/fxhistory.

1NotethatthereseveraldifferentspeciesofturbotincludingthePacific,GreenlandandEuropean(Psettamaxima).ThePsettamaximaisthemostcommonandusuallyreferredtoasScophthalmusmaximusintradeliteratureandindustrypublications.2AlsoknownasAsianseabass.3Thereareover125speciesintheSparidaefamily.ThemostcommonofthesebreamsforfoodfishistheGiltheadseabream(Sparusaurata).4OtherwiseknownastheChannelcatfish.Otherspeciesofcatfisharereferredtointhisreportseeglossary.


2. StudyOverviewTheobjectiveofthisstudyistoprovideanoverviewofthecurrentstatusofclosedcontainmentaquaculturewitha focus on technologies. This includes technical specifications of systems in commercial production as well asexperimental stages, economic statistics related to the volume and value of production, and ecologicalimplicationsaswellaslifecycledemandsassociatedwithclosedcontainmentsystems.Thisstudyconcentratesonfinfishwhereproductioncycles includeharvesting, though itnotesseveralwellknownspecies, suchasAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar),areraised inCSAuntilacertainpoint in theirdevelopmentwhentheyare transferredtonetcages or netpens. Particular emphasis was given to those examples most suitable to the physical,demographicandeconomicclimateofBritishColumbia.Consequently,focuswasgiventoexamplesfromothermembercountriesof theOrganization forEconomicCooperationandDevelopment (OECD),and inparticular inWesternEurope,Australia,andNorthAmerica.Forthepurposesofthisstudy,closedsystemaquaculture(CSA)isdefinedas:

Anysystemoffishproductionthatcreatesacontrolledinterfacebetweentheculture(fish)andthenaturalenvironment.

TheUnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganisation (FAO) sees littlepossibility to increase supply fromwildcapturefisheriestomeetgrowingdemandforfishprotein(FAO,2006).Approximately,75%oftheworldsfishinggroundsare fullyexploited,overexploitedor severelydepleted.Experience fromcatch fisheries showthat forbothpelagic anddemersal species almost allmajor fisherieshaveexperienceda shift fromhighgrade to lowgrade fish (Pauley, 1998). Even as wild fisheries productivity declines as a result of overfishing and otheranthropogenic stresses on the marine environment, the global demand for seafood continues to grow, andaquaculturecanmakeapositivecontributiontomeetincreasedmarketdemand(Tidwell,2001;Garcia,2005).


3. TrendsinAquacultureAquaculture has grown enormously over the last 50 years, producing 60millionMt of product in 2004with avalueofUS$70billion(FAO,2006).Overthelastthreedecades,aquacultureworldwideexperienced11%annualgrowth,andcurrentlyprovidesaboutonethird(40millionMt)ofglobalfisheriesproduction(Naylor,2005).AsiaandthePacificRegionaccountfor92%ofglobalproduction;Chinaalonebeingresponsiblefor70%(FAO,2006).Aquacultureisvariedthroughouttheworld;EastAsiabeingresponsibleforthemajorityofshellfish,crustaceans,andplantproduction;CentralandEasternEuropeforcarp(Cyprinuscarpio),WesternEurope,ChileandCanadaforsalmonids,andtheUSforcatfish(Ictaluruspunctatus),(FAO,2006).Finfishaccountforapproximatelyhalfofall aquaculture yields, while algae and invertebrates account for a quarter each (FAO, 2001). Production isdominatedby freshwater fish andaquatic plants (FAO, 2006);marine anddiadromous fish species account foronly5.3%oftheworldstotalproduction,butcommand14.2%oftheworldtotalfarmedvalues(FAOSTAT,2007).OurfindingsshowthatthevastmajorityofcommercialproductionoffinfishinOECDcountriesisbasedonopensystems; the exact number is difficult to define as production and trade figures are generally not classified asopensystemorCSA.Whileaquaculturehasgrownrapidly,increasehasslowedinrecentyears(FungeSmith,2001).Therearegrowingopportunitiesto implementnewtechnologies,newspecies,anddevelopnewareas,suchasSouthAmericaandAfrica(FungeSmith,2001).Innovationsandproventechnologiesforclosedsystemsarebeingappliedinpartsoftheworld suchasBenin,whereHesyAquacutlurehas recentlybuiltanAfricancatfish (Clariasgariepinus) farm(Debon,2007a). An examination of existing CSA reveals a large and complex range of technologies andmethodswith no cleardistinction in terms of treatment for both incoming and effluentwaters. They all however, include a physicalbarrierbetween the culture (fish) and thenatural environment. These includeeverything frompondandditchsystems(possiblytheearliestformofclosedsystemaquaculture),toconstructedimpermeablesystems,suchasracewaysor tanks. CSA systems include thoseusing a one time flowthroughofwaterwith varyingdegreesofinput andoutputwater treatmentmethods, to fully recirculating systemswherewater is largely reused (alsoknownasRecirculatingAquaculture Systems (RAS)).Geographically, these systems are foundeverywhere fromland lockedurbancentrestoseabasedtanks. Systemsmaydependonmunicipalwatersystems,groundwater,lakesorrivers,andtheocean.Thisrangeanddiversityofexistingandemergingtechnologiesisapromisingsignfor the possibility of closed systems to be successfully adapted to meet specific geographic conditions andrespondtosocialconditionssuchasconsumerdemand,policyandlegislation.ModernCSA,andRASinparticular,havebeenusedforcommercialproductionofeelsforover20yearsinEurope.However, ithasonlybeensincethe late1980sthatresearchersandcivilsocietygroups inNorthAmericahaveincreasedtheireffortstolobbygovernmentstosupportthedevelopmentofappropriateaquaculturetechnologyincluding CSA for finfish in general. In North America, most commercial CSA for growout or start to finishfinfishproductionisdedicatedtotrout,catfish,Arcticcharandmorerecently,tilapiaspecies.Because the technologies, species and local situations vary so markedly, it is difficult to ascribe definitivestrengthsandchallengesofCSAsystems.Clearly,twooftheubiquitousandparamountstrengthsofCSAaretheseparationof the fish culture from theenvironment, and thepotential for controlof inputs andoutputs.Withthese in mind the challenges and strengths must be balanced together to determine appropriate choices oftechnologyandspeciesforaquacultureproduction.Ingeneral,therefore,thestrengthsofCSAare:

Potentialtocontrolgrowingconditions:includingtemperature,waterchemistryandturbidity,disease,etc.


Stressreductionfromcontrolofpredation,disease,growingconditions(notemperatureorwaterchemistryfluctuations).

Potentialtoinfluencegrowthcycles:includingshortenedtimetoharvest,sizeofthespecies,qualityofproduct,aswellasoptimumharvestpointsandabilitytoplanforharvest;betterfeedconsumptionandcontrolofmetabolicrates.

BetterFeedConversionRatios(FCR):duetogreatercontrolofgrowingconditionsandlifecycles,aswellaswatermovement.Thismeanslessfeedislostandthusnutrientproductionformlostfeedisminimised.

Greaterversatility:optionsforproductionlocation,nearnesstomarket,marginallands,etc.;productioncanbetailoredtotakeadvantageoflocalsituationssuchaswatertemperature,waterquality,skilledlabour;abilitytorespondtodemographicandconsumershifts(somesystemsarecapableofgrowingdifferentspeciesorcanbeeasilytransformed;potentialforenhancingtechnology.

Controlofoutputsandeffluents:treatmentandthepossibilityofreuseasfertilizerorinputforotherfishsystems(inintegratedaquaculture).

Riskreduction:includingclimate,infectionanddisease,predation,etc. Reductionincertaindirectoperationalcosts:associatedwithfeedanddiseasecontrolfromvaccinations

andantibiotics.

Potentialforcleanproduct:producedwithouthormones,antibioticsetc.;producedinenvironmentallyfriendlyway;greenandorganiclabelling.

Longeraveragelifeoftanksandequipment(versusnets)allowingforlongeramortisationperiods.Thegeneralchallengesare:

Increaseincapitalcosts:researchanddevelopmentcanbecostly;systemstartupishigherthannetpenoperations.

Increaseincertaindirectoperationalcosts:usuallyahighercostassociatedwithcertaininputssuchasoxygenandmaintenancecostsassociatedwithchemicalbalancesofthewater(note:someflowthroughsystemsbasedongroundwatersourcesdontrequireanyinputsorwatertreatment),carefulwatermonitoring,energyrequirements(dependingonthetechnology),inputoutputwatertreatmentrequirements(theseareassociatedwithhighdensityfarming).

Complexityoftechnology:particularlywithregardstomaintainingwaterenvironmentandwiththeuseofbiofiltersinRAS.

Risks:potentialforrapidchemistryalterations,dependencyonmonitoring(again,thisincreaseswithincreasedfishdensities).

WhileproponentsofCSAconsideritanadvancetowardssustainablefinfishaquaculture,theyacknowledgethereareenvironmentalandsocialissuessurroundingallformsofaquaculturesuchasthoserelatingtothecaptureofwild fisheries for feed,energyusageandtheassociatedgreenhousegasemissions,amongstothers. Thesocioecological footprint (or fishprint), which is the overall material and energy throughput associated with fishproduction,needstobeconsideredandbalancedwhenexploringCSAoptions. Nevertheless,CSAdoesaddressmanyoftheenvironmentaleffectsofopenpenfarminginthePacificNorthwestthathavebeenwelldocumentedandacknowledgedbypolicymakers(Phillips,2005;Brooks,2002;Buttner,1992;Naylor,2003).Manyaquacultureoperationsaroundtheworldhavecausedhabitatdestruction,waterpollution,parasitic infectionsofwildstock,andunintentional introductions of nonnative species. Increasingly, social concerns and environmental impactsassociated with the aquaculture industry have resulted in media campaigns discouraging the consumption offarmedseafood(Barrington,2005).


Partofwhat is likelytodrivetheincreaseduseofCSAisconsumerdemandandstakeholderawareness. IntheEU, regulationsare increasingly strong regardingwhat is acceptable,both in termsofenvironmental impactaswell as animalwelfare (van Eijk, 2007). Consumer trends indicate an increasing concern for health issues andenvironmentally sound raised seafood (van Eijk, 2004; Romuel, 2007). Speaking at the Profet AquacultureWorkshop in 2004, the General Secretary of the Dutch Association of Fish Farmers,Wim van Ejik commentedFish farming isstilldevelopingandsowetake intoaccount fromthebeginning thedemandsassociatedwithfood safety, animalwelfareand theenvironment (vanEijk, 2004). In Europe,oneof themajordriving forcesbehind CSA is consumer demand for a product that contains no additives, hormones, antibiotics etc. and isproduced in a sustainable way (van Eijk, 2007). In the Netherlands, for instance, environmental and socialconcerns are reflected in policy and legislation such that 100% of aquaculture is CSA, and due to waterconstraints,basedonrecirculatingaquaculturesystems(Debon,2007a).ToencourageadoptionanddevelopmentofthesenewtechnologiestheEUhasassistedfinanciallywithgrants,subsidiesandtaxincentives(vanEijk,2007;iestad,2007a).Biosafety, in terms of controlling disease and maintaining genetic diversity in fish populations, is becomingincreasinglyprominentinpolicydevelopment,andemergedasamajorthemeatthe6thInternationalConferenceon Recirculating Aquaculture, Virginia (July, 2006).While this has always been an issue, the intensification ofaquacultureproductionmeansthatthisisbecomingofparamountimportance(Schipp,2006).CSAaddressesbiosafetyconcernsthroughcontrolaspectsregardingbothinputandoutputandtheseparationforthefishculturefromthenaturalenvironment.Albright (2007), a small producer of fresh water Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) and Rainbow trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)inLangley(BC),predictsthatswitchingfromconventionalsalmonfarminginoceanbasednetpenstoenclosedinlandfreshwateroneswouldhavesignificantpositiveoutcomes:

Diseaseandantibioticfree:Unlikeconventionalcommercialfishfarms,freshwaterfishfarmsrarelyuseantibioticsandotherchemicaltherapiesbecausetheirgroundbasedwatersourcesdonothavecommonpathogens.

Improvedpublicperceptionoffishfarming:Inlandandgroundwaterfedfishfarmsarenotmiredinthecontroversythatshroudsoceanbasedfishfarming.RecentresearchdonebyscientistsatSimonFraserUniversityandelsewheredemonstratesthatoceanbasedfishfarmingbreedssealiceinnumbersthatkillnearbyjuvenilewildsalmon.

Smallerecologicalfootprint:Whileoceanbasedfishfarmscoverseveralkilometresofseacoast,atypicalfreshwaterfarmoccupiesnomorethanfiveacresofland.


ControlElements MinorControl MajorControl

InputWater

EffluentWater

Cultureincontactwithnaturalenvironment

WaterTemperature

4. TechnologiesandtheirDeployment

Descriptionoftechnologyandterminology

ThereareavarietyofclassificationsystemsandnomenclatureregardingCSAtechnologies.For thepurposesofthis study,we have classified the spectrum of closed system aquaculture technologies based on: 1) degree ofcontroloverinputandoutputwaters;2)shape/layoutofsystem;and3)locationofinstallation.

1)Degreeofcontrolofinputandoutputwaters

WhileallCSAsystemshaveabarrierbetweentheculture(fish)andthenaturalenvironmentintermsofindividualfish,theyvaryintermsofcontrolwithrespecttoinputwatersandoutputwastes,andwithregardtowateruse(Figure1).

Figure1:Generalizedcontrolelementsinflowthrough()andRecirculatingAquacultureSystems()

Flowthrough systems allowwater flows to enter the system, through the tanks or holding areas, andexit thesystem. There is a possibility of complete control at both ends. Incomingwater is virtually always treated forbacteria,parasites,anddisease,andoutgoingwateristreatedtogreaterandlesserextents(Folke,1998;Miller,2002;Piedrahita,2003;BMP,2004).Often,treatedeffluentwaterisrecirculatedbacktointothesystem.Whilethere is no clear rule for nomenclature, when approximately 6070% of this water is recirculated, it becomesclassifiedasRAS(Blancheton,2000;Queensland,2007;Schuenhoff,2003;Troell,2003).Somesystemsrecirculate


more than 95%of theirwater, essentially replenishing for evaporation and leakage (Debon, 2007a;Desbarats,2007).

Pondsandchannelsareconsideredasclosedsystemsinthatwhilethefishandtheirholdingenvironmentsareincontactwithsoilandthegroundtheyarefreefromtraditionalpredators,cannotescapetomixwithwildspecies,andanydiseasesgeneratedintheirenclosurescanbecontained.Water,andthuscontaminantscanseepintothesoilandgroundwater(Boyd,1999).

2)Shape/layoutofthesystemCSAsystemsexistinamultitudeofdifferentshapesdependingonspeciesandscale.Differentphysicalstructuresdetermine hydrodynamic flow, area and volume, all of which may be species dependant. Tanks are largestructures,usuallyroundforstrength,andcanbeaboveground,belowgroundorsuspendedinoceansorlakes.Ahighwatervolumetocontainersurfaceareaisacommoncharacteristicoftanks.Pondsareanalogoustotanks,butduginthegroundwithnoimpermeablebarrier.Raceways are longer structures, sometimes hundreds of meters, where while water flows through them, theresidency time of water in any one spot being very small. A low water volume to container surface areacharacterizesthem.Thisisappropriateforcertainspecies,suchastrout,whichthriveinasimulatedstreamflow,andflatfish,suchasflounderorsole,whichneedlargesurfaceareas.Channelsareanalogoustoracewaysdugintheground.ThisisthemainmethodofproducingcatfishintheUS.Shapewillalsodeterminetreatmentmechanismswhileresidencetimeofwaterwilldemanddifferent formsoftreatment,aswillspecies.

Figure2:Sevenlevelshallowtanksforsole(Soleasolea)productionatSoleaBVinTheNetherlands(Photocredit:AlbertImsland,Akvaplanniva)


3)LocationonlandorinopenwaterCSAtechnologiescanbefoundinalmostanylocation.Mostareonlandastanks,ponds,raceways,andchannels.Othersareinopenwater,eitheroceanorfreshwater,andareflowthroughtanks.Thereare,however,exceptionstotheseespeciallyasnewtechnologiescontinuetoemerge.Also,unlessexplicitlystated,allspeciesaregrownintheir native environments, for example Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchusmykiss) are generally river fish and thusraisedinfreshwater.

SummaryoffindingsforgeneraltypesofCSA

Table1:Descriptionoftechnologyandexamples

Systems/Description ExampleUse: Location/region:LandBased:Raceways(recirculatingorflowthrough)

Trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss) US,Spain,FranceTurbot(Scophthalmusmaxima) Spain,(AkvaplanNiva,

StoltSeaFarms)France,Denmark(UNIAqva)

Seabass(Centropristisstriata) FranceChannelcatfish(Ictaluruspunctatus)

USA

Modernracewaysystemsaremadefromavarietyofmaterials:concrete,plastic,steel;canbeeitheroutdoororindoor;gravityfedbyastream;partiallyorfullyrecirculating.

Sole(Soleasolea),Japaneseflounder(Paralichthysolivaceus)

Spain,Denmark

RecirculatingTanksTurbot(Scophthalmusmaxima) Netherlands(HESY)Tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus) ElSalvador,Israel(HESY)Eel(Anguillaanuilla) Denmark(produces20%

eelconsumedbyEuropeanMarket)5,CroatiaandNetherlands(HESY)

Barramundi(Latescalcarifer) Australia,USA,Russia,TheNetherlands,Israel,Denmark,UK

Jadeperch(Scortumbarcoo) Australia(Ausyfish)Goldenperch(Macquariaambigua)

Australia(Ausyfish)

Murraycod(Maccullochellapeeliipeelii)

Australia(HESY)

Sleepycod(Oxyeleotrislineolatus)

Australia(Ausyfish)

Tankscancomeinavarietyofforms.Circularformatshavebeenpreferredinmanycasesbecauseoftheselfcleaningpropertiestheyprovide.Polygonshapes,however,haveadvantagesinbeingmorespaceefficient.Thesesystemsareoftenmodularandscalable,allowingproducerstoscaleupsystemsattheirownpaceandwithouthavingtointerruptoperationstoaddgreatercapacity.Inlandrecirculatingtanksareoftenlocatedwherethereisbothlimitedlandandwateravailability,astheycanbelocatedinindustrialareasandachievehighdegreesofwaterreuse.

Blackrockfish(Sebastesschelegeli)

Korea(Schipp,2006)

5http://www.1planet1ocean.org/html/sustainableaquaculture.html


Pikeperch(Sanderlucioperca) NetherlandsSeabass(Centropristisstriata) Greece(HESY)Seabream(Sparusaurata) Greece(HESY)

Trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss) Chile(HESY)Africancatfish(Clariasgariepinus)

Benin(HESY)

Sturgeon(Acipensertransmontanus)

Greece(HESY)

FlowthroughTanksArcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus) Canada(IcyWaters),

Iceland.Flowthroughtankscomeinsimilarformatsasrecirculatingtanks.Thesehoweveraremorecommonlyfoundwherereliablewatersourcesareavailableandusedtoharvestspeciesthatrequirecertainconditions(i.e.trout).

Trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss) Europe,N.America,Chile,LatinAmerica

InlandPondsandchannelsChannelcatfish(Ictaluruspunctatus)

USA

Tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus) Belize,ElSalvador,USA,Australia

Trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss) Europe,AustraliaandN.America

Salmon(Oncorhynchusnerka) Canada(AquaFarms)Barramundi(Latescalcarifer) Australia(Ausyfish)Jadeperch(Scortumbarcoo) Australia(Ausyfish)

Pondsanalogoustotanksbutdugintheground(natural).Channelsanalogoustoracewaysbutintheground(natural).Occasionally,thesecanbelinedwithmembranesormudbutthisisgenerallynotthecase.

Goldenperch(Macquariaambigua)

Australia(Ausyfish)

PrimarilyExperimentalorDevelopmentStage:FlowthroughTanks:OpenWaterSystems

Oceantrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)

WesternAustralia(McRobert)

Rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)(exp.)

NovaScotia(SEA)

Yellowtailkingfish(Seriolalalandilalandi

WesternAustralia(McRobert)

Mulloway(SciaenaAntarctica) WesternAustralia(McRobert)

Barramundi(Latescalcarifer) WesternAustraliaCohosalmon(Oncorhynchuskisutch)(exp.)

BritishColumbia(SEAandSARGO)

Bluefintuna(Thunnusthynnus)(exp.)

Australia(UNIAqua)

Giltheadseabream(Sparusaurata)(exp.)

Baltimore,US(COMB)

Chinooksalmon(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)(exp.)

BritishColumbia(SEAandSARGO)

Thesecanbefoundmadefromarangeofmaterials,incircularaswellassquareshapes.Hardwalledsystemsaregenerallymadefromreinforcedplastic,concrete,aluminium.Softwalledaremadefromplastic.

Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus) Canada(SEA,andSARGO)


(exp.)Blackcod(Nototheniamicrolepidota)(exp.)

Canada(SEA)

Walleyedpike(Sandervitreusvitreus)(exp.)

USA(MichiganSARGO)

Yellowfintuna(Thunnusalbacares)(exp.)

Panama(SARGO)

Cod(Gadusmorhua)(exp.) Denmark(UNIAqua)FlowthroughTanks:LandBasedSystems

Atlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)(exp.)

BritishColumbia(AgriMarine)

Cohosalmon(Oncorhynchuskisutch)(exp.)


Tanksystemsonlandpumpingseawater.

Chinooksalmon(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)(exp.)


RecirculatingRacewaysBlackspottedseabream(Pagellusbogaraveo)(exp.)

Norway

Cod(Gadusmorhua)(exp.) Norway

Recirculatingracewaysareoperatedaslandbased(inland)systems.Thesecanbecomposedofasinglelevelorcanbestackedtoincreaseproductionperfloorareaofagivenoccupiedspace.

Californiahalibut(Paralichthyscalifornicus)(exp.)

Spain

StatusofdevelopmentanddeploymentoftechnologiesA survey of existing and emerging technologies indicates that this is a sector with a vibrant research anddevelopment component. The increasing global demand for seafoodproducts coupledwith increasing concernover aquacultures impact on natural ecologies (manifest as tightening regulation and consumer trends) isencouragingcompaniestoinvestinresearchanddevelopmentofclosedsystemtechnologies.Insomecasessuchas intheEU,governmentsarerespondingwithsubsidiestoexploreandhastenthedevelopmentanduptakeofthesetechnologies.Aswithmanynewtechnologies,earlyadoptersofCSAcontinuetoworktoovercomeboththetechnical and financial challenges. To date, themost consistent and notable successes to date in commercialscaleclosedsystemaquacultureforfoodfishproductionhavebeenachievedbysystemsusingspeciestolerantofhighdensityconditionsandthosewhichcommandapremiummarketprice(Lazur,2007).InCanadaandtheUnitedStates,CSAtechnologiesareemployedtocultureawidevarietyofbothwarmwaterand coldwater fish in both saltwater and freshwater situations. Currently, most commercial CSA productionsystemsintheUnitedStatesaresmall, lessthan45Mt(45,000Kg)ofproductionperyear,providingfreshhighquality product at premium prices to niche markets (Harvey, 2005; Lazur, 2007). In Europe, commercialproductionfacilitiesusingrecirculationaremuchlarger,suchasUNIAquasrecentlycompleted800010,000Mt/yearturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)farm(Urup,2007)inDenmark.The following section describes technologies currently used in commercial operations as well as severaldemonstration projects. This includes operators as well as the actual developers and manufacturers of thetechnologies. The bulk of the information from this section has been derived from interviews and proponentwebsitesasindicated.


LandBasedSystems:

RacewaysRecirculating

NAME: AkvaplanNiva,ShallowRacewaySystemNorway(iestad,1999;iestad,2007b)

SPECIES: 11specieshavebeentestedforcommercialdevelopment,includingAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar).STATUS: AkvaplanNivasystemshavebeenimplementedincommercialoperationsusingturbot

(Scophthalmusmaximus)inGalicia,SpainandPortugalandDoversole(Soleasolea)inTheNetherlands.Ongoinglabscale/pilotscaleexperimentaldevelopmentwithAtlantichalibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus),Spottedwolfish(Anarhichasminor),Senegalsole(Soleasenegalensis),Giltheadseabream(Sparusaurata),Californiahalibut(Paralichthyscalifornicus)andJapaneseflounder(Paralichthysolivaceus).

DETAILS:

Thisisahyperintensivesystemdesignedtodrasticallyreducespacerequirementsbystackingracewaysoneontopoftheother.Theoutcomeisareported510timeshigherproduction/m2ofsurfaceareamakingthissystemidealforuseinareaswithlowlandavailability(iestad,2007b).Recently,thissystemhasbeenstudiedasapossibilityforinstillationinindustrialparksforaquaculture(IPA).Thisisproposedasaneconomicopportunitytocaptureeconomicefficienciesgainedthroughverticalintegrationclustering,forinstance,landings,processing,andtransportationtomarket(iestad,2007b).

Thedesignofthesystemisalmostastandardracewaybutwithaverylowwaterlevel(1cmfor100mgfish(suchasturbot,halibut&seabream)increasingto20cmforfishabove2kg).Othercharacteristicsinclude:highfishdensity(often100500Kg/m3),nocountercurrentinthelevelledraceways(nojetcurrent),adjustmentofwaterintakewiththemostremotefishinmindandfeedingwithfloatingpellets(pelletedfeedssignificantlyreducescostofproductionbyeliminatingtheneedtopreparefeedsonsite)(iestad,1999).Thissystemhasbeentestedforawidesizerangeofraceways(780m2)andfishsizes(upto10kg),normallywithgrowthandsurvivalratesasgoodaswithtraditionalrearingsystems.Theresultsindicatethatavarietyoffishspeciescanbeproduced.Sofar11specieshavebeentested,includingAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)(iestad,2007a).NOTABLEFEATURE:

Highfishdensitiesandlowenergycosts.

PICTURES/DIAGRAMS:

Figure3:StackedRacksintheShallowRacewaySystematTustnaKveiteASFacilityinTustna,Norway(Photocredit:KurtOterhals)


NAME: AgassizAquaFarmsManitoba(www.agassizaquafarms.com)

SPECIES: Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus),trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),Yellowperch(Percaflavescens)STATUS: ArcticcharCommercialproduction;Rainbowtrouthasbeencommercialinthepast,currently

notraisinganysignificantvolumeforcommercialproduction;Yellowperchexperimentalstage.DETAILS:

Thisfacilitywasstartedinthe1970sasaresearchcentrefortheDepartmentofFisheriesandOceans(DFO).6ArcticcharfromthisfacilityisbeingsoldacrossCanadaatacurrentvolumeof30Mt/year.Fisharetypicallygrownto1Kgbuttheyalsoproduceseveralcustommarketsizesforvariousclients.Raisingafishto1Kgrequiresabout24to30months.Theyarenowtryingtoexpandtoacapacityof150Mt/yrofArcticcharperyearaswellasdevelopingabroodstockYellowperch(Percaflavescens)line.Watercomesfromalimestoneaquifer,40metersunderground.Waterexchangeoccursevery72hours.Thecompanyhighlightstheproductasbeingantibioticfree.Thehatcheryhasbeencertifieddiseasefreefor12years.Whilefingerlingsandbroodstock379l/minoffreshwater,waterrecirculationusedforgrowoutstagesreducesthewaterrequirementto76l/min.Effluentanddischargetreatedinamanmadewetland(whichhasbegunattractingmigratorybirds).Solidsareseparatedthroughdrumfiltrationandsettlingchamberthencomposted(thecompanyislookingintopossibilitiestoprepareandsellcompostcommercially).Thecompanyisalsolookingintooptionstousegreenhousecomponentstocapturepassivesolarheatingtoheatwatertotheappropriatetemperature(dependingonspecies).Recently,thecompanyhasdoneworkwithotherfarmerstosetupanewoperationinaconvertedhogbarn.Thisfacilitywillproduceapproximately50Mt/yearinahighrecirculationfacility(76l/min).NOTABLEFEATURE:

Longperiodwherefishhavebeenfreeofdisease,andcombinedcommercialandresearchfacilityfordevelopingnewtechnology.

PICTURES/DIAGRAMS:

Figure4:ViewofeffluentpondsatAgassizAquaFarms(PhotocourtesyofAgassizAquaFarms)

6Thefollowingistakenfromwww.agassizaquafarms.comandconversationswithJohnBottomley,PresidentofAgassizAquaFarms(seeBottomley,2007).


TanksRecirculating

NAME: AquacultureDevelopmentsLLCPittsburgh,Pennsylvaniabased.ExclusivelicenseesofUNIAqua(Denmark)andFishProtech,Pty.(Australia)inNorthAmerica.

SPECIES: Barramundi(Latescalcarifer),salmon,trout,turbot,sole,cod,halibut,Jadeperch,Murraycod(Maccullochellapeeliipeelii),Sleepycod

STATUS: CommercialDETAILS:

AquacultureDevelopmentsisanengineeringconsultancybuildinglandbasedcirculatingaquaculturesystems.Theyclaim9799%waterreuseandfeedconversionthatis10timesmoreefficientthatinopenpondsorflowthroughsystems.7Noantibiotics,hormonesorotheradditivesarerequired.Thistechnologyhasbeenusedinfarmsthathavebeencommerciallysuccessfulovera15yearperiod.

NOTABLEFEATURES:

LongtermeconomicviabilityandverygoodFeedConversionRatios.

PICTURES/DIAGRAMS:

Figure5:InteriorofbarramundifacilityinAustralia(PhotocourtesyofAquacultureDevelopmentsLLC)

7Thefollowinginformationistakenfromwww.aquaculturedevelopments.com.


NAME: AquaOptimaNorwayASNorway(www.aquaoptima.com)

SPECIES: Rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus),tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),Europeanseabass(Centropristisstriata),seabream,halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus),Atlanticcod(tojuvenilestageonly),Japaneseflounder(Paralichthysolivaceus),Tigerpuffer(Takifugurubripes),barramundi(Latescalcarifer),Blackseaturbot(Psettamaxima).


AquaOptimawasstartedin1993.Itisasystemdevelopment,experimental,consultingcompany.8Ithasbuiltcommercialrecirculatingandflowthroughsystemsin16countriesforbothcoldandwarmwaterspeciessuchasRainbowtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus),tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),Europeanseabass(Centropristisstriata),seabream,halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus),Atlanticcod(tojuvenilestageonly),Japaneseflounder(Paralichthysolivaceus),Tigerpuffer(Takifugurubripes),barramundi(Latescalcarifer),Blackseaturbot(Psettamaxima).

AquaOptimahasdesignedandpatentedapieceofequipmentcalledtheEcotrap.Thetrapisamodifiedcentredrainforafishtankthatisdesignedtoremoveupto90%solidsfromthetankusingasmallamountofwater.TheEcoTrapcomesinavarietyofsizesrangingfrom110to400mmbutcanbedesignedlargerifrequired.WastecollectedbytheEcoTrapisdivertedtoanEcoSludgecollector,locatedonthesideofthetank.TheEcoSludgeisasmallswirlseparator.TheinstallationoftheEcoTrapsystemclaimstoallowfora50%reductioninthesizeofmechanicalfiltrationinasystem.Itsotheradvantagesarethatitisapassive,nonmechanicalsystemwithlittletonochanceoffailureandreducedenergyneeds.

Recently,AquaOptimaassistedwiththeinstallationofalargerecirculationsystemforbarramundiintheUK.TheAquaBellafarmlocatedinNewForest,Englandwasconstructedin2004andisdesignedtoproduce400Mtofbarramundiperyear.HarvestingfromthefacilitycommencedinMarch2006.Itisafullyrecirculatedsystemcomprisingof48tanksmaintainingwaterat28Cwhilsttreatingthreemillionlitresofwateraday.Newwaterisaddedattherateof5%perday.InMarch2006facilityanticipatedexpandingitsfacilitytoa1000Mt/yrproduction.9TheAquaBellafarmnearSouthampton,claimstobeenvironmentallyfriendlyasnowildstocksaredepletedbecausetheyalsohaveahatchery,therearenoadditives,andthefeedcomesfromsustainablesources(See:www.aquab.com).

AquaOptimahaverecentlydevelopedasimplemethodfortheconstructionoflargeoctagonaltanks.Theuseoflargeplasticformed,lockinplacepanelsthatcanbecorefilledwithconcreteoffersaneasilytransportableandcosteffectivesolutiontotankconstruction.

NOTABLEFEATURES:

Efficientandrapidwastedisposalsystemforsolids.Thisisimportantasifthesolidscanberemovedbeforetheybegintobreakdownthereislessneedforwatertreatment.Greatvarietyoftypesandspecies,dealingwithcoldandwarmwaterspeciesrequiresdifferenttechnology.Modularconceptallowsforexpansionasmarketgrowsetc.TheAquaBellafacilityhasusedtheirtechnologyandhasproveneconomicsuccessintheUK.

8Thefollowinginformationhasbeentakenfromwww.aquaoptima.com.9See.http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb5245/is_200704/ai_n19860493


NAME: AquatechSolutionsDenmark,withofficesinChileandtheMiddleEast(www.aquatecsolutions.com)

SPECIES: Eel(Anguillaanguilla),trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),salmon(Salmosalar),Pikeperch(Sanderlucioperca),sturgeon(Acipensertransmontanus),seabass(Centropristisstriata),seabream(nospeciesreferenceprovided),turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus),cod(nospeciesreferenceprovided),Halibut(nospeciesreferenceprovided)

STATUS: Commercialproductionforeel(Anguillaanguilla),trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus),Pikeperch(Sanderlucioperca);experimentalforothers.

DETAILS:

AquatechSolutionsisadevelopmentandinstallationconsultancy,andhasbeeninoperationfor20years.10Theydesignandinstallarangeofrecirculatingtanktechnologies:fromflowthroughtosemiclosedandfullyclosedsystems.Theirprojectsinclude:1)A700Mt/yearpansizerainbowtroutproductionforDanishAquacultureA/SinDenmark.2)A250Mt/yearPikeperch(Sanderlucioperca),productionforAmhedegaardAaledambrugA/S,Denmark,3)Arecirculationsystemforexistingsalmon/troutincubationsystemforPatagoniaSalmonFarminginChile,4)Installationof3individualrecirculationsystemsforpartlyexistingandnewfishtanksystemforsmoltproductionofAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar),Cohosalmon(Oncorhynchuskisutch)andtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)atSuperSalmoninLosFiordos,ManoNegra,Chile.NOTABLEFEATURE:

Longtermeconomicallysuccessfullargescaleproductionfacilities.

10Thefollowingistakenfromwww.aquatecsolutions.com.


NAME: BaltimoreUrbanRecirculatingMaricultureSystem

UniversityofMarylandBiotechnologyInstitute,CenterofMarineBiotechnology.(www.umbi.umd.edu),(Romuel,2007;Zohar,2007;Zohar,2005)

SPECIES: GiltheadSeabream(Sparusaurata).STATUS: Currentlyexperimental,commercializationisanticipatedin2008.Also,experimentationwith

Atlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)foroutgrowth(fullcycle)isscheduledfor2008.DETAILS:

TheBaltimoreUrbanRecirculatingMaricultureSystemisarecirculating,fullycontainedmarineaquaculturesystem.11Thecoreofthesystemincludesbiologicalfiltrationunitsthatincorporatenaturallyoccurringmicrobialprocesses(nitrificationheterotrophic/autotrophicdenitrification,sulfatereductionandanammox)tocontrolanddegradewastecompoundsproducedbyfish(Zohar,2005).Thesystemcollectsanddigestssolidwasteproductsthatarederiveddirectlyfromthefishorbytheaccumulationofuneatenfeedtofueladditionalmicrobialprocesseswhoseactivitiesresultintheproductionofmethanegas,whichcanbecapturedandusedasasourceofenergy.Overallthisachievesa99%containmentofeffluents(Romuel,2007;Zohar,2007;Zohar,2005).

Thesystemwasdesignedtoproducehighvaluemarinefish,tousepreexistingmunicipalinfrastructureandservices,tohavetheabilitytolocateanywhere,andtomaximizethereuseofwater.Usingthissystem,twostrainsofGiltheadseabreamweregrownfrom0.5to400gcommercialsizein268days(firststrain)andto410gin232days(secondstrain).Survivalratesareclaimedtoexceed90%andfoodconversionratesvaryfrom0.87to1.89.Growingdensitiesrangedfrom44to47Kg/m3at710%dailywaterexchangerates.Totalammoniaandnitritelevelsremainedsignificantlybelowstressfulconcentrations(Zohar,2005).Theentirefacilityoccupies1700squaremetres.Thetotaltankwatervolumeofthefacilityis205m3.Saltusedforproducingseawateraccountsforabout25%ofthetotalproductioncost(basedonadailydischargeandrenewalof10%ofthetotaltanksaltwatervolume)(Zohar,2004).

Thefactthatseabream(Sparusaurata)isanonindigenousspeciesinNorthAmericameansthatitwillbeallowedtobegrownonlyinfullycontainedandbiosecuresystems(Romuel,2007).Consequently,futureproductionofthisspeciesinNorthAmericausingRASwillnotfacecompetitionfrompondornetpenproduction(Romuel,2007).

Basedonexperimentstodate,itisthoughtthatthesystemwillbesuitableforAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)production.Testsonthisspeciesareprojectedtobeginatthestartof2008(Romuel,2007).NOTABLEFEATURE:

Higheffluentcleansingandabilitytolocateininnercityenvironments.

11Muchoftheinformationincludedinthissectionwastakenfromwww.umbi.umd.edu,andfrominterviewswithitsproponents.


PICTURES/DIAGRAMS:

Figure6:ExperimentalBaltimoreRecirculatingMaricultureSystem(Takenfromhttp://www.umbi.umd.edu.Numberedsystemscomponentsare:1)fishtank,2)particleremoval,3)sump[left]andpump[right],4)pHdoser,5)temperaturecontrol,6)biofiltration,7)proteinskimmer,8)oxygendelivery)

Figure7:SeabreamrearingtanksattheBaltimoreRecirculatingMaricultureSystem.(Takenfromhttp://www.umbi.umd.edu)


NAME: AustralisAquacultureLtd.(www.australis.us)

SPECIES: Barramundi(Latescalcarifer)STATUS: CommercialDETAILS:

TheAustralisAquaculturefacilityinTurnerFalls(Mass.)isthelargestindoorfishfarmintheUS.12Thefacilityisarecirculationtanksystem.Currentproductioninontheorderof1000Mt/yranddeliversitsproducttoBoston,butitishopingtoincreasethisto5000Mt/yrwiththepotentialtoexporttoEuropeaswell.

NOTABLEFEATURE:

Highvalueexoticspecies,biosafety,andlargestindoorfishproducerintheUS.

12Thefollowingistakenfromwww.australis.us;andpersonalcommunicationwithJoshGoldman.


NAME: BillundAquacultureServiceApS

Denmark(Schipp,2006)

SPECIES: Eel(Anguillaanguilla),tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),barramundi(Latescalcarifer),seabass(nospeciesnameprovided),salmonsmolt(Altlantic)(Salmosalar),trout(nospeciesnameprovided)andsturgeon(nospeciesnameprovided)

STATUS: AllcommercialproducersoffishproductDETAILS:

BillundAquaculturehasbeensuccessfullyproducingeelsfor22years.13TheyoperateincooperationwithDanishresearchers.Thefarmsarebuiltonamodularconcepttobeaddedontowithoutmajordisruptiontoproduction.Themodulesareisolatedfromeachotherwhichincreasesdiseasecontrol(Schipp,2006).Billundhasdesignedtwomainsystems,highintensiveandintensive,toaccommodatedifferentspecies.

Highintensive:Thisdesignisusedforspecieslikeeelandtilapiaandalsohatcheryandfingerlingunitsforbothfreshwaterandseawaterfish.Thesystemhasaverylowexchangeofnewwater(approx.130260litres/Kgfish/day).Therequiredinvestmentlevelisapproximately$12,000perMtproduction.Acomplete100Mtunit,includingequipmentandbuildingswouldcost$1,200,000.Electricityconsumptionisestimatedat45kW/Kgfish.

Intensive:Thissystemissuitableforspeciessuchasbarramundi,seabass,salmonsmolt,troutandsturgeon.Ahigherexchangeofnewwaterisrequiredatarateofaround8001000litres/Kgfish/day.Therequiredinvestmentlevelisapproximately$9,000/Mtproduction.Acomplete100Mtunit(includingequipmentandbuilding)wouldcost$900,000.Theestimatedelectricalconsumptionis1.52kW/Kgfish.NOTABLEFEATURE:

Lowelectricityconsumption,designsaccommodateavarietyoffishspecies,modulardesignforbiosafety(diseasecontrol)andforincreasedproductionovertimeasmarketdevelopsetc.

PICTURES/DIAGRAMS:

Figure8:InsideBillundAquaculturessturgeonfarm(PhotocourtesyofBillundAquaculture,2008)

13ThefollowingistakenfromSchipp(2006).


NAME: CellAquacultureSystemsEuropeTheNetherlands(Schipp,2006)

SPECIES: Barramundi(Latescalicarifer)STATUS: CommercialDETAILS:

CellAquacultureisanAustraliancompanystartedin1999inWesternAustralia.Theyareanengineeringconsultancywithexperimentalandcommercialprojects.14OverthepastsevenyearstheyhaveresearchedanddevelopedtheEcoCellHatchtoDispatchrecirculatingsystem.Thisisdesignedtobeusedasalowcostmodularsystemthatcanbeplacedclosetolargepopulationcentres.TheyarecurrentlytargetingbothAmericanandEuropeanmarkets.Oneoperation,locatedintheNetherlands,consistsof16modularsystemslocatedinsidealargeshedthatwaspreviouslyachickenfarm.Thesystemiscapableofproducing66Mtofbarramundi(Latescalcarifer),whichtheybelieveistheminimumamountrequiredtomakebarramundiproductioneconomicallyviable.Systemsaredesignedtohandlestockingdensitiesofupto75Kg/m3.

Thefollowingaredetailsofthecompanysmodularcellsystemforbarramundiproduction.Eachmodularsystemcomprises:

2x10000litretanksand1x4000litreHDPEtank Amechanicalfilter,whichisahomemadebeltfilterfittedwitha63mscreen.Screensare

attachedbyVelcroandareremovedandcleaneddaily. Amovingbedreactorbiofilter. Oxygenstones,suppliedfromanoxygengenerator.Oxygencontrolledmanuallytoalltanksno

automaticcontrol. 2x1Hppumps

Otherfeatures:

Theyaregoingtouseozonetomaintainanoxygenredoxpotential(ORP)of120200mV. Allfeedingisdonebyhand. Thefarmisdesignedtoberunby23people. Theproductioncycleconsistsofkeepingthefishfortwomonthsinthenursery,twomonthsinthe

4000litretankandthentwomonthsinthe10,000litretanks. Wasteiscollectedandtruckedoffsite(potentialforuseasfertilizer).

NOTABLEFEATURE:

Lowoperationdemandonstaff,deploymentclosetourbancentres,modularsystemmeansproductioncanincreaseovertime,anduseofaparticularspeciesthatgrowsrapidly.

14ThefollowingmaterialistakenfromSchipp(2006).


PICTURES/DIAGRAMS:

Figure9:CellAquacultureTanks,Terengganu,Malaysia(PhotocourtesyofCellAquaculture,2008)


NAME: HesyAquacultureBVBovendijk352City,RvKwintsheul,Ambachtstraat16B2861,Netherlands(Schipp,2006,Debon,2007)(http://www.hesy.com)

SPECIES: Barramundi(Latescalcarifer),Murraycod(Maccullochellapeelii),eel(AnguillaAnguilla),Whitesturgeon(Acipensertransmontanus),trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),Atlantichalibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus),salmonsmolts(Salmosalar),Pikeperch(Sanderlucioperca),seabass(Centropristisstriata),seabream(Sparusaurata),Europeancarp(Cyprinuscarpio),cobia(Rachycentroncanadum),Amberjack(Seriola),15aswellasvariouscatfish,tilapiaandgrunter(atypeofAustralianperchseeAusyFishbelow).

STATUS: AllcommercialDETAILS:

HesyAquacultureisaprivatecompanywithover20yearsofexperienceinthedesignandoperationofintensiverecirculatingfishfarms,theyareanengineeringconsultancy.16Theyhavedevelopedsystemsinover11countries,includingChina,Bulgaria,MoroccoandRussia.Thesmallestsystemdesignedproduces2Mt/year,thelargestisgreaterthan1000Mt/year.Theyoffertraining,operationmanualsaswellasongoingsupportasrequired.Theyhavesetupover85commercialproductionunits(Table2).Basedonthisexperience,theyareconfidentthatrecirculatingsystemsarecosteffectivecomparedtocagefarming.Theirsystemsaredesignedtorelyongravityflowfromacentralpoint,soonlyonepumpingstationisneeded(Debon,2007).Thewatersavingsarehuge,insteadofafewhundredmperkilogramfishproducedinflowthroughsystemstheyneedonly50to300litresofnewwaterperkilogramfishproduced.Theyusenoantibioticsfortheirsystemsasincomingwateristreated.Theirenergyconsumptionisbetween78kW/Kgfish,andintheNetherlandstheyusetheirsludgeforfertilizerwithhighsalinitytolerantvegetables.

InEuropetheyhaveestimatedthefollowingcostsofproduction(Schipp,2006):Eels(Anguillaanguilla):$8.25/KgoffishproducedTilapia(S.Oreochromis):$1.53/KgoffishproducedSeabream(Sparusaurata):$10.512/KgoffishproducedNOTABLEFEATURES:

Alargevarietyofspeciesproducedcommerciallyinmanygeographicandsocioeconomicsettings.

PICTURES/DIAGRAMS:

Table2.SummaryofrecentHESYcommercialproductionunits.Country Farms SpeciesCroatia 1farms EelsGreece 3 Trout,sturgeon,

seabass,seabream,mullet

Israel 2 Tilapia,seabass,seabream

Australia 3 MurraycodNetherlands 14 Pikeperch,

turbot,sturgeon,eel

15ExactspeciesnotcertainitmaybebothGreaterandLesserAmberJack,asthereareseveralfacilitiescurrentlyoperatingintheUSA.16Muchofthefollowingisfromwww.hesy.com,andfrominterviewswithitspresident,Mr.Debon.


sturgeon,eelChile 2 Salmonand

troutBenin 1 Africancatfish

NAME: RedfishRanchTilapiaFarmBC

(http://www.redfishranch.com//)

SPECIES: Tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus)STATUS: CommercialDETAILS:

RedfishRanchTilapiaFarmandHatcheryistheonlylicensedtilapiaFarminBritishColumbia.17Itproduceslivetilapia,primarilyfortheAsianmarketsinVancouver.Thecurrentproductioninjustover100Mt/yr.Itisarecirculationfacilitywith95%waterreuse.Theyareabletoincreaseproductioninstagesbyincreasingthenumberoftanks.Wastegoesthroughdrumfilterswheresolidsareextractedtosepticsystems.TheeffluentwateristreatedinbiofiltersbeforegoingthroughCO2stripersandbeingoxygenatedforrecirculation.Theentirefacilityisona10,000sqfootarea.Becausetilapiaisatropicalfish,temperaturesneedtobemaintainedat2830C.Waterisheatedprimarilybypropanebutpassiveheatingisalsobeingdeveloped.Monitoringisdonethroughsensors.TheyreceivetheirbroodstockfromIdaho.Thefishtake68monthstoreach0.5kgharvestsize,wheretheyaretruckedlivetomarket.TilapiaimportsareincreasinginBCandhaverisenfromnothingin1990,to340Mt/yrin1996,to680Mt/yrin2006.NOTABLEFEATURE:

Useofanexoticspeciestohelpdevelopanichemarket.

17Thefollowingistakenfromhttp://www.redfishranch.com/


NAME: ScotianHalibut,NovaScotia(http://www.halibut.ns.ca/)

SPECIES: Halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus)STATUS: CommercialDETAILS:

ThefacilityinWoodsHarbour,NovaScotiaislandbased,fullycontainedrecirculationfacilityforhalibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus)growout.18Theoperationbeganin1998throughapartnershipbetweentheIcelandiccompanyFiskeyandCanadianinvestors.ScotianHalibutcoordinatesthisgrowoutfacilitywithanearbyhatcherytheyoperateusingflowthroughsystems,asfishatthesestagesaremoresensitivetochangesinwaterquality.Thetimerequiredforthefishtoreachmarketsizeisapproximately2.5years(notethisisasimilartimeneededasthatforhalibutasdescribedbyUNIAqua,below).TheWoodHarbourfacilityharvests153023lb(0.81.3Kg)fishperweek.Theirtargetforannualproductionis227to250Mt.Mostoftheirproductgoestorestaurantsforsaleashighquality,freshfish.OneclientrestaurantinTorontosellsthefishasliveproduct.

Modulartankseachmodulecomprisedof67mdiam.x1.4mhighSwedestyletanks,eachwithwaterdepthof1.2m

Designcapacityofeachmodule=50Mt Maximumstockingdensity(achievedtodate)is60Kg/m2(measuredperm2ashalibutstackontopof

oneanother(3deepinthiscase)) Temperaturesinthetanksarereducedasthehalibutgrow:from1114Cwhenthefisharebetween2

25gtobetween711Concethefishsurpass1Kg Fluidizedsandbedbiofiltersforfilteringwastewater Dissolvedoxygenisinjectedat15psig

NOTABLEFEATURE:

ThecommercialproductionofHalibutissignificantasanewspeciestoaquaculture,andalsointhatitisalocalspeciestotheregion.

18Muchofthefollowingisfromhttp://www.halibut.ns.ca/


NAME: UNIAquaDenmark(www.uniaqua.com)

SPECIES Halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus)commercial(asof1year)Trout(Oncorhynchusspp.)commercialTurbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)commercialJapaneseFlounder(Paralichthysolivaceus)commercialSole(Soleasolea)commercialAbalone(Haliotisspp.)commercialCod(Gadusmorhua)experimental(withgoodpotential)BluefinTuna(Thunnusthynnus)experimental(entirelifecycle)


UNIAqua,ofDenmark,isanengineeringconsultancyandproducer,constructingavarietyofrecircultingtanksforavarietyofspecies.TheyhavedeployedtheirtechnologyincommercialsystemsinNorway,Spain,ChinaandAustralia(Urup,2007).Becauseofthehighlevelofrecirculatedwater,RAScanbelocatedsomedistanceawayfromtheactualshore(importantifshorelocationiscostly).19A500Mtflowthroughsystemwillneed12,000m3/hrbutactualexchangeisonly60m3/hr(1000L/min)(Urup,2007).Controlofoptimalwaterchemistry:O2,NH4,CO2bicarbonatemeansthataspectsofthelifecyclecanbecontrolledandmaturationcanbeavoidedasinsomespecies,suchasturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus),maturingresultsinpoorfeedconversionratios(www.uniaqua.com).Thisalsocausesfluctuationsinmeatquality.Becauseoftemperatureandinputcontrol,therecirculationsystemperformsbetterthancomparableopenairflowthoughsystems(Seefigure10).Theyhavebuilta810,000Mt/yearsystemforturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)runbyStoltSeaFarmsinSpain(Urup,2007).UNIAquahasconstructedalargeturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)farminChinausingwesterntechnologyandadaptingittothelocalChinesecontext.Theyusemanualfeedingandpumpedseawater(Urup,2007).NOTABLEFEATURES:

ThissystemclaimstogrowBluefintunafortheirentirelifecycle(www.uniaqua.com).Useofwastes:typically,saltfromsolidwastesisaproblemashighsalinityispoisonoustocropsmakingitdifficulttouseasafertilizer.However,inDenmarksolidwastesfromtheirmarinespeciesareusedasfertilizerasitismixedwithotherwaste(fromconventionalanimalfarms)toreducesaltandspreadoveralargearea(Urup,2007).4000Mt/yrfishproductionsystem:willgenerate12000m3/yrofsludge34%drymatter.Itishighinphosphorousandlowinnitrogenandthefarmerslikeitassomeofthesaltscontainmicronutrients(Urup,2007).Intheirexperimentaltestswithhalibut,theywereabletoraisemarketsizedfishin22.5years(Urup,2007)(notethisissimilartoScotianHalibut,above).

19Muchofthefollowingistakenfromwww.uniaqua.com,andfrominterviewswithitsprincipal,Mr.Urup.


PICTURES/DIAGRAMS:

Figure10:Comparisoningrowthofhalibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus)betweenFlowthroughandRecirculationSystems(PhotocourtesyofAquacultureDevelopmentsLLConbehalfofUNIAqua)

Figure11:HalibutrecirculationsysteminDnna,NorwaybuiltbyUNIAqua(PhotocourtesyofAquacultureDevelopmentsLLConbehalfofUNIAqua)


RacewaysFlowthrough

NAME: RushingWatersTroutFarmWisconsin,US(http://www.rushingwaters.net/)

SPECIES: Trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)STATUS: CommercialDETAILS:

TroutattheRushingWatersTroutFarmaregrowninpaired,steelreinforcedconcreteracewayswith1520cmwallsandfloors.20Racewayshaveanapproximatelengthtowidthratioof6:1andholdwateratadepthofabout1m.Thisisagravityfedflowthroughsystemwithlargevolumesofcold(100mg/L)andpH(>7.5)limitstheserialreuseofKentuckyslimestonespringwaterto68racewaypasses.WatersthatarelowerinpHandtotalalkalinitymayundergomorereusesbeforetoxicconcentrationsofunionizedammoniaarereached.NOTABLEFEATURE:

Gravityfedwatersystemtokeepelectricalcostslow,andthebenefitofusinglocalalkalinewaterswithalowpHfordealingwithammonia.

20Thissectionhasbeentakenfromhttp://www.rushingwaters.net/.


TanksFlowThrough

NAME: IcyWatersLtdWhitehorse,Yukon(http://www.icywaters.com/)

SPECIES: Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)STATUS: CommercialDETAILS:

IcyWatersisacommercialproducerofArcticchar.Theaquaculturefarmhasbeeninoperationfor20yrs.21Theysellbothfishfortheconsumermarketandovaasbroodstock,andhavebredamixofwildanddomesticfishtoproduceagoodfishforaquaculture.Productionis200Mt/yr.Theyemploygravityfedflowthroughsystemsusingspringsandstreamsasawatersource.Drumfilters,settlingpondsandwetlandsareusedtoremoveparticulatematter.Wastesludgeisgiventofarmersfields,wastefromprocessingisprovidedtolocaldogmushersashighoilfoodortocompost.

NOTABLEFEATURE:

Useoflocalconditionstogrowlocalvarietyforinternationalexport,andinparticularbroodstock.Specializationinasinglespecies.Gravityfedflowthroughminimizespumpingcosts.Innovativeuseofwasteproducts.

NAME: SilfurstjaranFishFarmIceland(Gslason,2003;Gstavsson,2007a)

SPECIES: Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus),turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus),halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus),


Establishedin1988,theSilfurstjarnanFishFarmisalandbasedproductionsystemwherefisharerearedinanumberofindividualtanksofvarioussizesandwhereenvironmentsarecreatedforspecificspecies.22Itisasemirecirculatingsystemwithupto40%ofwaterreuse.Forseveralyearstheyharvestedabout200Mt/yrofAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar);however,thisgavewaytoArcticcharwhichhassimilargrowingtechnologybutcommandsahighermarketprice.Theynowproduceontheorderof300Mt/yrofArcticchar.Oneofthemostimpressiveaspectsofthefarmisitsuseofthermalwaterstoreduceenergycosts.Afterthermalwaterhaspassedthroughalocalpowergeneratingplant,thecooledwaterflowstothefishfarmwhereitisusedasaheatsource.Theyrelyonmixingfreshwater,seawaterandwarmthermalwatertoprovideoptimalgrowthconditionsforthefish.Arcticchar(Salvelinusaplinus),forexamplethriveat1618Cwaterswithsalinitylevelsof1015(Gslason,2003)

NOTABLEFEATURE:

Useofgeothermalheatasanenergysource,useofmixingseawater,groundwater,andthermalwatertoprovideanoptimaltemperaturesalinitymixtureforfishgrowth.IcelandisgreatlyremovedfromthemarketsofEurope;nevertheless,theyareabletomaintainacommerciallyviablesystem.

21Thissectionisfromwww.icywaters.com,andconversationswithIcyWatersproponents.22ThefollowingisbasedonpersonalcommunicationwithMr.Gstavsson(2007a)andreportsofMr.Gslason(2003).


InlandPonds(FlowThrough

NAME: SwiftAquafarmsAgassiz,BritishColumbia

SPECIES Cohosalmon(rearedinfreshwater)

STATUS: Commercial(smallscale)DETAILS:

SwiftAquafarmshavebeenrearingsalmonforovertenyears;andCohoinparticularforthreeyearsinenirtelyinfreshwater.23Theyemployaseriesof14ftdiameterflowthroughtanks.Thetreatmentofwastewaterisextremelyinnovative.First,waterispassedthroughaselfcleaning60micronfilterwheresolidsareremoved.Theeffluentisthenusedtogrowwatercressandhighvaluewasabiplants.Theyhavealsolookedatgrowinghybridpopularfortoiletpaperandalgaethatcanbeusedaspartofthefeed.Theyhavealsoexploredusingeffluenttogrowlocalcrayfishwhichcanweighasmuchaspond(200g).Theyareexpandingtodeveloprecirculatingsystems.NOTABLEFEATURES:

UseoffreshwaterforraisingCohoandtheintegratedapproachtoaquaculturewithprofitablebyproductsfromeffluentandwaste.Also,valueaddedproductsassmokingthefish,ornichemarketsuchasrestaurants.

23ThefollowingistakenfromtheMinutesoftheSpecialCommitteeonSustainableAquacultureheldonOctober18,2006;availablefromwww.leg.bc.ca/cmt/38thparl/session2/aquaculture/hansard/W61018a.htm#25:1130


NAME: AquaFarmLangley,BC(Albright,2007)

(http://www.sfu.ca/pamr/news_releases/archives/news10190601.htm)

SPECIES: Rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss);freshwaterSockeyesalmon(Oncorhynchusnerka)STATUS: Commercial(both)DETAILS:

Thissysteminvolvestankandpondproductionoftrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)andSockeyesalmon(Oncorhynchusnerka),withtroutproductionbeing20Mt/year.24Sockeyeproductionisless.ProductiongoestorestaurantsintheVancouverareathatwantfreshfish(nichemarket).Sockeyemalescangrowupto2.3Kg,andhavebeencultivatednowforfoursuccessivelifecyclesinfreshwateronly.HistestsshowthatallPacificsalmon,includingCoho(Oncorhynchuskisutch),Chinook(Oncorhynchustshawytscha),Chum(Oncorhynchusketa)andPinksalmon(Oncorhynchusgorbuscha)canbeculturedthroughouttheirentirelifecycleinfreshwater.

Mostfisharecultivatedinflowthroughpondswithnorecirculationinanareaoffiveacres.Pondsaredewateredatintervalsandthesidesexcavatedforsolidwasteremovalthatisusedasfertilizer(lowinnitrogen,buthighinphosphorusandmicronutrients).Incomingwaterisprincipallyfromgroundwaterwells.Effluentisscreenedtoensurenoescapes,andistreatedinawetlandthroughbioremediation.Therearenoantibioticsoradditivesgiventothefish.Thefeedcomesfromalocalproducer,UniFeed,25andthefeedconversionratio(FCR)isapproximately1.31.5.

Albrightobtainsabout$10/Kgfortroutand$14/KgforSockeyesalmon(Headondressed).AlthoughtheSockeyehavewhitefleshhesuggeststhatdemandishighforecologicallyrearedsalmon.AquaFarms,WestcreekTroutFarm,Silverbrook,Timms,DurielandNquatkafarmshavejoinedtogethertocreateanEcocertificatefortheirtroutproductioninthelowermainlandofBC.

Albrightestimatesthatthecostofcommerciallyfarmingsalmoninfreshwaterwouldbe1.3timeshigherthanthecostofcommerciallyfarmingtroutinfreshwater.NOTABLEFEATURE:

Sockeyesalmon(Oncorhynchusnerka)rearedentirelyinlandbasedCSAinfreshwater.Lowpumpingandwastetreatmentcosts.Groundwatersourcesmeanthatthereislittletreatmentnecessarybeforeentryintotheponds.

24Theinformationinthissectionisderivedfrominterviewswiththeprinciple,Dr.Albright(2007),andfromtheabovelistedwebsite.25Seewww.agricoreunited.com/cgibin/bvsm/AU2/Farmer/LSS/Unifeed/index.jsp


NAME: Ausyfish.Pty.Ltd

Australia(www.ausyfish.com)

SPECIES: Goldenperch(Macquariaambigua)26,Silverperch(Bidyanusbidyanus),MurrayCod(Maccullochellapeeliipeelii),Baramundi(Latescalcarifer),JadePerchBarcooGrunter(Scortumbarcoo),andSleepyCod(Oxyeleotrislineolatus)inrecirculatingsystems(allfreshwaterspecies)


Thecompanyhasbeenproducingcommercialfishsince1988.27Theyhave127ponds,withthreestoragedamsforwatersupply,andthesystemsaremostlygravityfed.TheyspecialiseinAustralianspecies,forlocalconsumptionandbroodstockforexportabroadaswell.Eachspecieswillhaveitsspecificbenefits.TheyclaimthatalmostallGoldenperchforconsumptionarenowsuppliedbyaquaculturepondswheregrowingtemperaturesshouldnotgobelow12C;FCRof0.8to1.7;upto98%survivalrates;andfishfeedonplanktoninweaningstagereducingfeedcosts.JadeperchgrowtwiceasfastaSilverperch,generallyneedtemperaturesof27C,andnotbelow18C,andgrowsonwidevarietyofdiets.Sleepycodcanbegrownathighdensitiesandcancapturemarketvaluesof$30/Kg.AsSleepycodtendnottomovemuchthereislowproductionofCO2andthuslowercostsforaeration,anditalsomakesthemeasiertotransportlive(accountingforhighmarketvalue).Theyalsogrowmanyornamentalvarietiesoffish.NOTABLEFEATURE:

Thefocusisonpromotinglocalspeciesanddevelopingsufficientsupplytocreatenewmarkets(Jadeperch).Diversecommercialinterests,forinstancetheornamentalfishaswellasconsumerfish.

26Notetheygrowallthreestrains:Macquariaambiguaambigua;Macquariaambiguassp.;andMacquariaambiguaoriens.27Thefollowingwastakenfromwww.ausyfish.com.


NAME: FreshCatchBelizeLtd.

Belize(http://www.aquaculture.co.il/Projects/Belize.html)

SPECIES: Niletilapia(Oreochromisniloticus)STATUS: CommercialDETAILS:

AquacultureProductionTechnologyofIsraelbuiltthefacility.28Thisoperationproducestilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),supplying1,300Mt/yrmainlytoUSandMexicanmarkets.29Thesystemuses380m2oflandandpumpswaterfromtheSibunriver.Theprojectisbasedonearthenpondswithmechanicalaeration,andminimalpumpingfromtheriverforcompensationagainstseepageandevaporationlosses.ThedesignoftheTilapiaFarmisbasedongreenwaterrecirculation.Inthegreenwatersystemfishwasteistreatedthroughnaturaldecompositionbybacteriaandalgaethatliveinthenaturalponds.Ammoniaisconvertedtonitriteandnitratebybacteria(seewastedisposalinsection7below),thenitratethenbeingtakenupbyalgae,thealgaeisconsumedbyzooplanktonwhichinturnprovideasupplementtothefish.Addingwatertothefishfarmisonlyrequiredtocompensateagainstlossesduetoseepage,evaporationandoperationaluses.NOTABLEFEATURE:

Thecompleteintegratedcycleofwastetofeedforthefishmeanslesswastetreatment,lessfeed,morerobustsystem,photosynthesisofthealgaehelpsmaintainoxygenbalance(asnetO2producers),muchlesswaterconsumption,andthereforelesspossibilityforinteractioninthesystemreducingthepotentialfordiseaseentry.ThesystemhasbeencommerciallyreplicatedinElSalvadorseeAquacoporaciondeElSalvadorS.A.30

28Seewww.aquacultureisrael.com29Thefollowingistakenfromwww.aquaculture.co.il/Projects/Belize.html.30Seehttp://www.aquaculture.co.il/Projects/El_Salvador.html


SeaBasedSystems

FlexibleTanks

NAME: AquaSphereClosedContainmentSystem.DevelopedbyNeptuneIndustriesinFloridaCity,FL(Papadoyianis,2007)(www.neptuneindustries.net)

SPECIES: Stripedseabass(Moronesaxatilis)STATUS: ExperimentalDETAILS:

TheAquaCellisafloating,closedcontainmentseafoodproductionsystem,andisthefirstarticulatedtanksystem.31Disruptivetechnologyisdesignedtoprovideanecofriendly,energyefficientalternativetocagesandnetpens.ThisprototypesystemdesignedforStripedBasshasbeendevelopedover8yearsinFlorida.AquaCellisscalableandmodular,andcomposedofarigidpolyethylenematerialwithneoprenejointsbetweencellsthatallowflexibilityinresponsetotide,stormsurges,etc.Thecurrent,firstgenerationprototypeis4.57m.indiameterwithplansfortwomoregenerationsofprototypesasthecompanymovestowardsacommercialscalesystem.Someothernotablefeatures:

Solidwasteispumpedtoananaerobicdigestertobeconvertedtomethanethatisusedtoruntheairliftblowerstopumpwater.

Sludgeisusedasafertilizerforahydroponicgreenhouse,andwastecollectedfromthebottomoftanksisusedtogrowedibleseaweed.

Thesystemisveryenergyefficientasitrunsoffairlifts(notpumps)accommodatingtheuseofalternativeenergy.

Thetankssystemiscomposedofcellsthatareinterconnectedwithareinforcedneoprenejoint,allowingthesystemtoflexuponimpactfromwaves.

Individualcellshaveinterconnectedfishpassagewaysmadeofflexibletubingorpiping.Aseriesofgatevalvescanbeusedtomovefishfromonetanktoanotherwithouthavingtonetthemtherebyreducingstressandincidenceofdisease.

NeptuneIndustrieshasregisteredasubsidiaryinCanadanamedAquaBiologicsofCanadaLtd.NOTABLEFEATURE:

Modularcomponentstoconstructavarietyofsides,articulationforstabilityinwavemotion,andeasymobilityoffishbetweenadjacentenclosures.

31InformationinthissectionistakenfrominterviewswithNeptuneIndustryPresident,Mr.Papadoyianis,andfromwww.neptuneindustries.net.


NAME: FutureSEATechnologies(SEASystem)(www.futuresea.com)SPECIES: Chinooksalmon(Oncorhynchustshawytscha),Cohosalmon(Oncorhynchuskisutch),Arcticchar

(Salvelinusalpinus),Blackcod(Nototheniamicrolepidota),Rainbowtrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)STATUS: CommercialDETAILS:

TheSEASystemisafullrecirculatingsystemcomprisingaseabasedflexiblebag.32ThissystemhasbeeninstalledforuseinBritishColumbia,NovaScotia,NewBrunswick,Tasmania,Chile,Japan.InB.C.thissystemhasbeentrialledbyMarineHarvestonSaltSpringIsland33andiscurrentlyinusebyMiddleBaySustainableAquacultureInstitute.Thebagsare15mindiameterandrangeindepthfrom7mto12m(foratotalvolumerangeof1000m32000m3).Highefficiencypumpsreducetheamountofenergyrequiredforpumping.Otheradvantagesofthesystemincludeease(andaffordability)oftransportationfromonelocationtoanother.Salmonspeciescanberaisedinthissystematanaveragedensityof30Kg/m3.AnoperationraisingRainbowtroutinNovaScotiaachieveddensitiesof60Kg/m3whileArcticcharinOntariohavebeenraisedat40Kg/m3.Thiscanbecomparedwithnetpenswhichgenerallymaintaindensitiesofbetween10and15Kg/m3forsalmonspecies.

NOTABLEFEATURE:

Flexiblebagsystem,highefficiencypumps,beingtestedforsalmonrearing

32InformationinthissectionisbasedonpersonalcommunicationwithAndyClark,presidentofFutureSEATechnologies,andwww.futuresea.com33InformationfromthistrialcanbefoundontheBritishColumbiaMinistryofAgricultureandLandswebsiteathttp://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/fisheries/technology/marine_harvest.htm


NAME: McRobertAquacultureGroup

WesternAustralia(http://www.mcrobert.com.au/)

SPECIES: Oceantrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),34Yellowtailkingfish(Seriolalalandilalandi)andmulloway(SciaenaAntarctica)

STATUS: Commercial(since2006)DETAILS:

McRobertAquacultureGroupinitiallydevelopedtheSemiIntensiveFloatingTankSystem(SIFTS)asaproducttoimprovefinfishproductionintheinlandsalinewaterwaysofAustralia,andaddressmanyofthecurrentproblemswithincagefarmingindustries.35AtthecoreoftheSIFTSdevelopmentaretheMcRobertfishhandlingandwasteremovalprocesses.FisharestockedinSIFTSatdensities4to5timeshigherthaninseacages(>80Kg/m3)andsustainedbyconstantlyaeratedwaterbeingpumpedthroughatthehighrateofuptofourcompleteexchangesperhour.Theimperviouslinerspreventescapesoffish,eliminatepredationandfacilitatethecaptureofsolidwastes.Thewaterenvironmentisconstantlymonitoredviaacomputercontrolledsystem.Aprototype50mSIFTSdeployedintotheOceanFarmssiteinFremantleHarboursinceNovember2006hascapacitytoproduceupto50Mt/yroffish,includingoceantrout,yellowtailkingfishandmullowayforthelocalmarket.Thesystemisnotsuitedtotropicalwaterswithlargetidalmovementbuthaspotentialinpondsandshelteredwaters.

WhereasSIFTSisdesignedtogrowalocalproductsuitedtotheclimateofaparticularregion,theMcRobertAquacultureGroupalsodesignsandinstallsfullyrecirculatingsystemswhicharebiosecure(diseasecontrol),intensive,landbasedindoortankbasedsystemsthatallowhighvaluespeciestobegrowninanyclimaticregion.NOTABLEFEATURE:

Theuseoflocalspecies,highdensitiesoffish,andhighturnoverofwater.Althoughpumpingcostsmustberelativelyhigh(comparedtoopennet)theseseemtobeoutweightedbyproductionvolume.

PICTURES/DIAGRAMS:

Figure12:RotationallymouldedSIFTS(PhotoprovidedcourtesyofMcRobertAquaculure)

34NotethatTasmanianOceantroutarealsoknownmorecommonlyasRainbowtroutandSteelheadtrout.35Thefollowingistakenfromhttp://www.mcrobert.com.au/.


SeaBasedHardTanks

NAME: MaricultureSystems(SARGO)USA(http://www.sargo.net/)

SPECIES: Coho(Oncorhynchuskisutch)andChinooksalmon(Oncorhynchustshawytscha),Yellowfintuna(Thunnusalbacares),Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)andWalleyedpike(Sandervitreusvitreus)

STATUS: ExperimentalDETAILS:

ThebasicelementoftheSARGOfishrearingsystemisafloating,rigidwallreservoirwithacontinuous,externalsupplyofwaterpumpedfromanydesireddepth.36SixfishrearingreservoirsassembledaroundaserviceplatformcompriseaPOD.Eachserviceplatformcontainsthepumps,controls,feedingequipment,oxygensupply,wastehandlingsystemandothersupportequipmentforitsPOD.Nosystemisincommercialoperation,butthereareseveralinexperimentalphase.MajortestinghasbeenconductedonCohoandChinooksalmon(saltwater),andArcticchar(freshwater);aswellasYellowfintunainPanamaandWalleyedpikeinfreshwaterlakesinMichigan.MaricultureSystemsisalsoworkingwithYellowIslandAquacultureonQuadraIslandtoinstallasystemtoraiseChinooksalmon.Theyareprojectingthisfacilitytobeoperationalbythespringof2008.Thesystemisexpectedtobeabletoproducemarketsize3.63.9Kg(88.5lbs)inapproximately15monthsatacostthattheyclaimiscompetitivewithnetpenproduction.Theyhavealsopreviouslyharvested2cyclesofAtlanticsalmoninPugetSound(20012002).Thesegrewtomarketsize3.63.9Kg(88.5lbs)in10.5months,outpacingaveragenetpenproductionforAtlanticsalmon.

Theirnew2ndgenerationtanksare20mindiameterand11.5mdeepwithatotalof2500m3usablespace.Thereisa5fthighlevelbarrierfromtheopenwatertotopoftanktominimiseliquidtransfer.Fabricishighdensitypolyethylenewithsteelreinforcementandfibreglassbottom,whichhastheparticularadvantageofverylowgrowthoforganismsonsidessothereislessdragcomparedtonets.Itisdesignedtowithstandwindsofupto160km/h.

Waterispumpedinlocally(eitheroceanorlakewater)andisfilteredtoremoveparticulatesoranyorganismsbeforegoingintothetank.Theirintakepipecanreachdepthsof280mwithvarioussectionsofintaketocontroltemperatureandsalinityandevenwaterquality.ThecurrentwastetreatmentsystemisaTypeIIImarinesanitationdevice(designedfortheshippingindustry).Theyarealsoexploringanaerobicdigesterstocreatemethaneandwaveenergygeneratorsforlowcostenergygeneration.Ultimately,thepodsshouldbeentirelyselfsufficientforfarfromshoreopenoceandeployment.Inteststheyhavehadfairlygoodfeedconversionratiosof1.15.NOTABLEFEATURE:

Smallenergyrequirementsforpumping,andcontrolofincomingwatersthrough280mdeepintakepipe,goodfeedconversionratios,potentialforoffshoredeploymentasitisabletostanduptohighwindsanwaves(notetheMcRobertCSAsystemisspecificallydesignedforinlandoceanandlowtides).Plasticsidesreducebarnaclegrowth,reducingtidalandcurrenteffectsaswellasincreasinglongevityoftanks.

36ThefollowinginformationwascollectedfromaninterviewwithD.Meihan,ofMaricultureSystems,andfromwww.sargo.net.


PICTURES/DIAGRAMS:

Figure13:SARGOsystem(Takenfromhttp://www.sargo.net/)

NAME: MiddleBaySustainableAquacultureInstituteCampbellRiver,BritishColumbia(http://www.sustainableaquaculture.ca/)(Walker,2007)

SPECIES: Chinooksalmon(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)STATUS: ExperimentalDETAILS:

ThesystembeingdevelopedatMiddleBayhasevolvedfromtheAgriMarinedemonstrationprojectinCedar,BC.37Thissystemiscomposedsolidwallsmadefromfibreglassreinforcedplasticoverhighdensityfoam(initiallyitwasconcrete).Theplanistoinstall4tankseachwithauseablevolumeof5500cubicmeters.Eachtankisprojectedtobecapableofproducing100,000fishatasizeof3.5Kg/fish.Thetimerequiredforthisgrowoutisexpectedtobeapproximately1618months.Currently,MiddleBayisraisingChinooksalmon,thoughthesystemwillbeadaptabletootherspecies(suchasseatrout,blackcod(sablefish),halibut)andproducersmaylookintotheseinthefuture.ProducersatMiddleBayhaveemployedtheuseofFutureSEATechnologiesSEASystemtohousefishstockintheinterimwhiletheycontinuetodeveloptheirowntechnology.

NOTABLEFEATURE:

Highproductionlevelsof200Mt/yrforeachtank,andharvestingoflocalspecies.

37TheinformationinthissectionwasderivedfrompersonalcommunicationwithRobWalker,ofMiddleBaySustainableAquacultureInstituteandfromhttp://www.sustainableaquaculture.ca/


5. Species Grown in Closed System Aquaculture The following section contains an overviewof characteristics pertaining to someof themore common speciescurrentlybeingharvested(commerciallyorexperimentally)inCSAsystems.Abalone(Haliotisspp.)Abalone is susceptible toa rangeofparasitesand requires specificwater conditions suchas constantand lowlevelsofammoniaatahighpH;lowlevelsofCO2;constantlevelsofoxygenaround100%saturationinthetanks;andverylowturbidity.Becauseofadvantagesrelatedtotheabilitytopreventectoparasitesandthecontrolofincomingwater,abaloneisespeciallywellsuitedforCSA.ArcticChar(Salvelinusalpinus)Arctic char tolerate highdensity culture conditions, have an excellent fillet yield, are amenable to nichemarketing,andaresuitableforproductionwithinsuperintensiverecirculatingsystems(Summerfelt,2004).Arcticcharareraisedpredominantlyinlandbased,closedsystemswithrecirculatingwater(Summerfelt,2004).Thereissomelimitedproductioninflowthroughsystemsandnetpens.Arcticcharhavebeenshowntobemorediseaseresistantthanothersalmonids(Marsh,2006).Barramundi(Latescalcarifer)Barramundiisatropicalspeciesrequiringwatertemperaturesbetween20Cand30C.Commercialgrowthratesrequiretemperaturesabove25C.Beingeuryhaline(abletotolerateawiderangeofsalinities),barramundicanbegrowninsalt,brackishorfreshwaterenvironments.Barramundiaretypicallyraisedat75Kg/m3(Schipp,2006).Theyare rearedondry, pelleteddiets; andmaximum intakes (andbest feed conversion ratios)occurbetween27C to 29C. The amount of feed consumed by the fish decreases rapidly as the water temperature drops.Barramundi are very robust and hardy and disease is generally not a problem, providing good husbandrytechniquesareemployed.Itisahighquality,whitefleshedfish,withahighyieldofmeattobodyweight(around45%)andishighinOmega3oils.Thedevelopmentofhatcherytechnologyhasprovidedthemajorimpetustothebarramundiindustrysdevelopmentinrecentyears.Cod38(Gadusmorhua)andBlack(Nototheniamicrolepidota)Codisarelativelynewspeciesinaquaculture.Thetotalproductionvolumeofcodisstillrelativelylow,however,it is a species that could have the potential to grow into a production volume equivalent to that of salmon(www.uniaqua.com).Codcanbe farmedatveryhighdensitiesbuta tankdesignadapted forcod isnecessaryand the vaccination program is different from the one used in flowthrough systems (Urup, 2007). MarineHarvesthasbeenexperimentingwithacod(Gadusmorhua)hatcheryinNorway.In2005theyproduced2million10gfishatacostof$1.26each(Shipp,2006).Notethatcodrequirehighlevelsoffishoilintheirdiet.Halibut(Hippoglossushippoglossus),California(Paralichthyscalifornicus)Halibut is a new species in aquaculture. It is highly valued, although only well knownmainly in Scandinavia,Britain, USA and Canada. Generally, halibut has been grown in containment as juveniles and subsequentlytransferredtoopenwatercages.Recently,anoperationinNorwayhasbegunperformingtheentireproductioncycleonland,withrecirculationtechnology.Usingthistechnology,theproductiontimerequiredforamarketsizefishcanbereducedfrom6years(cage)toapprox2years(recirulatingsystem)(Urup,2007).Furthermore,theoverall production costs, including capital costs, of halibut production can be reduced by approximately 30%

38NotethatGadusmorhuareferstotheAtlanticcods,amarinespeciesandsimilartoBlackcodofNewZealand.OthercodssuchasMurray(Maccullochellapeelii)andSleepy(Oxyeleotrislineolatus)arefreshwaterAustralianvarietiesandareofnorelation.


using recirculating technology as comparedwith cage operations (Urup, 2007). Note that halibut require highlevelsoffishoilintheirdiet.ResearchersattheNorwegianInstituteofWaterResearch(NIVA)havealsobeenexperimentingwithhalibut.Oneexperimentaimedtocontrolthematurationprocessinordertomaintainsomatic(muscle)growthinthefishandimprove theFCR.Todo this, researchers trialleda feeding regimewhere fishwere starved then fed in5weekcyclerotations(halibutcanliveuptooneyearwithoutfeed)(Shipp,2006).Salmon,Atlantic(Salmosalar)OneofthemostgrownspeciesinaquacultureinWesternEurope,NorthAmericaandChilebutpredominantlyinopen,netpensystems.Atlanticsalmonaremainlygrowninrecirculationsystemstosmoltandpostsmoltstages.The AgriMarine farm in Cedar, BC grew two cycles of Atlantic salmon in 2002 and 2003. The Atlantic salmonraisedinthesecondcyclethisoperationhadbetterfeedconversionrates(1.34)andpeakdensities(36Kg/m3)comparedtoaverageAtlanticsalmonharvestsinnetpensystems(densityof16Kg/m3)(AgriMarine,2004).TheSargosystemwasalsousedtogrow2cyclesofAtlanticsalmoninPugetSoundbeforetheleaseforthepropertyexpired.Salmon,Chinook(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)Chinooksalmon is currentlybeing raisedatexperimental facilities inBritishColumbia.Trialsat theMiddleBaySustainableAquacultureInstitutehavedemonstratedthatthisspeciescanberaisedinCSAfacilitiesatcostsonparwiththoserequiredfornetpenproduction(Walker,2007).FutureSEAaswellasSargotechnologieshavealsobeentestedforChinookfarming.Theycanbestockedonaverageatadensityof30Kg/m3(Clark,2007)andtypicallygrowto33.5Kgin1618monthsinCSAfacilities(Walker,2007).In2002,theAgriMainetestfacilityinCedar,BC,grewChinooktoaharvestsizeof1.6Kg(3.11/lb)after13months(however,theywereharvestearlytomakeroomforothertrials)(AgriMarine,2003).Salmon,Coho(Oncorhynchuskisutch)TwoproductioncyclesofCohoweregrownattheAgriMarinetestfacilityinCedar,BCin2002and2003.Inthefirstgeneration,thegrowthrates(fishreaching23Kg(4.56.8lbs)in15months),survivalrates(87%)andfeedconversion rates (1.2) were comparable to the performance of netpen production (Atlantic) salmon. Thedensities tested (42Kg/ m3) were more than twice that of netpen production (max 20 Kg/ m3). These wereproducedatacostofCDN$7/Kg(CDN$3.22/lb)(includingtransportationcoststoVictoria)whilemarketvaluein2002wasCDN$4.9/Kg(CDN$2.25/lb)(AgriMarine,2003).Feedbackfromconsumersatthetimeindicatedtherewouldbeopportunitiestosellthisproductataprofit (AgriMarine,2003).Thesecondgenerationharvestagainshowed favorable conditions forCoho. The feed conversion ratewashigher (FCR1.6 believed tohavebeenaffectedbya longergrowthperiodandoverfeeding).Thepeakdensity,at32.5Kg/m3,was lowerthanthefirstgenerationbutremainedhigherthantypicalnetpenproduction.Salmon,Sockeye(Oncorhynchusnerka)Aqua Farm in Langley, BritishColumbia, has raised four generationsof Sockeye salmonentirely in freshwater,withouttheinputofanitibioticsofchemicals.Thespeciesrequiressimilargrowingconditionstotrout.Thefleshiswhiteandaveragesizetomarketis5Kgwhichissimilartowildcaughtsalmonwhichaveragebetween35.5Kgatmaturity(Albright,2007).Sole(Soleasolea)InEurope, sole isgrownprimarily in recirculationracewaysystems.Solecommandsahighmarketpriceand isbecomingincreasinglyimportantspeciesinaquaculture(iestad,2007a;iestad,2007b).


SpottedWolfish(Anarhichasminor)AttheInstituteofMarineResearch,AustevollResearchStationinNorway,researchersareinvestigatingthehighintensitycultureofspottedwolfish,inshallowraceways.Thesefisharebeingculturedatthehighdensityof600Kg/m3(Schipp,2006).Tilapia,Nile(Oreochromisniloticus)While there are also the blue tilapia and theMozambique tilpia, the Nile tilapia is the most commonly usedspeciesforaquaculture.Thisspeciescanbegrownatextremelyhighdensities(Schipp,2006;Holder,2007),andthrives in saline, brackish or fresh water. Originally from the Middle East and Africa, tilapia require hightemperatures (2720 C). Theymature quickly (approximately 68months) and grow between 170 g to 2.2 Kg(Gslason,2003)Theyareaveryrobustfishwithrespecttodiseaseandhighdensitynumbersandaccountforthemajorityofpondsystemaquacultureforfinfishworldwide(FAOSTAT,2007).TilapiaareraisedinBCat100Kg/m3(RedFish, 2007). They are a herbivorous species,meaning they can survive on a plantbased diet (Boyd 2005).Adults do however typically receive feed that contains on average 5% or less fishmeal (Goldburg and Triplett1997).Trout,Rainbow(Oncorhynchusmykiss)Rainbowtroutarenotableforthehighdensitiesatwhichtheycanbestocked.Typically,theyaregrownatarateof35Kg/Lperminuteofwater flow. Inraceways,stockingdensitiesaretypically .3 to .7Kgof fishper litreofwater(measuredbyKg/litre/flow/min.)(Hardy,2000).Farmsthataeratetheirracewaysandpondscanstockandproduceupto1.2to1.8Kgoffishperlitreofwater(Hinshaw,2004).Rainbowtroutareveryefficientatconvertingfeedtobiomass(Hardy,2000).Advancementsinfeedformulationsinrecentyearshaveledtoimprovedfeedconversionratiosandthereforelessuseofmarineresources.Insomerecirculationsystems,RainbowTroutrequirerelativelylittlewaterinthegrowoutstage.Waterboundtosludgein the system (and subsequently removed)and that volumewhichevaporatesare theonlywater losses in thesystem.Water consumption has been found to be as low as 1020 L ofwater per Kg of fish produced. This issignificant for the fact that it allows the flexibility to locate wherever there is an economical and sustainablesupplyofproductionqualitywater.Troutis,onaverage,raisedatadensityintherangeof150180Kg/m3incommercialRASproduction(Urup,2007)whileflowthroughpondsoperatewithdensities intherangeof2030kg/m3m.Peaklevelsat+300Kg/m3havebeen seen in RAS systems,without the onset of disease problems, though some fin deformities are observedabove300Kg/m3(Urup,2007).TheSIFTSrecirculatingtanksystemusedbytheMcRobertAquaculturegroup inAustraliaraisedtroutatdensityof47Kg/m3(McRobert,2007).Tuna,Bluefin(Thunnusthynnus)Tuna has been grown in cage culture for many years using wild caught juveniles. However, withdecreasingwildstocks,interestinusingcaptivebroodstocksandhatcheriesforproducingjuvenilesforgrowout is becoming particularly attractive. UNIAqua has been active in Tuna aquaculture (Urup,2007).Tuna,Yellowfin(Thunnusalbacares)There are attempts underway to grow Yellowfin tuna in CSA open water flowthrough systems inPanama.Thisisverymuchattheexperimentalphase(Meihan,2007).Notetunarequirehighlevelsoffishoilinfeed.


Turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)Flatfish species such as turbot and halibut are passive fish, and will have similar activity pattern,whetherincaptivityorinthewild.Thismakesthemexcellentchoicesforaquacultureastheyexhibitlessstressthanotherspecies(Urup,2007;iestad,2007a).


6. VolumeandvalueoffishgrowninCSA

AquacultureProductioninClosedSystemsIt is difficult to determine production volumes and values for CSA species as trade data does not generallydisaggregate data to reflect the distinction between open and closed system aquaculture. Research revealedsomegeneralfindingswhicharehelpfulinunderstandingthemarketforCSA(i.e.thefactthatapproximatelyhalfofallthefishconsumedintheNetherlandsisfarmed;somespeciessuchastrout(Oncorhynchusmykiss),turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus),andArcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)arealmostubiquitouslyfarmedinsomeformofCSA(Gslason, 2003); several species are typically reared in CSA until they are smolts or juveniles and then aretransferred to open cages or pens for growout stages). The following section, therefore, contains piecemealinformation that is relevant in determining the value and volume of fish currently being or proposed forproductioninCSAsystems.Fororganizationalpurposes,thishasbeenbrokendownbyspeciesand/orcountry.

SalmonApproximately200Mtofsalmon(Salmosalar)wereproducedinlandbasedsystemsinIcelandinthelate1990sbefore switching to Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) to capture highmarket prices associated with this species(Gstavsson, 2007b). In BC, Sockeye salmon is being produced in fresh water CSA and then sold to localrestaurants in theBC lowermainland (Albright, 2007).Atlantic (Salmo salar), Coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) andChinooksalmon(Oncorhynchustshawytscha)wereraisedfortwogenerations inanexperimentalCSAsysteminCedar, BC in 2002and2003. They required the followingproduction costs (AgriMarine, 2003): Coho: $6.75/lb(plus packaging, delivery and dressing = $8.80) and Atlantic salmon: $5.98/lb (plus packaging, delivery anddressing=$7.28).

Trout(Oncorhynchusmykiss)In2004, salesofU.S. farmed foodsize trout (note thatsalesof trout forstocking, fingerlings,andeggsarenotincluded) reached over 24 million Kg ranking trout second in terms of volume for U.S. finfish aquacultureproducts,behindfarmedcatfish(Ictaluruspunctatus)(Harvey2005).TheU.S.,however,accountsforonlyasmallamount of overall global farmed trout production which was recorded as 511,000Mt (FAOSTAT, 2007). Themajorproducingcountries for trout includeFrance,Chile,Denmark, Italy,andNorway (Hardy,2000;FAOSTAT,2007).90%ofRainbowtroutraisedintheUSannuallycomesfromflowthroughracewaysystemsfacilities(Hinshawetal.2004;Bosticketal.2005),whilefarmsinCanadaandChileraiserainbowtroutinopenoceannetpenorcagesystems(Bosticketal.2005).

Turbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)Turbot (Scophthalmusmaximus),asanaquacultureproduct, is rearedexclusively in landbasedsystems.FranceandSpainproducethemajorityofturbotonthemarket,accountingfor85%ofglobalproduction.Anincreaseinthevolumeof turbotaquaculturebetween1990and1994 lead toa25%decrease in itsmarketpriceover thesameperiod (Gslason,2003).While thepricehas stabilizedover the lastdecade,production is still increasing.Notethatthepricereflectedhereistoillustrateatrend.Theexactfiguresintermsoffreshfillets,frozenorheadon dressed are not categorised in the FAOdatabase. Moreover, formany species prices per Kgwill also varydependingonthesizeofthefish,furtherobfuscatingtheinformation.


Figure14:Productionandpriceofturbot,19902005(TakenfromFAOSTAT)39

-1234

5678

1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005Years

-2.004.006.008.0010.0012.0014.0016.0018.00

ProductionPrice

Prod

uctio

n ('0

00 t) Price (U

S$/t)

Table4:Productionofturbot(Scophthalmusmaximus)inEurope(Mt/year)(Gslason,2003)

39ProductioncostsarenotdetailedintheFAOsiteastheyarereportedbycountries.Itisassumedtobefortotalproduction,includingtransporttomarketalsothesearethuscostsaveragedoutovernumerousfacilitieseachwithauniquesetofproductioncosts.


Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)Arcticcharaquacultureispredominatelybasedonlandbasedrecirculatingsystems.InIceland,charisexclusivelyproducedinlandbasedsystems(Gstavsson,2007b).IcelandisthelargestproducerofarcticcharwithCanadathesecondlargestproduceratabout400Mt/yr(Gslason,2003).Table5:Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)productionforselectedcountries(Mt/yr)(Gslason,2003)

Table6:Arcticchar(Salvelinusalpinus)priceUS$perKgfishinselectedcountries(Gslason,2003)

ThepriceperKgoffishwasoriginallytakenfromFAOstatistics(Gslason,2003).Notethatthepricereflectedhereistoillustrateatrend.Theexactfiguresintermsoffreshfillets,frozenorheadondressedarenotcategorisedintheFAOdatabase.Moreover,formanyspeciespricesperKgwillalsovarydependingonthesizeofthefish,furtherobfuscatingtheinformation.Tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus)Tilapia isbecoming increasinglypopular inNorthAmerica,where theyareproducedentirely in landbasedCSAsystems.Table7showstheimportationoftilapiaintotheUSoversevenyears.


Table7:TilapiaimportsintotheUSbyproductform(Mt)(TakenfromFAOGlobefish,2005)

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004Wholefrozen

19,122 21,534 27,293 27,781 38,730 40,748 49,045 57,299

Frozenfillets

2,499 2,696 4,971 5,186 7,372 12,253 23,249 36,160

Freshfillets

2,823 3,590 5,310 7,502 10,236 14,187 17,951 19,480

Total 24,444 27,820 37,575 40,469 56,337 67,187 90,246 112,939

US&CanadaIn 2005, Harvey found that catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), which are typically reared in flowthrough ponds andraceways and are the largest production CSA fish in US (Harvey, 2005). Based on the 1998 US Census ofAquaculture, thebulkofallaquaculture is fromflowthroughpondsystems,withonlyabout8%ofaquacultureproductionbeingconductedinrecirculatingunits(RAS).A2001surveyofrecirculation(RAS)facilitiesintheUnitedStates and Canada growing finfish indicated that the number and pounds of fish produced is quite variable,including presence of small, medium and largesized farms with operations in warm and cold water in bothsaltwaterand freshwaterenvironments.The four fishmostcommonlygrown in recirculationunits (RAS) in theUnitedStatesandCanadaareAtlanticsalmon(Salmosalar)smolts,tilapia(Oreochromisniloticus),hybridStripedbass(Moronesaxatilis)andornamentalfishes(Delabbio,2003).Table8:MethodsUsedforAquacultureProductionintheUnitedStates:1998(DerivedfromUSDANASS1998CensusofAquaculturehttp://www.nass.usda.gov/census/census97/aquaculture/aquacul

closed system aquac global review

Documents

arctic char salnelinus

troutoncorhynchus mykiss

numerous examples

invertebrate species

british columbia