CMOS Imaging Detectors as X-ray Detectors for Synchrotron Radiation Experiments

Naoto Yagi, Masaki Yamamoto*, Kentaro Uesugi and Katsuaki Inoue

SPring-8/JASRI, Mikazuki, Sayo, Hyogo, 679-5198, Japan. *SPring-8/RIKEN, Mikazuki, Sayo, Hyogo, 679-5198, Japan.

Abstract. CMOS imagers are matrix-addressed photodiode arrays, which have been utilized in devices such as commercially available digital cameras. The pixel size of CMOS imagers is usually larger than that of CCD and smaller than that of TFT, giving them a unique position. Although CMOS x-ray imaging devices have already become commercially available, they have not been used as an x-ray area detector in synchrotron radiation experiments. We tested performance of a CMOS detector from Rad-icon (Shad-o-Box1024) in medical imaging, small-angle scattering, and protein crystallography experiments. It has pixels of 0.048 mm square, read-out time of 0.45 sec, 12-bit ADC, and requires a frame grabber for image acquisition. The detection area is 5-cm square. It uses a Kodak Min-R scintillator screen as a phosphor. The sensitivity to x-rays with an energy less than 15 keV was low because of the thick window materials. Since the readout noise is high, the dynamic range is limited to 2000. The biggest advantages of this detector are cost-effectiveness (about 10,000 US dollars) and compactness (thickness < 3 cm, weight < 2 kg).

INTRODUCTION

Owing to the recent spectacular development in the digital imaging technology, solid-state technology is getting more widely utilized in x-ray detectors for synchrotron radiation. CCD (charge-coupled device) imagers are already commonly used in diffraction studies and high-resolution imaging experiments. However, CCD has a limitation that the pixel size is small (typically < 30 µm), easily damaged by x-rays, and the readout is slow due to its charge-transporting method. Most utilized CCD detectors in synchrotron radiation experiments are with a tapered optical fiber for protein crystallography, or with indirect lens-coupling for high-resolution imaging.

Another type of digital imaging device is an amorphous silicon imager which is a photodiode array with an active TFT (thin-film transistor) matrix readout. It can be very large (more than 20 cm), and its sensitivity can be enhanced by the use of amorphous selenium as a converting media of x-ray photons to electrons. However, it has limitations in both resolution (typically > 100 µm) and high noise due to the property of the amorphous silicon semiconductor. Although this type of detector has been commercialized for medical imaging, it has not been used in quantitative x-ray diffraction or imaging experiments.

CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) flatpanel imagers are also matrix-addressed photodiode arrays. Compared with the TFT imagers, this type of detectors has an advantage that the pixel size can be smaller (as small as in CCD). Since most of applications in the synchrotron radiation experiments, especially those at the third generation facilities, require high resolution, CMOS imagers seem to be a promising new technology.

We have tested a CMOS flatpanel imager in various synchrotron radiation experiments at SPring-8. Although the presently available products have higher noise than the detectors that are currently used for these experiments, the large area and low cost make the CMOS imagers an attractive option.

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METHODS AND RESULTS

CMOS imager

The CMOS imaging detector we tested was purchased from Rad-icon Imaging company (CA, USA, http://www.rad-icon.com/). It is called “Shad-o-Box1024”, which is made of two 512×1024 CMOS devices (“RadEye”). The nominal specifications quoted by Rad-icon Imaging Corp. are:

Dark current (23ºC) : 8 ADU/sec (ADU means one unit of the output of the analog-to-digital converter) Read noise (rms) : < 1 ADU Conversion gain : 500 e-/ADU Pixel size : 48 micron square Readout period : 440 msec ADC : 12 bits Scintillator screen : Kodak Min-R Medium (Green phosphor, Gd2O2S:Tb)

It was supplied with an Imagenation PXD1000 frame grabber board and software (“ShadoCam”). In order to obtain accurate exposure time, we developed a software to control an x-ray shutter and the detector.

Example of images

Figure 1 (left) is an image of a head of a rat. It was normalized with a direct beam without the specimen. The specimen-to-detector distance was 7m to obtain an edge-enhance effect due to refraction of x-rays. Details of the nasal bones and whiskers can be observed with clarity. The dark vertical line is a gap between the two segments.

Figure 1 (right) is a diffraction pattern from a single crystal of lysozyme. The resolution is high enough to resolve diffraction spots. A similar number of reflections were observed using ADSC Quantum 4R, showing that the sensitivity is high enough for the data collection. Vertical horizontal dark lines are defects in the detector.

FIGURE 1. Left: A far field image of a head of a rat, recorded at BL20B2 [1] with an x-ray energy of 20 keV. The exposure time was 200 msec with a flux of about 2×107 cps/mm2. The actual size was 28 mm × 18 mm. The upper 1/3 of the image had lower x-ray flux, which caused higher background noise after normalization with the direct beam. Right: An x-ray diffraction pattern from a lysozyme crystal, recorded at BL38B1. The x-ray energy was 18 keV. Specimen-to-detector distance was 75 mm. The exposure time was 5 sec with an oscillation angle of 0.5 degrees Dark current was subtracted from the image. The entire image is shown.

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FIGURE 2. Left: An x-ray diffraction pattern from a dried tendon of chicken recorded at BL40XU in SPring-8 [2]. The x-ray energy was 12.4 keV and the energy bandpass was 2 %. Specimen-to-detector distance was 2.8 m. The exposure time was 2 sec with a flux of about 2×1012 cps. Dark current was subtracted from the image. Right: a one-pixel horizontal section in the central portion of the pattern on the left.

An x-ray diffraction pattern from a dried tendon of chicken is shown in Figure 2 (left). A series of reflections

from collagen, which can be indexed on the first four orders of the 65-nm periodicity, can be observed. Figure 2 (right) shows a one-pixel horizontal section of this diffraction pattern. Background between reflections is not smooth because of the readout noise in the detector.

Noise and dark current

Two 6700-msec blank exposures were made and the difference between them was calculated pixel by pixel. In the whole area, the average difference was 0.062 ADU with a standard deviation of 0.857 ADU. This corresponds to the practical noise in the detector that remains after dark subtraction. This value is consistent with that quoted in the specification (< 1 ADU). The intensity fluctuation seen in an actual image (Figure 2b) is due to both the readout noise and quantum variation in the number of x-ray photons.

Dark current was measured in blank exposures of various time between 1 and 6700 msec at 25 ºC. The dark current was found to increase by 6 ADU/sec. This is also close to the value quoted in the specification (8 ADU/sec at 23 ºC).

Uniformity of sensitivity was measured by moving the detector across an x-ray beam at a constant speed. The variation in the response was about 1 %, which is within the range of quantum fluctuation in the number of photons.

Spatial resolution and conversion gain

Figure 3 (left) shows a modulation transfer function MTF measured using a strip chart of various widths, which was made of 0.05mm lead. For each width, several line-and-space patterns were repeated. From the projectiong image of the pattern, MTF was calculated as

MTF = (Ibright - Idark)/(Ibright + Idark) where Ibright is the maximum pixel value in the area of slits and Idark is that between slits. The results in Figure 3 agrees well with the reported result [3].

Figure 3 (right) is the conversion gain measured at BL20B2. The x-ray flux was measured by an ionization chamber (S1194B1, Oken, Tokyo, Japan), which was filled by air, and the number of photons was calculated using mass-energy attenuation coefficient. The conversion gain is low at 15 keV, showing considerable loss due to absorption by the window material (amorphous carbon) and the envelope material for the scintillator.

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FIGURE 3. Left: Modulation transfer function measured at BL20B2 with an x-ray energy of 20 keV. Right: Conversion gain obtained at BL20B2.

Radiation damage

A permanent increase in the dark current was found after an exposure of a few Gy at 20 keV(2×107 cps/mm2 for about 10 min). Thus, it is necessary to avoid excessive exposure to strong x-rays.

CONCLUSIONS

The results in the present tests show that the CMOS flatpanel detector is already a fairly mature technology that can be used in synchrotron radiation experiments. In order to obtain a quantitative image, it is necessary to correct an image for (1) dark current, (2) defect pixels. These are common with CCD-based detectors. Since the defect pixels are invariable with each detector, correction can be made based on calibration data. As the dark current may depend on the temperature, it is recommendable to record a dark image before or after each exposure.

CMOS flatpanel detectors with an area larger than the one tested here are already available from Rad-icon Corp. and Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. The readout noise is lower in new products. Thus, it is possible that CMOS detectors will have a detection area and noise level similar to those in the CCD-based detectors in future. The problem of radiation damage may not be significant with low-energy x-rays that are mostly absorbed by the scintillator, but should be addressed as a serious problem with high-energy x-rays.

Currently, the biggest advantages of the CMOS imager are its compactness and low cost. Since Shad-o-Box1024 weighs only less than 2 kg, it can be easily mounted anywhere in an experimental setup. For instance, it can be mounted on a goniometer arm. Also, as it is only 3 cm in thickness, it can fit into a narrow space where no other imaging detector can enter.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Dr. Keiko Miura for help in the tests at BL38B1, which were made with the approval of R&D Beamline Program Committee of SPring-8.

REFERENCES

1. Goto, S., Takeshita, K., Suzuki, Y., Ohashi, H., Asano, Y., Kimura, H., Matsushita, T., Yagi, N., Isshiki, M., Yamazaki, H., Yoneda, Y., Umetani, K., and Ishikawa, T. Nucl. Instrum. and Meth. A467-468, 682-685 (2001).

2. Inoue, K., Oka, T., Suzuki, T., Yagi, N., Takeshita, K., Goto, S., and Ishikawa, T. Nucl. Instrum. and Meth. A467-468, 674-677 (2001).

3. Graeve, T., and Weckler, G. P., SPIE Proceeding 4320 (2001).

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Welcome ScreenPrevious ProceedingsTitle PageCopyrightPrefaceContentsCHAPTER 1: CONFERENCE SUMMARYSynchrotron Light of the Third and Fourth Generation — How to Fill the Generation Gap

CHAPTER 2: RADIATION SOURCESNegative Alpha-p Operation at NewSUBARUThe Synchrotron Light Life Science Center Granted by the MEXT 21st Century COE ProgramAnalysis of the Orbit Distortion by the Use of the Wavelet TransformA New Synchrotron Radiation Facility Project of the University of TokyoSub-Picosecond X-Rays from CEBAF at Jefferson LabStatus of PF-ARThe Present Status of Siam Photon LaboratorySource Size and Angular Divergence of Wiggler RadiationSESAME, a 3rd Generation Synchrotron Light Source for the Middle EastConstruction and Commissioning of UVSOR-IIRF Synchronized Injection from SPring-8 Linac to NewSUBARU Storage RingQuasi-Isochronus Operation at NewSUBARUStatus and Prospects of User Applications of the UVSOR Storage Ring Free Electron LaserElliptically Polarised Soft X-Rays Produced Using a Local Bump in MAX II — Characterisation of the Degree of PolarisationDesign of an Injector of Super SOR RingPETRA III: A New High Brilliance Synchrotron Radiation Source at DESYStatus of the Synchrotron Light Source DELTAThe DA(phi)NE-Light FacilityStatus Report on the Brazilian Synchrotron Radiation LaboratoryPreliminary Design Efforts of the X-Ray SASE at PALThe 4GLS Project: Update and Technological ChallengesDesign of the Bending Arcs for 4GLSAccelerator Physical Issues of PETRA III — A New Low Emittance Light SourceLattice Design of Super SORCurrent Status of the Synchrotron Radiation CenterThe MIT X-Ray Laser ProjectX-Ray FEL Project at SPring-8 JapanLUX — A Recirculating Linac-Based Ultrafast X-Ray SourceKharkov X-Ray Generator Based on Compton Scattering3D Magnetic Field Effects in an NSC KIPT Compact Intense X-Ray GeneratorIntegrated Photon Source Project at Tohoku UniversityCIRCE: A Ring-Based Source of Coherent Synchrotron RadiationFundamentals of Coherent Synchrotron Radiation in Storage RingsThe Advanced Light Source UpgradeFuture Storage Ring Synchrotron SourcesConcepts and Applications of Energy Recovery Linacs (ERLs)The Magnet Lattice of the MAX IV Storage RingsNew Upgrade Project for the Photon Factory Storage Ring

CHAPTER 3 UNDULATORS AND WIGGLERSIntroduction of the High Radiation Resistance of Undulator MagnetImprovement of Radiation Resistance of NdFeB Magnets by Thermal TreatmentDevelopment of In-Vacuum Revolver UndulatorOptimization of the Emitted Spectrum of a Superconductive Undulator by Correction Coils and Preparation for a Storage Ring Test in ANKAConstruction and Tests of the 49-Pole 3.5 Tesla Superconducting Wiggler for ELETTRA Storage RingLinear Polarization Measurements of Soft X-Ray Emitted from a Figure-8 Undulator by Using MultilayersFast Helicity Switching of Circularly Polarized Light Using Twin Helical UndulatorsDesign Concept of Superconducting Multipole Wiggler with Variably Polarized X-RayConstruction and Performance of a Superconducting Multipole WigglerDevelopment of Multi-Polarization-Mode UndulatorNew Designs of Polarized Electromagnetic Undulators at SOLEILDesign and Construction of a New Multipole Wiggler (MPW#05) at the Photon FactoryUndulators for the BESSY SASE-FEL ProjectThe MAX-Wiggler: Design, Construction and Commissioning of a 3.5 T Superconducting Wiggler with 47 polesSuperconductive Mini-Gap Undulators — A New Way to High Energy Photons: Latest NewsDevelopment of the Short-Period Undulator for the X-Ray FEL Project at SPring-8Improvement of Crossed Undulator for Higher Degree of PolarizationConstruction of Two New In-Vacuum Type Tapered Undulators for the PF-ARPolarization Control by a New Arrangement of Undulator MagnetsPolarization Property Measurement of the Long Undulator Radiation Using Cr/C Multilayer Polarization ElementsBeam Based Search for Linear Imperfection Fields in 11 m Long Undulator at NewSUBARUDevelopment of 14 cm Period Wiggler at PLSDesign and Performance of an X-Ray Undulator Beamline PF-AR-NW2In-Vacuum Undulators in UVSOR Electron Storage RingA Compact Damping Wiggler for the PETRA III Light SourcePolarization Measurements of Soft X-Ray Emitted from the Figure-8 UndulatorThe NSLS X13 Mini-Gap Undulator: Design and PerformanceVariable-Period Undulators — A Potential Source for Storage Ring, ERL and FEL ApplicationsConceptual Design for Superconducting Planar Helical UndulatorRadiation Damages on Permanent Magnets: Challenges for the Future Light SourcesA Four-Motor Insertion Device Control System at the Advanced Photon SourceMeasurement of the Orbit Fluctuation Caused by an Insertion Device with the Amplitude Modulation MethodNbTi and Nb3Sn Superconducting Undulator Designs

CHAPTER 4 BEAMLINESDesign of the Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) Beam-Line at INDUS-II Synchrotron SourceAn Undulator-Wiggler Beamline for Spectromicroscopy at SRCThe Russian-German Soft X-Ray Beamline at BESSY IILUCIA — A New 1–7 keV mu-XAS BeamlinePerformance Measurements at the SLS Spectroscopy BeamlineHigh Power Primary Slits for the ESRF BeamlinesPerformances and First Experimental Results of BACH, the Beamline for Dichroism and Scattering Experiments at ELETTRADevelopment of the Volumetric Heating Mask for the Front End Attached to the Asymmetric Figure-8 Undulator at SPring-8Present Status of High-Heat-Load Components for SPring-8 Front EndsPresent Status of BL40B2 and BL40XU at SPring-8 (Beamlines for Small Angle X-Ray Scattering)Optical Design and Performance of the Taiwan Inelastic X-Ray Scattering Beamline (BL12XU) at SPring-8Construction and Commissioning of a 248 m-Long Beamline with X-Ray Undulator Light SourceCommissioning of the U49/2-PGM1 BeamlineTROIKA II (ID10B): A Versatile Beamline for Studies of Liquid and Solid InterfacesNew Front-End Design for Multiple In-line Undulators at the Advanced Photon SourceBeamline Upgrade from PGM (SX700-Type) to Varied-Line-Space PGM at CAMDInfrared Microspectroscopy Beamline at CAMDDesign and Performance of Undulator Beamline (BL7U) for In-Situ Observation of Synchrotron Radiation Stimulated Etching by STMThe Commissioning Results of the First Beamline at the Siam Photon LaboratoryConstruction and Commissioning of BL37XU at SPring-8On the Design for a Versatile Imaging and Hard X-Ray Beamline at the Australian Synchrotron: Implementation of In-Line Phase-Contrast ImagingNew Beamlines for Protein Crystallography at the EMBL-Outstation HamburgDedicated High-Resolution Powder Diffraction Beamline at the Advanced Photon SourceHARWI-II, The New High-Energy Beamline for Materials Science at HASYLAB / DESYThe Re-design of a Soft X-Ray Beamline for Photoemission Spectroscopy at NSRLCharacterization of Beryllium Windows Using Coherent X-Rays at 1-km BeamlinePerformance of the Taiwan Contract Beamline BL12B2 at SPring-8Design of a High-Throughput Biological Crystallography Beamline for Superconducting WigglerX-Ray Beamlines on a Superconducing Wavelength ShifterNew Infrared and Terahertz Beam Line BL6B at UVSORStatus of the Dortmund TGM3-BeamlineThe PGM-Beamline at the Undulator U55 at DELTANew Developments at the XMaS Beamline for Magnetic and High Resolution DiffractionAlignment of Front End Components at SPring-8The ESRF BM5 Metrology Beamline: Instrumentation and Performance UpgradeAn Extreme Flux Vacuum Ultraviolet /Ultraviolet Beamline for the Measurement of Biological Circular DichroismCalculated Performance of the Variable-Polarization Undulator Upgrade to the Daresbury SRS Soft X-Ray Undulator BeamlineCoherent Soft X-Ray Branchline at the Advanced Light SourceThe BEAR Beamline at ElettraPerformance Characteristics of Beamline 6.3.1 from 200 eV to 2000 eV at the Advanced Light SourceNew Implementation of an SX700 Undulator Beamline at the Advanced Light SourceWave Propagation Through the Far Infrared Beamline at the CLSMechanical Design of a Front End for Canted Undulators at the Advanced Photon SourceConceptual Design for a Beamline for a Hard X-Ray Nanoprobe with 30 nm Spatial ResolutionFront-End Combination Component of Fixed Mask and AbsorberPerformance of an Infrared Beamline for High Spatial Resolution FTIR MicroscopyA Simple High Performance Beamline for Small Molecule Chemical CrystallographyXAFS and Protein Crystallography Beamline BL38B1 at SPring-8The Status of NSRL Beamline ConstructionThe First Group of CANDLE BeamlinesUpgrade of BM29 and ID24 Optics. Two Complementary Beamlines for XAS Measurements at ESRFSIBYLS — A SAXS and Protein Crystallography Beamline at the ALSImproved High-Heat-Load Graphite Filter Design at CHESS Wiggler BeamlinesVersatile USAXS (Bonse-Hart) Facility for Advanced Materials ResearchThe X-Ray Diffraction and Scattering Beamline and Results of the Performance Tests at NSRL

CHAPTER 5: DIAGNOSTICSDevelopment of a High-Speed X-Ray Beam Position Monitor Using a Detector Head with Low Electrical CapacitancePhoto Stimulated Desorption Phenomena at the NewSUBARU Storage RingThe SLS Storage Ring Vertical Position Monitoring SystemCrystal Monochromator Based Emittance Measurements at the PETRA Undulator BeamlineA New Beamline Apparatus for Polarimetry and Ellipsometry Using Soft X-Ray MultilayersNoise Reduction Efforts for the ALS Infrared BeamlinesAn Electron-Beam Profile Monitor Using Fresnel Zone PlatesA Real-Time Circular-Polarization Monitor for Magnetic Compton-Scattering BeamlineAbsolute Measurement of EUV Radiation from an UndulatorGas-Monitor Detector for Intense and Pulsed VUV/EUV Free-Electron Laser RadiationPhoton Energy Calibration and Measure of Spectral Resolving Power of the Monochromator by the Use of N 1s NEXAFS from a Solid SampleMeasurement of Absolute Intensity for High Energy SR Photons Using CalorimeterAbsolute Measurement of Extremely High Intense Photons Using Calorimetric MethodSpectrometer Based on a VLS Grating for Diagnostics of a Vacuum-Ultraviolet Free Electron LaserCharacterization of Light Radiated from 11 m Long UndulatorHigh Flux X-Ray Beam Intensity Monitor Based Upon Rare Gas ScintillationOperational Experience with the Photon Beam Position Monitor for Undulator Beamlines at ElettraThe SASE FEL at DESY: Photon Beam Diagnostics for the User FacilityHigh-Speed and Simultaneous Photon Beam Diagnostic System Using Optical Cables at SPring-8"Crystal Collimator" Measurement of CESR Particle-Beam Source SizeBeam Stability: Raytracing Requirements and ImplementationsFast Soft X-Ray Beam ShutterImproved Radiometry for Extreme-Ultraviolet LithographySoftware Controls for Automated Feedback TuningIn-Situ Precise Angle Monitoring on Synchrotron Radiation Monochromator by Use of Pencil Beam Interferometer

CHAPTER 6: MONOCHROMATOR DEVELOPMENTPerformance Prediction of Cryogenically Cooled Silicon Crystal MonochromatorDesign of Grazing Incident Monochromator for Saga Synchrotron LightA Grazing Incidence Monochromator for the Photon Energy Range 5 - 250 eVTrial Construction of Continuously Variable Deviation Angle MechanismPerformance Studies of Cryogenically Cooled Monochromator Crystals for X-FELsFixed Exit Monochromator with Fixed Rotation AxisBent Crystal Monochromator with Constant Crystal Center Position and 2-Theta Arm for a Dispersive BeamlineDevelopment of a Double Crystal MonochromatorA Novel Active Grating Monochromator — Active Grating Spectrometer Beamline System for Inelastic Soft X-Ray Scattering ExperimentsCryogenically Cooled Monochromator with Multi-Crystal Switching System on BL11XU at SPring-8Double Crystal Monochromator for X-Ray Undulator Beamline at the PF-ARPresent Status of a High-Resolution Soft X-Ray Monochromator at BL27SU in SPring-8Characterization of Cryogenically Cooled Dual Symmetric Silicon Geometry, Si(111)/Si(311), for the Double-Crystal Monochromator on BL11XU at SPring-8High-Energy Bragg and Laue Monochromators for an APS Wiggler BeamlineExperience with a Fluorescence-Based Beam Position Monitor at the APSA Focusing Laue Monochromator Optimised for Diamond Anvil Cell Diffraction ExperimentsHigh-Performance Asymmetric-Cut Curved Crystal Monochromator Side-Branch X-Ray BeamlinesLay-Out of Ultrahigh-Vacuum DC–Monochromator

CHAPTER 7: OPTICS DEVELOPMENTHigh-Resolution X-Ray MultilayersStatus of the Diffractive X-Ray Optics Project at BESSYFrom Flat Substrate to Elliptical KB Mirror by Profile CoatingX-Ray Si-Based Integrated Lens System for Wide Range of Hard Synchrotron RadiationSecondary Focusing for Micro-Diffraction Using One-Bounce CapillariesPerformance of a Be Refractive LensTwo-Dimensional X-Ray Focusing by Crystal Bender and MirrorsX-Ray Interferometer Using Prism OpticsMetal Monocapillary Optics Produced by Hydraulic PressingThickness Monitoring of nm Period EUV Multilayer Fabrication by EllipsometrySpatial Coherence Preservation by Synthetic Single Diamond CrystalsNanofocusing Parabolic Refractive X-Ray LensesA Linear Single-Crystal Bragg-Fresnel Lens with SiO2 Surface StructureBeryllium Parabolic Refractive X-Ray LensesRefractive Lenses Fabricated by Deep SR Lithography and LIGA Technology for X-Ray Energies from 1 keV to 1 MeVPerformance of Focusing Mirrors for a Soft X-Ray Photochemistry Beamline BL27SU of SPring-8X-Ray Focusing Mirror Fabricated with Bent-Polishing MethodDiffractive and Refractive X-Ray OpticsAn X-Ray Focusing System Combining a Sagittally-Bent Crystal and a Kirkpatrick-Baez SystemLarge Aperture Micro-Focus KB Mirrors for Spectroscopy Experiments at the Advanced Light SourceA Ray-Tracing Study of the Dependence of Focal Properties on Surface Figure Error for a Kirkpatrick-Baez (K-B) Mirror SystemAn Imaging System for Focusing Tests of Li Multiprism X-Ray Refractive LensesXOP 2.1 — A New Version of the X-Ray Optics Software ToolkitCharacteristics of Mechanically-Bent-Shaped Mirror: Experimental Study on Stability Using LTP IIA Synchrotron-Based Fourier-Synthesis Custom-Coherence IlluminatorUranium Oxide as a Highly Reflective Coating from 100-400 eVTheoretical Analysis of X-Ray Compound Refractive Lens Optical PropertiesApplication of Microfocussing at a Nonspecific BeamlineBent Diamond Crystals and Multilayer Based Optics at the New 5-Station Protein Crystallography Beamline 'Cassiopeia' at MAX-labModular Bimorph Mirrors: From an Established Hardware Design to First Experimental Results Towards Wavefront Correction in the X-Ray Domain

CHAPTER 8: OPTICS METROLOGYX-Ray Wavefront Hartmann SensorGroove Density Measurements for the VLS Grating by Diffraction MethodSetting the Twist of a Sagittally Bent Crystal Using a Beam Position MonitorAccuracy Limitations in Long-Trace ProfilometryImprovement of the Surface Profiler for Optical ElementsNormal Incidence Reflectometry of Concave Multilayer Mirrors Using Synchrotron Radiation To Evaluate the Period Thickness DistributionDeflectrometric Measurements of Synchrotron-Optics for PostprocessingThe Nanometer Optical Component Measuring Machine: A New Sub-nm Topography Measuring Device for X-Ray Optics at BESSYDevelopment of a Linear Stitching Interferometeric System for Evaluation of Very Large X-Ray Synchrotron Radiation Substrates and MirrorsAt-Wavelength Interferometry of High-NA Diffraction-Limited EUV Optics

CHAPTER 9: DETECTORS, SPECTROMETERS, AND INTERFEROMETERSAbsolute Responsivity of Silicon Photodiodes in the X-Ray RangeDesign of a Conical Diffraction Type Plane Holographic Grating Monochromator for Use in the Energy Region of 1-4 keVFabrication of High Performance X-Ray Energy AnalyzersComIXS on BACH: A Compact Soft X-Ray Spectrometer Operating at ElettraDesign of Emission Spectrometers with Resolving Power of 10,000An Avalanche Diode Electron Detector for Observing NEETCMOS Imaging Detectors as X-Ray Detectors for Synchrotron Radiation ExperimentsFast X-Ray Fluorescence Camera Combined with Wide Band Pass Monochromatic Synchrotron BeamMulti-Element Analyzer for Inelastic X-Ray ScatteringThe Image Acquisition and Analysis Program for PEEM StationCauchois-Type Compton Spectrometer Using X-Ray Image IntensifierSoft X-Ray Photoemission Electron Microscopy Station with Polarized RadiationCurrent Response Characteristics of Microchannel Plates for Detection Vacuum-Ultraviolet RadiationA 100% Duty-Ratio 3 x 6 Arrayed CCD X-Ray Detector for Rapid Data Collection in Macromolecular CrystallographyMultielement Detectors for High Energy SR X-Ray ExperimentsDesign of a Transmission Grating Spectrometer and an Undulator Beamline for Soft X-Ray Emission StudiesHigh Energy Photoemission: Development of a New Electrostatic Lens for a Novel High Resolution SpectrometerThe DELTA Synchrotron Light InterferometerNew Configuration of Photoconductive-Type Diamond Detector Head for X-Ray Beam Position MonitorsTEARES: Toroidal Energy- and Angle-Resolved Electron Spectrometer: Results and Progress to DateA Flash Spectrograph for XANES Measurements at SPPS/LCLSAn Ultra-High-Speed Detector for Synchrotron Radiation ResearchStatus of the PHase Analyzer SYstem ProjectThe BNL Silicon Multi-Element Detector System for Dilute EXAFS ExperimentsDevelopment of Multilayer Analyzer Array Detectors for X-Ray Fluorescence at the Third Generation Synchrotron SourceApplication of an Avalanche Photodiode in Synchrotron-Based Ultra-Fast X-RadiographyA Cadmium-Zinc-Telluride Strip Detector for High-Energy Diffraction ApplicationsPerformance of a Dispersive Analyzer for Anomalous Scattering Measurements of Amorphous MaterialsScintillator Detectors for Scanning Transmission X-Ray Microscopes at the Advanced Light SourceModelling Detector Deadtime with the Pulse Overlap ModelA Novel Spectrometer System for Hard X-Ray Interfacial Environmental ChemistrySuperconducting High-Resolution X-Ray Spectrometers for Chemical State Analysis of Dilute SamplesA New Camera for Powder Diffraction of Macromolecular Crystallography at SPring-8The "Pile-Up Effect" in Photon DetectionAn X-Ray Michelson Interferometer with Low Intrinsic Time DispersionAn Improvement of (X, eX) Spectrometer for Coincident Measurement of Compton Scattered Photon and Recoiled ElectronTemperature and Polarization Performance of EUV Silicon PhotodiodesPixel Detectors for Diffraction Experiments at the Swiss Light SourceCross-Fertilization between Spallation Neutron Source and Third Generation Synchrotron Radiation Detectors

CHAPTER 10: DEVELOPMENT OF EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUESX-Ray Pulse Selector with 2 ns Lock-In Phase Setting and StabilityDynamical Observations of Local Bio-Molecular Sites Using NanocrystalsMicrobeam X-Ray Standing Wave and High Resolution DiffractionRelationship Between Radiation Dose and Resolution in AngiographyPhasing Protein Structures by Reference-Beam X-Ray DiffractionA Diffraction System with an X-Ray Beam of a Band of WavelengthsFast Modulation of Synchrotron X-Ray Beam Intensity by Standing Acoustic WavesSimultaneous Multimode Measurement of XAFS Spectra in the Soft X-Ray RegionA Measurement System for Circular Dichroism in Soft X-Ray Absorption Using Helicity Switching by Twin Helical UndulatorsA New Furnace for High-Temperature Synchrotron X-Ray Powder Diffraction Experiments — Electron Density Analysis by Powder X-Ray Diffraction at 1300° CInvestigation of the Role of Hole Doping in Different High Temperature Superconducting Systems Using XANES TechniqueNew Setup to Study Trapped Nano-Particles Using Synchrotron RadiationResonant Soft-X-Ray Emission Spectroscopy of LiquidsAn Aberration Corrected Photoemission Electron Microscope at the Advanced Light SourceNondestructive Strain Tensor Scanning within Samples of Cylindrical Symmetry(pi)XAFS for Silicon Powder: Hard X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy for Light ElementsPhotoluminescence with Synchrotron VUV ExcitationThe Nucleation and Growth of Cu Nanoclusters on Silicon SurfacesX-Ray Interferometry with Intensity Correlation Technique: Principle and Practical AspectsIn-Situ Synchrotron X-Ray Microdiffraction Study of Lattice Rotation in Polycrystalline Materials During Uniaxial DeformationsSynchrotron-Laser Two-Color Experiments: Two-Photon Double-Resonant Excitation of Ar to Autoionization States between the ²P3/2 and ²P1/2 Ionic ThresholdsSpectromicroscopy Study of the Organic Molecules Utilizing Polarized RadiationA Novel High-Resolution Mapping Method of d-Spacing and Lattice Plane OrientationMagnetic Circular X-Ray Dichroism Study of Paramagnetic and Anti-Ferromagnetic States in SrFeO3 Using a 10-T Superconducting MagnetA Molecular Beam Source for Electron Spectroscopy of ClustersNew Molecular Inner-Shell Spectroscopy for Probing Multiple ExcitationsObservation of the Ferroelectric Material with Instantaneous X-Ray Laser SpecklesSimulation Study of Total-Electron-Yield X-Ray Standing-Wave Spectra of Mo/SiC/Si/SiC and Mo/Si MultilayersHigh-Energy Photoemission at HASYLABAn UHV Apparatus for X-Ray Resonant Magnetic Reflectivity in the Hard X-Ray RangeInstrumentation for Time-Dependent X-Ray Resonant Raman ScatteringThe UHV Experimental Chamber for Optical Measurements (Reflectivity and Absorption) and Angle Resolved Photoemission of the BEAR Beamline at ELETTRADevelopment of an Ultra-High Vacuum Oven for High Temperature X-Ray StudiesDevelopment of a Compact System for In-Situ X-Ray Scattering Studies of Organic Thin Film DepositionSynchrotron Radiation-Excited Etching of ZnTeA New Cryogenic Sample Manipulator for SRC's Scienta 2002 SystemState-of-the-Art Experiments at the ESRF Magnetic Scattering BeamlineSurface and Interface Studies at APS Endstation 5ID-COctupole Magnet for Soft X-Ray Magnetic Dichroism Experiments: Design and PerformanceDynamical Observations of Membrane Proteins: The Case of BacteriorhodopsinNuclear Fluorescence Using High-Energy Synchrotron RadiationSurface Trace Element Characterization of Synthetic Single Crystal Al2O3 at the SSRLA UHV Apparatus for Soft X-Ray Spectroscopy with Symmetry Selection for Solids and SurfacesInelastic Ultra-Violet Scattering as a Tool to Investigate Collective Excitations in Condensed Matter Physics

CHAPTER 11: CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND DIFFRACTOMETRY SYSTEMSMicrosecond Time-Resolved Diffraction and Scattering Measurements System Using Semi-Monochromatic X-Ray Pulse at SPring-8 BL40XUDesign and Development of a Robot-Based Automation System for Cryogenic Crystal Sample Mounting at the Advanced Photon SourceAutomation of Protein Crystallography Facilities at the SRSHigh Throughput Protein Crystallography at RIKEN Structural Genomic BeamlinesIntegrated Controlling System and Unified Database for High Throughput Protein Crystallography ExperimentsDevelopment of High Pressure Single Crystal X-Ray Diffraction Study at ESRF ID 30 BeamlineDiffractometer-Control Software for Bragg-Rod MeasurementsStructure Analysis of the Ag (001) Surface at 25 K by Synchrotron X-Ray Crystal Truncation Rod ScatteringA Diffractometer Control System with Automatic UB-Matrix RefinementAutomation of High-Throughput Crystal Screening and Data Collection at SSRLThe NIGMS X6A East Coast Structural Biology FacilityThe New Macromolecular Crystallography Stations at MAX-lab: The MAD Station

CHAPTER 12: IMAGINGA Novel and Simple X-Ray Dark Field ImagingOne-Dimensional Grazing Incidence Zone Plate for Focusing Soft X-RaysZernike-Type Phase Contrast X-Ray Microscopy at 4 keV Photon Energy with 60 nm ResolutionDevelopment of Apparatus for Phase Imaging Using X-Ray Interferometers at BL20XU of SPring-8A New Apparatus for Hard X-Ray Micro-Imaging and Microdiffraction Experiments at BL24XU of SPring-8Resolution-Tunable Angle-Resolved X-Ray ImagingAre Atom-Sized X-Ray Experiments Possible?High-Resolution X-Ray Microdiffraction System for Characterization of Selectively Grown Layers Using a Zone Plate Combined with a Narrow SlitComprehensive Electron-Optical Characterization of an X-Ray Photoemission Electron MicroscopePhase Tomography Using Diffraction-Enhanced ImagingDesign for an X-Ray Nanoprobe Prototype with a Sub-10-nm Positioning RequirementImaging Sub-ns Spin Dynamics in Magnetic Nanostructures with Magnetic Transmission X-Ray MicroscopyInstrumentation for Diffraction Enhanced Imaging Experiments at HASYLABLarge-Area Phase-Contrast X-Ray Imaging System Using a Two-Crystal X-Ray Interferometer—Development of an Interference-Pattern-Based Feedback Positioning SystemPrinciples of Optical Design of the SM Beamline at the CLSImages of Soft-Bodied Animals with External Hard Shell: 3D Visualization of the Embedded Soft TissueInvestigation of Material Flow in Friction Stir Welding Using Computed MicrotomographyDirect Measurement of the Resolving Power of X-Ray CT System in SPring-8Development of High-Speed Fluorescent X-Ray Micro-Computed TomographyApplication of X-Ray Refraction-Contrast to Medical Joint ImagingInterferometric Phase-Contrast X-Ray CT Imaging of VX2 Rabbit Cancer at 35keV X-Ray EnergyImage Observation of Diffraction Spots Using FZP and Coherent X-Ray BeamNovel Edge-Enhanced X-Ray Imaging by MIRRORCLEHard X-Ray Fourier Transform Holography with Zone PlatesThe Analyzer System for Diffraction Enhanced Imaging at the ELETTRA Synchrotron FacilityFast Differential Phase-Contrast Imaging and Total Fluorescence Yield Mapping in a Hard X-Ray Fluorescence MicroprobeCombined Imaging System for X-Ray Fluorescence and Transmission X-Ray MicrotomographySoft X-Ray Scanning Transmission Microscope Working in an Extended Energy Range at the Advanced Light SourceTransmission Photoelectron Microscopy of Diatoms at the Multilayer Monochromator Beamline U125-1/ML at BESSY IITransmission Images and Evaluation of Tomographic Imaging Based Scattered Radiation from Biological Materials Using 10, 15, 20 and 25 keV Synchrotron X-Rays: An Analysis in Terms of Optimum EnergyStudy on Dual-Energy X-Ray Computed Tomography Using Synchrotron RadiationCoherent Diffractive Imaging with X-Rays and Electrons

CHAPTER 13: TIME RESOLVED TECHNIQUESTime-to-Space Converter for Ultrashort Pulsed X-Ray ExperimentsSubnanosecond-Resolved X-Ray Diffraction at the SPring-8 High Flux Beamline BL40XUTime Resolved X-Ray Diffraction and Non-Thermal Inelastic X-Ray ScatteringP-Sec Time-Resolved Microscopy of Magnetic Structures Using X-PEEMSubpicosecond Coherent Manipulation of X-RaysHigh Efficiency XAFS Data Collection with Sub-Nanosecond Time ResolutionGeneration of Femtosecond Synchrotron Pulses: Performance and CharacterizationALS Beamline 6.0 for Ultrafast X-RayAbsorption SpectroscopyStatus and New Applications of Time-Resolved X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy

Author IndexHelpSearchExitINTRODUCTIONMETHODS AND RESULTSCMOS imagerExample of imagesNoise and dark currentSpatial resolution and conversion gainRadiation damage

CONCLUSIONSACKNOWLEDGMENTSREFERENCES